Testing Machine User Workshop

Session 2
Standards and Non standards testing
 Contents
• Standards
• Non standards
• Environment testing
• Composite testing
Standards
Standards
 ASTM D638
• Aim
• Sample sizes
• Testing condition
• Environment? Need to get inputs from client
• Data analysis
• Report
Lap Shear testing ASTM: D1001
Non standard
BS 4A.4:1996
Component Testing

Fully Bonded (Flush Rivet Heads)

400

350 max. load: 339.1 kN

300
failure load: 288 kN

250

200
Load (kN)

150

100

50

0
-2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12

-50
Displacement (mm)
 Environmental testing
• -55 deg C
 Humidity
• 95 % RH and 50 deg C for two weeks
Aggressive environment.
 Composite Testing
• Fibres and Matrix
• Hard and soft part.
• Best of both world = composites
• Fibre orientation
What are the types of structures formed
from composites?
Types of Geometry of Schematic Examples
composite reinforcement representations

Particle- Small, dispersed Concrete, car

reinforced and equiaxed tires
particles

Fiber- Large length to Wood,

reinforced diameter ratio fiber bicycle frame

Laminates Large length to Plywood,

diameter ratio fiber modern ski
in each laminate
 ASTM D790 Testing Setup

-Ratio of Support Span to Depth must be 16:1

-Width should not exceed ¼ of support span IF the depth is greater than 3.2mm
-Overhanging must be 10% of support span OR at least 6.4mm
-If the depth is less than 1.6mm, sample must be 50.8mm long, 12.7mm wide and
support span must be of 25.4mm.
Cement Compression Test
Fatigue
 Introduction

• Materials or components loaded to > UTS will

fracture;
• Materials loaded to >σу will deform;
• Structures containing flaws or cracks will fail by
fast fracture when K > K(c  a  EG ) i.e.
c
very rapid crack growth.
• However, in engineering practise, frequently
failure of components is often observed for
loading conditions that meet none of these
criteria!!
• Failure is often by slow crack growth 17
 Fatigue

Loading is cyclic with many repetitions is called

fatigue.

Stage 1

Stage 2

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 Fatigue

• Fatigue failure occurs when a material

experiences cyclic stresses and strains that
produce permanent damage
• Fatigue may occur below or above the yield
stress
• Fatigue failure generally involves the
nucleation and propagation of a crack
• Fatigue failure is most common in metals
• Fatigue can also occur in ceramics, polymers
and composites by different mechanisms
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 Fatigue failure

• Estimated to causes 90% of all failures of

metallic structures (bridges, aircraft, machine
components, etc.)
• Fatigue failure is brittle-like (relatively little
plastic deformation) - even in normally ductile
materials. Thus sudden and catastrophic!
• Fatigue failure proceeds in three distinct
stages: crack initiation in the areas of stress
concentration (near stress raisers),
incremental crack propagation, final
catastrophic failure. 20
 Fatigue failure
• De Havilland Comet: G-ALYP/6003
– January 10th 1954

Crashed from 25,000ft 1290 flights

Further crashes occurred Total flying time: 3681 hours
21
 Fatigue failure
• De Havilland Comet
– The Investigation

Reconstruction of aircraft and cyclic pressure testing 22

 Fatigue failure
• De Havilland Comet
– The Cause of Failure

Corner of Hatch Fatigue Cracks

Hatch
Rivet Hole
Fatigue crack propagation from rivet holes
23
 Fatigue failure
• Improvements following Comet
disasters
• improved design
• improved inspection
• improved materials

Fatigue cracking of fuselages is still relatively common

BUT
Catastrophic failure of fuselages is not common
24
 Fatigue failure
• Aloha Airlines Flight 243
All required
– April 28th1988
safety
checks had
been done

90,000 flights
19 years old

The
Problem of
Old Aircraft
“..at 24,000ft, both pilots heard a load ”clap” or “whooshing” sound, followed
by a wind noise behind them……The captain observed that… there was blue
sky where the first class ceiling had been..” 25
 Fatigue failure

