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Reliability Engineering
Advanced Research in Reliability and System Assurance Engineering
Series Editor: Mangey Ram, Professor, Graphic Era (Deemed to be University),
Dehradun, India

Modeling and Simulation Based Analysis in Reliability Engineering

Edited by Mangey Ram

Reliability Engineering
Theory and Applications
Edited by Ilia Vonta and Mangey Ram

System Reliability Management

Solutions and Technologies
Edited by Adarsh Anand and Mangey Ram

Reliability Engineering
Methods and Applications
Edited by Mangey Ram

For more information about this series, please visit: https:// www.crcpress.com/
Reliability-Engineering-Theory-and-Applications/Vonta-Ram/p/book/9780815355175
Reliability Engineering
Methods and Applications

Edited by
Mangey Ram
CRC Press
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Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data

Names: Ram, Mangey, editor.

Title: Reliability engineering : methods and applications / edited by Mangey Ram.
Other titles: Reliability engineering (CRC Press : 2019)
Description: Boca Raton, FL : CRC Press/Taylor & Francis Group, 2018.
Series: Advanced research in reliability and system assurance engineering | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2019023663 (print) | LCCN 2019023664 (ebook) | ISBN
9781138593855 (hardback) | ISBN 9780429488009 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Reliability (Engineering)
Classification: LCC TA169 .R439522 2019 (print) | LCC TA169 (ebook) | DDC
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Contents
Preface......................................................................................................................vii
Acknowledgments......................................................................................................ix
Editor.........................................................................................................................xi
Contributors............................................................................................................ xiii

Chapter 1 Preventive Maintenance Modeling: State of the Art.............................1

Sylwia Werbińska-Wojciechowska

Chapter 2 Inspection Maintenance Modeling for Technical Systems:

An Overview....................................................................................... 41
Sylwia Werbińska-Wojciechowska

Chapter 3 Application of Stochastic Processes in Degradation Modeling:

An Overview....................................................................................... 79
Shah Limon, Ameneh Forouzandeh Shahraki,
and Om Prakash Yadav

Chapter 4 Building a Semi-automatic Design for Reliability Survey with

Semantic Pattern Recognition........................................................... 107
Christian Spreafico and Davide Russo

Chapter 5 Markov Chains and Stochastic Petri Nets for Availability and
Reliability Modeling......................................................................... 127
Paulo Romero Martins Maciel, Jamilson Ramalho Dantas,
and Rubens de Souza Matos Júnior

Chapter 6 An Overview of Fault Tree Analysis and Its Application in Dual

Purposed Cask Reliability in an Accident Scenario......................... 153
Maritza Rodriguez Gual, Rogerio Pimenta Morão, Luiz
Leite da Silva, Edson Ribeiro, Claudio Cunha Lopes,
and Vagner de Oliveira

Chapter 7 An Overview on Failure Rates in Maintenance Policies.................. 165

Xufeng Zhao and Toshio Nakagawa

v
vi Contents

Chapter 8 Accelerated Life Tests with Competing Failure Modes:

An Overview..................................................................................... 197
Kanchan Jain and Preeti Wanti Srivastava

Chapter 9 European Reliability Standards........................................................ 223

Miguel Angel Navas, Carlos Sancho, and Jose Carpio

Chapter 10 Time-Variant Reliability Analysis Methods for Dynamic

Structures.......................................................................................... 259
Zhonglai Wang and Shui Yu

Chapter 11 Latent Variable Models in Reliability............................................... 281

Laurent Bordes

Chapter 12 Expanded Failure Modes and Effects Analysis: A Different

Approach for System Reliability Assessment................................... 305
Perdomo Ojeda Manuel, Rivero Oliva Jesús, and Salomón
Llanes Jesús

Chapter 13 Reliability Assessment and Probabilistic Data Analysis of

Vehicle Components and Systems..................................................... 337
Zhigang Wei

Chapter 14 Maintenance Policy Analysis of a Marine Power Generating

Multi-state System............................................................................. 361
Thomas Markopoulos and Agapios N. Platis

Chapter 15 Vulnerability Discovery and Patch Modeling: State of the Art........ 401
Avinash K. Shrivastava, P. K. Kapur, and Misbah Anjum

