Introduction to

Technology
Fundamentals

Introduction to Networking 1
 Objectives

1. Practice commands in Linux Terminal

2. Discuss and differentiate between ports and
protocols
3. Discuss network topology

*Please take a moment to boot up your Kali Virtual

Machine for exercises in this material
The Internet
The Internet, short for "interconnected network," is a global system of interconnected computer networks that
enables communication, data exchange, and information sharing among billions of devices worldwide.

The internet consists of thousands of interconnected

devices moving data continuously from one router, one
device to another. A router could be accessed by another
person’s home, a business, a server, or part of a larger
Internet Service Provider (ISP). Your path from your
computer to a server can take a hundred different routes to
get to the needed destination.

Think of the internet like a highway.

 Ports
Logical ports are software-based endpoints that enable
communication between applications, services, or processes
within a computer or between computers on a network.
Logical ports differentiate between different types of data
traffic and ensure that the data reaches the intended
application or service.

In the context of networking, ports are often identified by

numerical values. For example, web servers typically use port
80 for HTTP communication and port 443 for HTTPS
communication. Ports allow different applications and services
to coexist on the same device without interference if they use
other port numbers. Proper port configuration is essential for
establishing reliable communication and ensuring that data
reaches the intended destination correctly.

If the internet is a highway, then a port is an exit on the

highway.
Protocols
A protocol refers to rules and conventions defining how data is transmitted, received,
and interpreted between devices or systems. Protocols ensure that communication
between devices is standardized and efficient, allowing them to understand and
interpret data exchanged over a network. Protocols govern various aspects of
communication.

Data Format: Protocols define the transmitted data structure and format. This
includes how data is organized, the order of data elements, and how they are
represented (e.g., as text, numbers, or binary values).

Data Transmission: Protocols specify how data is transmitted over the network
medium, including the method of encoding data into signals suitable for transmission.

If the Internet is, a highway and ports are an exit on that highway. Then Protocols are
the car. Is your protocol a Dodge Ram, maybe a Tesla EV truck, or perhaps a VW bug?
Each car is different, but all follow the rules of the road.
The Protocols within a Protocol (TCP)
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is one of the core protocols of the Internet’s networking suite, known as
TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol). TCP provides reliable and ordered data transmission
between devices over a network. It ensures that data packets are delivered accurately and in the correct order,
making it suitable for applications where data integrity and reliability are essential.

Reliable Communication: TCP ensures reliable communication by acknowledging received data packets and
retransmitting any packets lost or corrupted during transmission.

Connection-Oriented: A TCP connection is established between the sender and receiver before data transmission
begins. This connection ensures that both parties are ready to exchange data.

Full Duplex Communication: A TCP connection allows data to be transmitted in both directions simultaneously.
This means that data can be sent and received concurrently.
The Protocols within a Protocol (TCP)
Ordered Delivery: TCP guarantees that data packets arrive at the receiver in the same order they were sent. This
is crucial for applications that require data to be processed in a specific sequence.

Flow Control: TCP uses flow control mechanisms to prevent the receiver from being overwhelmed by a flood of
incoming data. It regulates the rate of data transmission based on the receiver's capacity.

Error Detection and Correction: TCP employs checksums to detect errors in received data packets. If errors are
detected, TCP requests the retransmission of those packets.

Acknowledgments: The receiver sends acknowledgment packets to the sender after receiving data. If the sender
doesn't receive an acknowledgment within a specific time, it retransmits the data.

Connection Termination: When data exchange is complete, a TCP connection is terminated to ensure that all data
is sent and received correctly.

Do you call your mom before you drive to her house? Do you make sure she is home? While TCP is a protocol, it is
used within almost every other protocol.
The Protocols within a Protocol (TCP)
3-way Handshake
Connection Orientated

Synchronize (syn)

Synchronize (syn)/Acknowledge (ack)

Acknowledge (ack)

Connection Established
The Protocols within a Protocol (UDP)
User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is a core protocol within the TCP/IP suite alongside TCP. UDP is a
connectionless and lightweight protocol that provides a faster and simpler method of data transmission
compared to TCP. While TCP focuses on reliable and ordered data delivery, UDP is designed for scenarios
where speed and efficiency are prioritized over data integrity.

Connectionless Communication: Unlike TCP, which establishes a connection before data exchange, UDP does
not establish a formal connection between sender and receiver. This makes UDP faster for initiating data
transmission.

No Order Guarantee: Unlike TCP, UDP does not ensure that data packets arrive in the same order they were
sent. If ordering is critical, the application must handle it independently.