• Fatigue failure still

occurs.
• We need to understand
– how fatigue occurs
– how to predict failure
– how to design Failed due to fatigue of tail-
against failure rotor hub

26
 Types of Structures Subject to Fatigue

• Tanks
• Pressure
vessels
• Bridges
• Ships
• Airplanes
• Vehicles
27
 Factors affecting Fatigue Failure

• Design Features such as notches, holes, fillets,

uneven surface roughness, or any other feature
that tends to create stress concentrations.
• Fabrication Cracks.
• Temperature.
• Speed of Loading.
• Corrosive environments.
• Detection methods include visual inspection,
ultrasonic and X-ray technology.
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 Type of fatigue loading

(a) Pulsating Stress

(a)
(b) Partly Reversed
(c) Completely reversed

(b)
The critical factors are
the Stress Range and
the number of load (c)
cycles. 29
 Fatigue: Cyclic Stresses

Cyclic stresses characterized by maximum,

minimum and mean stress, the range of stress,
the stress amplitude, and the stress ratio
Mean stress: m = (max + min) / 2
Range of stress: r = (max - min)
Stress amplitude: a = r/2 = (max - min) / 2
Stress ratio: R = min / max

30
 Fatigue: Cyclic Stresses

Remember the convention that tensile stresses

are positive, compressive stresses are negative
31
 Fatigue test
• There are many loading modes for fatigue testing,
e.g. Tension-Tension, Tension-Compression and
Rotation-Bending.
• The latter is easiest for many cycles as testing can
be conducted at high frequency.

In a tension- In a tension- In a rotation-

tension test compression test bending test

32
 Fatigue: S - N curves
Fatigue: rotating-bending tests produce S-N
curves

S (stress) vs. N (number of cycles to failure) a

log scale is almost always used for N
• Low cycle fatigue: high loads, plastic and
elastic deformation
• High cycle fatigue: low loads, elastic
deformation (N > 104) 33
 Fatigue: S - N curves

• Fatigue limit occurs for some materials (some Fe and Ti alloys at 35% to
65% of tensile strength).
• Some S-N curve becomes horizontal at large N.
• Stress amplitude below which the material never fails, no matter how large
the number of cycles is.

34
 Fatigue: S - N curves

• In most alloys, S decreases continuously with N. In this Fatigue properties

are described by
• Fatigue strength: stress at which fracture occurs after specified number of
cycles (e.g. 107)
• Fatigue life: Number of cycles to fail at specified stress level

35
 Fatigue: S - N curves
Comparison of the fatigue behaviour of ferrous and
non-ferrous metals and alloys

The fatigue lifetime and S-N behaviour varies for

different materials, degree of stress concentration
and surface finish 36
 Fatigue: S - N curves
Comparison of fatigue behaviour of mild steel with
several low density materials

37
 Fatigue failure
• Fracture face of a fatigued railway axle.
• The smooth area shows the extent of the crack
prior to failure

38
 Fatigue Failure of a Steel Crankshaft

Fast
fracture

Crack
propagations
beach marks

Crack
origin

39
Low Stress
High Cycle
Fatigue

40
 Low Stress → High Cycle Fa gue
• Failures as high cycle fatigue occurring at low nominal stress because the
component was able to survive until only a small fraction of the cross section
was uncracked.
• The effect of a stress concentration is to make the crack propagate more
rapidly at the surface than in the centre due to the increased surface stresses.
• Reversed bending and rotational bending can lead to the initiation of multiple
cracks.
• In rotational bending the crack normal against the direction of rotation allowing
identification of the loading situation.
• Torsional fatigue is complex

41
High Stress
Low Cycle
Fatigue

42
 High Stress → Low Cycle Fa gue

• At high load the uncracked area just prior to

failure is a large proportion of the cross
sectional area.
• Multiple initiation points are more likely.
• In torsion the cracks are more definite and occur
at 45o to the torsion axis in the absence of
stress concentrations.

43