HEAT TRANSFER LABORATORY​

Department of Mechanical Engineering​

Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur

Experiments in Mechanical Engineering II : ME334

​
Experiment 3

Study of Critical Heat Flux (Boiling Heat Transfer)

Date of Experiment: 7-Jan-2025

Group: A (Subgroup: 3)

Group Members:

1.​ Anishka Raj (220150)

2.​ Anjali (220154)
3.​ Anjali Kumari (220155)
4.​ Ankit Kadwe (220157)
5.​ Ankit Mangla (220160)
6.​ Anshi Tiwari (220168)
7.​ Antarya Mondal (220177)
8.​ Anshul (220172)

Date of Submission: 16-Jan-2025

Lab Teaching Assistant:

Shanti Mehra

Laboratory In-Charge

Farhan Babu

Lab Instructor

Prof. Jishnu Bhattacharya

Objectives:
(a) To calculate the critical heat flux at various bulk temperatures of water.
(b) To compare the experimentally obtained critical heat flux at the saturation
temperature with that predicted by Zuber’s correlation.

Theory:​
When heat is added to a liquid from a submerged solid surface at a temperature
higher than the liquid's saturation temperature, part of the liquid undergoes a phase
change known as boiling. Boiling occurs in various modes, depending on the
temperature difference between the surface and the liquid. These modes are
represented on a boiling curve and include:

1.​ Natural Convection Region

2.​ Nucleate Boiling Region
3.​ Film Boiling Region

The natural convection region occurs at small temperature differences (around

10°C or less). In this region, the heated surface transfers heat to the adjacent liquid,
causing it to become superheated and rise to its free surface by natural convection,
where vapor is generated.

As the temperature difference increases, the nucleate boiling region begins. This
region has two subregions: II-a: Few bubbles form, condense in the liquid, and fail to
reach the surface. II-b: The bubble formation rate and the number of nucleation sites
increase, leading to bubbles rising to the free surface. With a further rise in the
temperature difference, bubble generation becomes so rapid that they begin to
merge and cover the surface, forming a vapor blanket.

This marks the start of Region III, where film boiling occurs. In the first part of
Region III-a, the vapor film is unstable. Film boiling may occur on parts of the heated
surface, while nucleate boiling occurs on the remaining area. In the second part,
Region III-b, a stable film forms, covering the surface entirely. Here, the temperature
difference is around 1000°C, making radiative heat transfer across the vapor film
significant.
Pool Boiling Curve and Stages

From Figure 1, the heat flux does not increase uniformly with the temperature
𝑛
difference. In Region I, heat flux is proportional to (𝑇𝑤 − 𝑇𝑠) where n ≈ 1.3. Upon
transitioning to nucleate boiling, heat flux increases rapidly with a higher value of n
increasing to about 3.

At the end of Region II, the boiling curve reaches its peak (Point A). Beyond this, in
Region III-a, despite an increasing temperature difference, heat flux decreases due
to thermal resistance from the vapor film. At Point B (end of Region III-a), heat flux is
minimal but begins increasing again in stable film boiling, where radiation
dominates.

Up to Point A, heat transfer occurs through natural convection and nucleate boiling.
Beyond Point A, even a slight increase in heat flux causes a significant rise in
surface temperature, reaching Point C, which may cause material melting. Point C
represents the critical/peak heat flux, a parameter of significant engineering
importance.

The pool boiling curve as described above is known as Nukiyama Pool Boiling
Curve. The discussion so far has been concerned with various types of boiling which
occur in saturated pool boiling. If the liquid is below the saturation temperature we
say that sub-cooled pool boiling is taking place. Also in many practical situations,
e.g. steam generators, one is interested in boiling the liquid flowing through tubes.
This is called forced convection boiling and may also be saturated or sub-cooled or
nucleate or film type.

Thus in order to completely specify boiling occurring in any process, one must state:​
(i) Whether it is forced convection boiling or pool boiling,​
(ii) whether the liquid is saturated or sub-cooled, and​
(iii) whether it is in the natural convection, nucleate or film boiling region.

Apparatus

The apparatus consists of a cylindrical glass container housing the test heater and a
heater coil for the initial heating of the water. This heater coil is directly connected to
the mains (Heater R1) and the test heater (Nichrome wire) is connected also to
mains via a dimmerstat. An ammeter is connected in series while a voltmeter across
it to read the current and voltage, respectively. The glass container is kept on an iron
stand which could be fixed on a platform.