No Error Checking and Correction: UDP does not have the same level of error-checking and correction
mechanisms as TCP. While UDP uses checksums to detect errors, it does not request retransmissions of lost
or corrupted packets.
The Protocols within a Protocol (UDP)
Low Overhead: UDP introduces less overhead than TCP due to its simplicity. This can be advantageous for
applications that prioritize speed and real-time performance.

Broadcast and Multicast: UDP supports broadcast and multicast communication, allowing a single message to be
sent to multiple recipients simultaneously.

Streaming and Real-Time Applications: UDP is commonly used for applications that require real-time data
transmission, such as streaming media, online gaming, and VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol).

Simple Header: The UDP header is smaller than the TCP header, consisting of source and destination port
numbers and a length field.

If TCP calls your mom before you show up, UDP is dropping by unannounced.
IP Address
Internet Protocol (IP) address is a numerical label assigned to each device connected to a computer network
that uses the Internet Protocol for communication. IP addresses serve as unique identifiers for devices,
allowing them to be located and communicate with each other on a network. IP addresses play a
fundamental role in networking and are essential for routing data packets across the internet and other
computer networks.

IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4): This is the most widely used version of IP addresses. An IPv4 address is a
32-bit numerical value written in four groups of numbers separated by periods (e.g., 192.168.0.1). Each
group can range from 0 to 255. IPv4 addresses are used to identify devices on most networks.

IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6): As the demand for IP addresses grew, IPv6 was introduced to provide a
larger address space. An IPv6 address is a 128-bit numerical value written in groups of hexadecimal digits
separated by colons (e.g., 2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334). IPv6 addresses offer a virtually
unlimited number of unique addresses.
 IP Address Exercise
What type of address is a MAC Address?
A. Logical
B. Physical
Terminal C. Home
D. All the above
IP Address
Public IP Address:
A public IP address is a globally unique address assigned to a device by an Internet Service Provider (ISP) or
an organization's network administrator. It is used to identify a device on the public internet. Public IP
addresses are required for devices that communicate directly with the internet, such as web servers, email
servers, and home computers accessing websites.

Private IP Address:
A private IP address is used within a local network (such as a home or business intranet) to identify devices
and enable communication. Private IP addresses are not globally unique and are meant for internal use only.
Devices with Private IP addresses cannot communicate directly with the Internet; instead, they rely on a
router or gateway to facilitate communication with external networks.

Class A: 10.0.0.0 - 10.255.255.255

Class B: 172.16.0.0 - 172.31.255.255
Class C: 192.168.0.0 - 192.168.255.255
Special: 100.64.0.0 - 100.127.255.255
MAC Address
Media Access Control (MAC) address is a unique identifier assigned to a network device’s network interface
card (NIC). It's a hardware address associated with the physical device itself and is used to uniquely identify
devices on a network. MAC addresses are crucial for communication within a local network, as they enable
devices to send and receive data to and from specific devices. Each MAC address is globally unique. Each
device should have a different MAC address. This uniqueness is ensured by the IEEE (Institute of Electrical
and Electronics Engineers) registration process.

Structure: A MAC address is a 48-bit address, usually represented as six pairs of hexadecimal digits (e.g.,
00:1A:2B:3C:4D:5E). The first three pairs often represent the manufacturer (OUI - Organizationally Unique
Identifier), and the last three pairs identify the specific device.
 MAC Address Exercise

Terminal
What type of address is a MAC Address?
A. Logical
B. Physical
C. Home
Enter: ifconfig D. All the above
The Protocols: DNS

Domain Name System is used in computer networks to translate

human-readable domain names, such as “CyberNowLabs.com," into
numerical IP addresses that computers use to identify and
communicate with each other. DNS acts as a directory for the
internet, allowing users to access websites and other resources
using easy-to-remember domain names instead of numeric IP
addresses.

Think of DNS as the phonebook for the internet. You know who you
want to call, but you need the number.
 Exercise
Online nslookup is a web-based DNS client that queries DNS records for a given domain name. It allows
you to view all the DNS records for a website.

Firefox
What is the IP address listed?

Which one is more trustworthy?

Goto: nslookup.io
Enter: cybernowlabs.com Why?

Goto your terminal or CLI:

Enter: nslookup cybernowlabs.com

 The Protocols: ICMP
Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) is an essential network protocol within the TCP/IP suite used for
diagnostic and control purposes in computer networks. ICMP messages are typically generated by network
devices, such as routers and hosts, to provide information about network conditions, errors, and various status
updates.

Ping: One of the most well-known uses of ICMP is the "ping" command, which sends ICMP Echo Request
messages to a target device. The target device responds with ICMP Echo Reply messages, allowing you to test
network connectivity and measure round-trip time.