Chapter 16 Signature Reliability Evaluations: An Overview of Different

Systems.............................................................................................. 421
Akshay Kumar, Mangey Ram, and S. B. Singh

Index....................................................................................................................... 439
Preface
The theory, methods, and applications of reliability analysis have been developed
significantly over the last 60 years and have been recognized in many publications.
Therefore, awareness about the importance of each reliability measure of the system
and its fields is very important to a reliability specialist.
This book Reliability Engineering: Methods and Applications is a collection of
different models, methods, and unique approaches to deal with the different techno-
logical aspects of reliability engineering. A deep study of the earlier approaches and
models has been done to bring out better and advanced system reliability techniques
for different phases of the working of the components. Scope for future develop-
ments and research has been suggested.
The main areas studied follow under different chapters:
Chapter 1 provides the review and analysis of preventive maintenance modeling
issues. The discussed preventive maintenance models are classified into two main
groups for one-unit and multi-unit systems.
Chapter 2 provides the literature review on the most commonly used optimal
inspection maintenance mode using appropriate inspection strategy analyzing the
complexity of the system whether single or multi-stage system etc. depending on the
requirements of quality, production, minimum costs, and reducing the frequency of
failures.
Chapter 3 presents the application of stochastic processes in degradation modeling
to assess product/system performances. Among the continuous stochastic processes,
the Wiener, Gamma, and inverse Gaussian processes are discussed and applied for
degradation modeling of engineering systems using accelerated degradation data.
Chapter 4 presents a novel approach for analysis of Failure Modes and Effect
Analysis (FMEA)-related documents through a semi-automatic procedure involving
semantic tools. The aim of this work is reducing the time of analysis and improving
the level of detail of the analysis through the introduction of an increased number of
considered features and relations among them.
Chapter 5 studies the reliability and availability modeling of a system through
Markov chains and stochastic Petri nets.
Chapter 6 talks about the fault tree analysis technique for the calculation of
reliability and risk measurement in the transportation of radioactive materials.
This study aims at reducing the risk of environmental contamination caused due to
human errors.
Chapter 7 surveys the failure rate functions of replacement times, random, and
periodic replacement models and their properties for an understanding of the com-
plex maintenance models theoretically.
Chapter 8 highlights the design of accelerated life tests with competing failure
modes which give rise to competing risk analysis. This design helps in the prediction
of the product reliability accurately, quickly, and economically.

vii
viii Preface

Chapter 9 presents an analysis, classification, and orientation of content to encour-

age researchers, organizations, and professionals to use IEC standards as applicable
procedures and/or as reference guides. These standards provide methods and math-
ematical metrics known worldwide.
Chapter 10 discusses the time-variant reliability analysis methods for real-life
dynamic structures under uncertainties and vibratory systems having high nonlinear
performance. These methods satisfy the accuracy requirements by considering the
time correlation.
Chapter 11 presents a few reliability or survival analysis models involving latent
variables. The latent variable model considers missing information, heterogeneity of
observations, measurement of errors, etc.
Chapter 12 highlights the failure mode and effects analysis technique that esti-
mates the system reliability when the components are dependent on each other and
there is common cause failure as in redundant systems using the logical algorithm.
Chapter 13 provides an overview of the current state-of-the-art reliability assess-
ment approaches, including testing and probabilistic data analysis approaches, for
vehicle components and systems, vehicle exhaust components, and systems. The new
concepts include a fatigue S-N curve transformation technique and a variable trans-
formation technique in a damage-cycle diagram.
Chapter 14 is an attempt to develop a semi-Markov model of a ship’s electric
power generation system and use multi-state systems theory to develop an alterna-
tive aspect of maintenance policy, indicating the importance of the human capital
management relating to its cost management optimization.
Chapter 15 discusses the quantitative models proposed in the software security
literature called vulnerability discovery model for predicting the total number of
vulnerabilities detected, identified, or discovered during the operational phase of
the software. This work also described the modeling framework of the vulnerability
discovery models and vulnerability patching models.
Chapter 16 discusses the signature and its factor such as mean time to failure,
expected cost, and Barlow-Proschan index with the help of the reliability function
and the universal generating function also using Owen’s method for a coherent sys-
tem, which has independent identically, distributed elements.
Throughout this book, engineers and academician gain great knowledge and help
in understanding reliability engineering and its overviews. This book gives a broad
overview on the past, current, and future trends of reliability methods and applica-
tions for the readers.