Experimental Setup
The experimental setup involves mounting a cylindrical glass container on an iron
stand and filling it with water. A heater coil (R1) connected to the mains is used for
initial heating, while the test heater (Nichrome wire) is connected to the mains
through a dimmerstat for precise heating control. An ammeter and voltmeter are
included to monitor current and voltage during the experiment. To observe the test
heater wire, a lamp projects light behind the container, and a lens is positioned for
clear visibility. The overall arrangement of the apparatus is depicted schematically in
Figures 2 and 3.
Experimental Procedure

This experimental setup is designed to study the pool boiling phenomenon up to the
critical heat flux point. The pool boiling over the heater wire can be visualized in the
different regions up to the critical heat flux point at which the wire melts. The heat
from the wire is slowly increased by gradually increasing the applied voltage across
the test wire, and the changeover from natural convection to nucleate boiling can be
seen.

The formation of bubbles and their growth in size and number can be visualized,
followed by vigorous bubble formation and their immediate carrying over to the
surface. This ends in the breaking of the wire, indicating the occurrence of the critical
heat flux point. This is repeated for various temperatures of the water in the
container up to the saturation temperature.

1.​ Take 3 to 4 liters of distilled water in the container.

2.​ Ensure that both heaters are completely submerged.
3.​ Connect the heater coil R1 (1 kW Nichrome coil) and test heater wire across
the studs and make the necessary electrical connections.
4.​ Switch on the heater R1.
5.​ Keep it on till you get the required bulk temperature of water in the container,
say 50°C, 60°C, 70°C, up to the saturation temperature.
6.​ Switch off the heater R1.
7.​ Switch off the heater R2.
8.​ Very gradually increase the voltage across R2 by slowly changing the variac
from one position to the other and stop a while at each position to observe the
boiling phenomenon on the wire.
 9.​ Continue increasing the voltage until the wire breaks, and carefully note the
voltage and current at this point.
10.​ Repeat this experiment by altering the bulk temperature of water.

Observations (For Finding Critical Heat Flux Values)

1.​ Diameter of the test heater wire, d=0.2 mm

2.​ Length of the test heater, L=10 cm
2
3.​ Surface area, A= 𝜋𝑑𝐿 𝑚

Results and Calculations (Experiment Based)

For 40 deg.C
Heat input = 𝑉𝐼 Watt = 8 × 22 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡 = 176 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡
Critical q = 0.86 𝑉𝐼 MW = 0. 86 × 176 𝑊 = 151. 36 𝑊
0.86 𝑉𝐼 151.36×100000 2 2
(𝑞/𝐴)𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 = 𝐴
= 𝜋×0.2×10
𝑊/𝑚 = 2. 408 𝑀𝑊/𝑚

For 60 deg.C
Heat input = 𝑉𝐼 Watt = 7 × 17 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡 = 119 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡
Critical q = 0.86 𝑉𝐼 MW = 0. 86 × 119 𝑊 = 102. 34 𝑊
0.86 𝑉𝐼 102.34×100000 2 2
(𝑞/𝐴)𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 = 𝐴
= 𝜋×0.2×10
𝑊/𝑚 = 1. 628 𝑀𝑊/𝑚

For 80 deg.C
Heat input = 𝑉𝐼 [Watt] = 6. 6 × 17 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡 = 112. 2 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡
Critical q = 0.86 𝑉𝐼 MW = 0. 86 × 112. 2 𝑊 = 96. 492 𝑊
0.86 𝑉𝐼 112.2×100000 2 2
(𝑞/𝐴)𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 = 𝐴
= 𝜋×0.2×10
𝑊/𝑚 = 1. 535 𝑀𝑊/𝑚

For 90 deg.C
Heat input = 𝑉𝐼 Watt = 5. 5 × 16 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡 = 88 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡
Critical q = 0.86 𝑉𝐼 MW = 0. 86 × 88 𝑊 = 75. 68 𝑊
0.86 𝑉𝐼 75.68 ×100000 2 2
(𝑞/𝐴)𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 = 𝐴
= 𝜋×0.2×10
𝑊/𝑚 = 1. 2044 𝑀𝑊/𝑚

For 100 deg.C

Heat input = 𝑉𝐼 Watt = 4. 9 × 14 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡 = 68. 6 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡
Critical q = 0.86 𝑉𝐼 MW = 0. 86 × 68. 6 𝑊 = 58. 996 𝑊
0.86 𝑉𝐼 58.996 ×100000 2 2
(𝑞/𝐴)𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 = 𝐴
= 𝜋×0.2×10
𝑊/𝑚 = 0. 9389 𝑀𝑊/𝑚
Peak Heat Flux in Saturated Pool Boiling =

Where
𝜆 = Latent heat = 2257000 J/kg
𝜎= Surface tension = 0.0589 N/m
3
𝘱𝑣= Vapour density = 0.6 kg/𝑚
3
𝘱𝐿= liquid density = 957.9 kg/𝑚
2 2
After calculating , we get 𝑞/𝐴 = 1108630. 6744206 𝑊/𝑚 = 1.18 𝑀𝑊/𝑚