Traceroute: ICMP is also used in the "traceroute" command to discover the route packets take from the source
to the destination. It sends ICMP Time Exceeded messages to each router along the route, gradually increasing
the time-to-live (TTL) value to determine the path.
 Ping Exercise

1 2 3 4 5 6
 The Protocols: NAT
Network Address Translation (NAT) is a technique that modifies IP address information in the headers of IP
packets as they pass through a router or firewall. NAT allows multiple devices within a private network to share
a single public IP address when accessing resources on the internet. NAT allows a single public IP address to
represent multiple devices within a private network. This is especially important in a world where the available
pool of IPv4 addresses is limited.

Static NAT: Also known as one-to-one NAT, static NAT maps a private IP address to a public IP address. It's often
used when a specific internal device, such as a server, needs to be accessible from the internet using a fixed
address.

Dynamic NAT: Dynamic NAT maps a range of private IP addresses to a range of public IP addresses from a pool.
It allows multiple devices to share a limited number of public IP addresses.
The Protocols: NAT
Static NAT
192.168.56.2
192.168.56.12/175.15.21.53 175.15.21.54

192.168.56.3
192.168.56.13/175.15.21.54 175.15.21.54

Dynamic NAT
192.168.56.2

192.168.56.3
192.168.56.1/175.15.21.53 175.15.21.54

192.168.56.4
 Network Topology
The physical or logical arrangement of network devices and their interconnections. It defines how devices
are connected within a network and how data flows between them. Network topology helps to determine
the efficiency, scalability, and reliability of a network

Physical Topology refers to the physical arrangement of devices,

cables, and connections. It's about how devices are physically
laid out and connected. Examples include bus, star, ring, and
mesh physical topologies.

Logical Topology defines how data flows within a network

conceptually, regardless of its physical arrangement. Ethernet
and IP-based logical topologies, such as Ethernet switches and
routers, determine how data is routed and switched across the
network
Network Topology
Star Topology: A star topology features a central hub or
switch to which all devices are connected. Data flows
through the hub or switch, allowing better control and
management of the network. However, the entire network
might be affected if the hub or switch fails.

Ring Topology: In a ring topology, devices are

connected in a closed loop. Data travels in one
direction around the ring, and each device receives
and passes on the data. A failure in any single device
or connection can disrupt the entire network.
 Network Topology
Bus Topology: In a bus topology, all devices are Hybrid Topology: Hybrid topologies
connected to a central cable called the "bus." combine two or more types of
Data is transmitted in both directions along the topologies. This can be useful for
bus, and devices listen for data intended for achieving specific goals, such as
them. While simple, bus topologies can be combining the strengths of
prone to performance issues if multiple devices different topologies while
try to transmit simultaneously mitigating their weaknesses.

Mesh Topology: In a mesh topology,

every device is connected directly to
every other device. This offers
redundancy and fault tolerance but can
be complex and expensive to
implement in large networks. Partial
mesh topologies strike a balance
between redundancy and cost.
Network Types
Network types differ in terms of their size, coverage, and
purpose.
Personal Area Network (PAN): Local Area Network (LAN):
Size and Coverage: PANs are the smallest Size and Coverage: LANs cover a relatively
network type, typically covering a minimal area, small geographic area, such as a single
often within the range of a few meters. They are building, campus, or a small group of nearby
designed for personal use. buildings.

Purpose: PANs are used for connecting devices Purpose: LANs connect devices within a local
that belong to an individual user, such as area to facilitate resource sharing,
smartphones, laptops, tablets, and wearable communication, and collaboration. They are
devices. They are often used for communication commonly used in homes, offices, schools, and
and data sharing between devices, such as small businesses.
Bluetooth connections.
 Network Types
Network types differ in terms of their size, coverage, and purpose.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): Wide Area Network (WAN):

Size and Coverage: MANs covers a larger Size and Coverage: WANs cover a large
geographic area than a LAN but is smaller than a geographic area, potentially spanning cities,
WAN, typically spanning a city or a large campus. countries, or continents. They connect multiple
LANs or other networks over long distances.
Purpose: Provides high-speed data connectivity
to multiple locations within a metropolitan area Purpose: WANs enable communication and
data exchange between geographically
separated locations. They often rely on public
or private telecommunications networks and
internet connections.
 Protocol of the Day:
Summary:
Telnet is a network protocol that establishes a command-line
connection to a remote device or server over a network, typically using
the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP). It allows users to log into
another computer or device and execute commands as if they were
physically present at that command prompt.

Telnet Port: 23

Secure: No
Telnet is considered highly insecure over untrusted networks like
the Internet. For secure remote access, SSH (Secure Shell) is the
recommended protocol, as it encrypts communication and offers
better security features
The Ports and Protocols You Need to Know for the
Security+ Exam
Questions?