Mangey Ram
Graphic Era (Deemed to be University), India
Acknowledgments
The Editor acknowledges CRC Press for this opportunity and professional sup-
port. My special thanks to Ms. Cindy Renee Carelli, Executive Editor, CRC Press/
Taylor & Francis Group for the excellent support she provided me to complete this
book. Thanks to Ms. Erin Harris, Editorial Assistant to Mrs. Cindy Renee Carelli,
for her follow up and aid. Also, I would like to thank all the chapter authors and
reviewers for their availability for this work.

Mangey Ram
Graphic Era (Deemed to be University), India

ix
Editor
Dr. Mangey Ram received a PhD degree major in Mathematics and minor in
Computer Science from G. B. Pant University of Agriculture and Technology,
Pantnagar, India. He has been a Faculty Member for over 11 years and has taught
several core courses in pure and applied mathematics at undergraduate, postgradu-
ate, and doctorate levels. He is currently a Professor at Graphic Era (Deemed to be
University), Dehradun, India. Before joining Graphic Era, he was a Deputy Manager
(Probationary Officer) with Syndicate Bank for a short period. He is Editor-in-Chief
of International Journal of Mathematical, Engineering and Management Sciences
and the guest editor and member of the editorial board of various journals. He is
a regular reviewer for international journals, including IEEE, Elsevier, Springer,
Emerald, John Wiley, Taylor & Francis, and many other publishers. He has pub-
lished 150-plus research publications in IEEE, Taylor & Francis, Springer, Elsevier,
Emerald, World Scientific, and many other national and international journals of
repute and presented his works at national and international conferences. His fields
of research are reliability theory and applied mathematics. Dr. Ram is a Senior
Member of the IEEE, life member of Operational Research Society of India, Society
for Reliability Engineering, Quality and Operations Management in India, Indian
Society of Industrial and Applied Mathematics, member of International Association
of Engineers in Hong Kong, and Emerald Literati Network in the UK. He has been
a member of the organizing committee of a number of international and national
conferences, seminars, and workshops. He was conferred with the Young Scientist
Award by the Uttarakhand State Council for Science and Technology, Dehradun,
in 2009. He was awarded the Best Faculty Award in 2011; the Research Excellence
Award in 2015; and the Outstanding Researcher Award in 2018 for his significant
contribution in academics and research at Graphic Era (Deemed to be University)
in, Dehradun, India.

xi
Contributors
Misbah Anjum Kanchan Jain
Amity Institute of Information Department of Statistics
Technology Panjab University
Amity University Chandigarh, India
Noida, India
Rivero Oliva Jesús
Laurent Bordes Departamento de Engenharia Nuclear
Laboratory of Mathematics and its Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro
Applications—IPRA, UMR 5142 (UFRJ)
University of Pau and Pays Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Adour—CNRS—E2S UPPA
Pau, France Salomón Llanes Jesús
GAMMA SA
Jose Carpio La Habana, Cuba
Department of Electrical, Electronic
and Control Engineering P. K. Kapur
Spanish National Distance Education Amity Centre for Interdisciplinary
University Research
Madrid, Spain Amity University
Noida, India
Jamilson Ramalho Dantas
Departamento de Ciência da Akshay Kumar
Computação Centro de Informática Department of Mathematics
da UFPE—CIN Recife Graphic Era Hill University
Pernambuco, Brasil Dehradun, India
and
Shah Limon
Departamento de Ciência da Industrial & Manufacturing
Computação Universidade Federal Engineering
do Vale do São Francisco— North Dakota State University
UNIVASF Campus Salgueiro Fargo, North Dakota
Salgueiro, Pernambuco, Brasil
Claudio Cunha Lopes
Maritza Rodriguez Gual Department of Reactor Technology
Department of Reactor Technology Service ( SETRE)
Service (SETRE) Centro de Desenvolvimento da
Centro de Desenvolvimento da Tecnologia Nuclear—CDTN
Tecnologia Nuclear—CDTN Belo Horizonte, Brazil
Belo Horizonte, Brazil

xiii
xiv Contributors

Paulo Romero Martins Maciel Vagner de Oliveira

Departamento de Ciência da Department of Reactor Technology
Computação Centro de Informática Service (SETRE)
da UFPE—CIN Recife Centro de Desenvolvimento da
Pernambuco, Brasil Tecnologia Nuclear—CDTN
Belo Horizonte, Brazil
Perdomo Ojeda Manuel
Instituto Superior de Tecnologías y Agapios N. Platis
Ciencias Aplicadas Department of Financial and
Universidad de La Habana (UH) Management Engineering
La Habana, Cuba University of the Aegean
Chios, Greece
Thomas Markopoulos
Department of Financial and Mangey Ram
Management Engineering Department of Mathematics; Computer
University of the Aegean Science & Engineering
Chios, Greece Graphic Era (Deemed to be University)
Dehradun, India
Rubens de Souza Matos Júnior
Coordenadoria de Informática Instituto Edson Ribeiro
Federal de Educação, Ciência e Centro de Desenvolvimento da
Tecnologia de Sergipe, IFS Lagarto Tecnologia Nuclear—CDTN
Sergipe, Brasil Belo Horizonte, Brazil

Rogerio Pimenta Morão Davide Russo

Department of Reactor Technology Department of Management,
Service (SETRE) Information and Production
Centro de Desenvolvimento da Engineering
Tecnologia Nuclear—CDTN University of Bergamo
Belo Horizonte, Brazil Bergamo, Italy

Toshio Nakagawa Carlos Sancho

Department of Business Administration Department of Electrical, Electronic
Aichi Institute of Technology and Control Engineering
Toyota, Japan Spanish National Distance Education
University
Miguel Angel Navas Madrid, Spain
Department of Electrical, Electronic
and Control Engineering Ameneh Forouzandeh Shahraki
Spanish National Distance Education Civil & Industrial Engineering
University North Dakota State University
Madrid, Spain Fargo, North Dakota
Contributors xv

Avinash K. Shrivastava Zhigang Wei

Department: QT, IT and Operations Tenneco Inc.
International Management Institute Grass Lake, Michigan
Kolkata, West Bengal, India
Sylwia Werbin′ska-Wojciechowska
Luiz Leite da Silva Department of Operation and
Department of Reactor Technology Maintenance of Logistic,
Service (SETRE) Transportation and Hydraulic
Centro de Desenvolvimento da Systems Faculty of Mechanical
Tecnologia Nuclear—CDTN Engineering
Belo Horizonte, Brazil Wroclaw University of Science and
Technology
S. B. Singh Wrocław, Poland
Department of Mathematics,
Statistics & Computer Science Om Prakash Yadav
G. B. Pant University of Agriculture & Civil & Industrial Engineering
Technology North Dakota State University
Pantnagar, India Fargo, North Dakota

Christian Spreafico Shui Yu

Department of Management, School of Mechanical and Electrical
Information and Production Engineering
Engineering University of Electronic Science and
University of Bergamo Technology of China
Dalmine, Italy Chengdu, China

Preeti Wanti Srivastava Xufeng Zhao

Department of Operational Research College of Economics and Management
University of Delhi Nanjing University of Aeronautics and
New Delhi, India Astronautics
Nanjing, China
Zhonglai Wang
School of Mechanical and Electrical
Engineering
University of Electronic Science and
Technology of China
Chengdu, China
 1 Preventive Maintenance
Modeling
State of the Art
Sylwia Werbińska-Wojciechowska

CONTENTS
1.1 Introduction........................................................................................................1
1.2 Preventive Maintenance Modeling for Single-Unit Systems.............................3
1.3 Preventive Maintenance Modeling for Multi-unit Systems............................. 14
1.4 Conclusions and Directions for Further Research...........................................24
References.................................................................................................................26

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Preventive maintenance (PM) is an important part of facilities management in many
of today’s companies. The goal of a successful PM program is to establish consistent
practices designed to improve the performance and safety of the operated equip-
ment. Recently, this type of maintenance strategy is applied widely in many techni-
cal systems such as production, transport, or critical infrastructure systems.
Many studies have been devoted to PM modeling since the 1960s. One of the first
surveys of maintenance policies for stochastically failing equipment—where PM
models are under investigation—is given in [1]. In this work, the author investigated
PM for known and uncertain distributions of time to failure. Pierskalla and Voelker [2]
prepared another excellent survey of maintenance models for proper scheduling and
optimizing maintenance actions, which Valdez-Flores and Feldman [3] updated later.
Other valuable surveys summarize the research and practice in this area in different
ways (e.g., [4–18]. In turn, the comparison between time-based maintenance and
condition-based maintenance is the authors’ area of interest, e.g., in works [19,20]).
In this chapter, the author focuses on the review and summary of recent PM
policies developed and presented in the literature. The adopted main maintenance
models classification is based on developments given in [15–18]. The models classi-
fication includes two main groups of maintenance strategies—single- and multi-unit
systems. The main scheme for classification of PM models for technical system is
presented in Figure 1.1.

1
2 Reliability Engineering

PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE (PM) FOR TECHNICAL SYSTEMS

PM FOR SINGLE-UNIT SYSTEMS PM FOR MULTI-UNIT SYSTEMS

Age-based PM policies Sequential PM policies BASIC MODELS FOR HYBRID PM MODELS

SYSTEMS WITHOUT
COMPONENTS * inspection maintenance modeling
DEPENDENCE * spare parts provisioning policy
Periodic PM policies Failure limit policies
* dynamic reliability maintenance
Extended PM models for
single-unit systems
Repair limit policies

BASIC MODELS FOR SYSTEMS

WITH COMPONENTS
Repair cost limit policies Repair time limit policies
DEPENDENCE

* group maintenance policy

* opportunistic maintenance policy
* cannibalization maintenance

FIGURE 1.1 The classification for preventive maintenance models for technical system.
(Own contribution based on Wang, H., European Journal of Operational Research, 139,
469–489, 2002; Werbińska-Wojciechowska, S., Technical System Maintenance, Delay-time-
based modeling, Springer, London, UK, 2019; Werbińska-Wojciechowska, S., Multicomponent
technical systems maintenance models: State of art (in Polish), in Siergiejczyk, M. (ed.),
Technical Systems Maintenance Problems: Monograph (in Polish), Publication House of
Warsaw University of Technology, Warsaw, Poland, pp. 25–57, 2014.)

Many well-known research papers focus on PM models dedicated for optimi-

zation of single-unit systems performance. The well-known maintenance models
for single-unit systems are age-dependent PM and periodic PM models. In these
areas, the most frequently used replacement models are based on age replacement
and block replacement policies. The basic references in this area are [3,15,22,23].
The maintenance policies comparison is presented, e.g., in works [24–29].
According to Cho and Parlar [4], “multi component maintenance models are con-
cerned with optimal maintenance policies for a system consisting of several units
of machines or many pieces of equipment, which may or may not depend on each
other.” In 1986, Thomas, in his work [30], presents classification of optimal mainte-
nance strategies for multi-unit systems. He focuses on the models that are based on
one of three types of dependence that occurs between system elements—economic,
failure, and structural. According to the author, economic dependence implies that
an opportunity for a group replacement of several components costs less than sepa-
rate replacements of the individual components. Stochastic dependence, also called
failure or probabilistic dependence, occurs if the condition of components influences
the lifetime distribution of other components. Structural dependence means that com-
ponents structurally form a part, so that maintenance of a failed component implies
maintenance of working components. These definitions are adopted in this chapter.
Literature reviews are given, e.g., in works [5,31–33] that are compatible with
research findings given in [30]. More comprehensive discussion in maintenance from
an application point of view can be found in [34,35]. For other recent references, see,
e.g., [8,18,23]. A detailed review of the most commonly used PM policies for single-
and multi-unit systems is presented in subchapters 1.2 and 1.3.
Preventive Maintenance Modeling 3

1.2 PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE MODELING

FOR SINGLE-UNIT SYSTEMS
First, the PM models for single-unit systems are investigated. Here a unit may be
perceived as a component, an assembly, a subsystem, or even the whole system
(treated as a complex system). The main classification for maintenance models of
such systems is given in Figure 1.2. The comparisons concerning different PM
policies are given in works [22,24,25,28,29,36–38].
One of the most commonly used PM policies for single-unit systems is an age
replacement policy (ARP) that was developed in the early 1960s [39]. Under this
policy, a unit is always replaced at its age T or at failure, whichever occurs first [40].
The issues of ARP modeling have been extensively studied in the literature since
the 1990s. The main extensions that are developed for this maintenance policy apply
to minimal repair, imperfect maintenance performance, shock modeling, or inspec-
tion action implementation. Following this, in the known maintenance models, the
PM at T and corrective maintenance (CM) at failure might be either minimal, imper-
fect, or perfect. The main optimization criteria are based on maintenance cost struc-
ture. Therefore, in the case of the simple ARP, the expected cost per unit of time for
an infinite time span is given as [39,41]:

cr F (T ) + c p F (T )
C (T ) = T (1.1)

∫ F (t )dt
0

where:
C(T) is the long-run expected cost per unit time
cp is the cost of preventive replacement of a unit
cr is the cost of failed unit replacement
F(t) is the probability distribution function of system/unit lifetime: F (t ) = 1 − F (t )

PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE (PM) FOR SINGLE-UNIT SYSTEMS

ARP MODELS FOR BRP MODELS FOR SEQUENTIAL PM MODELS LIMIT PM MODELS FOR
SINGLE-UNIT SYSTEMS SINGLE-UNIT SYSTEMS FOR SINGLE-UNIT SINGLE-UNIT SYSTEMS
SYSTEMS
*minimal repair implementation *minimal repair implementation
*perfect/imperfect repair *perfect/imperfect repair *minimal repair implementation
*shock modelling *shock modeling *finite/infinite time horizon
*cost/availability/reliability *cost/availability constraints *hybrid models
constraints *inspection policy
*inspection policy *finite/infinite time horizon
*new/used unit maintenance
modeling
*negligible/non-negligible downtime LIMIT PM MODELS FOR LIMIT PM MODELS FOR
SINGLE-UNIT SYSTEMS SINGLE-UNIT SYSTEMS

*perfect/imperfect repair
*finite/infinite time horizon
*dynamic reliability models
*mixed PM models

REPAIR-TIME LIMIT REPAIR-COST LIMIT

POLICY POLICY

*finite/infinite time horizon *perfect/imperfect maintenance

*different modeling approaches *inspection performance
*mixed PM models *mixed PM models

FIGURE 1.2 The classification for PM models for single-unit systems.

4 Reliability Engineering

The first investigated group of ARP models apply to minimal repair implementa-
tion. Minimal repair is defined herein as “the repair that put the failed item back
into operation with no significant effect on its remaining life time” [39]. A simple
ARP model with minimal repair is given in [42], where the author investigates a
one-unit system that is replaced at first failure after age T. All failures that happen
before the age T are minimally repaired. The model is based on the optimization of
the mean cost rate function. The extension of this model is given in [43,44], where
the authors develop the ARP with minimal repair and general random repair cost.
The continuation of this research also is given in [45], where the author introduces
the model for determining the optimal number of minimal repairs before replace-
ment. The main assumptions are compatible with [43,44] and incorporate minimal
repair, replacement, and general random repair cost.
A similar problem is analyzed later in [46], where the authors investigate PM with
Bayesian imperfect repair. In the given PM model, the failure that occurred (for the
unit age Ty < T) can be either minimally repaired or perfectly repaired with random
probabilities. The expected cost per unit time is investigated for the infinite-horizon
case and the one-replacement-cycle case.
The implementation of Bayesian approach for determining optimal replacement
strategy also is given in [47]. In this paper, the authors present a fully Bayesian anal-
ysis of the optimal replacement problem for the block replacement protocol with
minimal repair and the simple age replacement protocol. The optimal replacement
strategies are obtained by maximizing the expected utility with uncertainty analysis.
The ARP with minimal repair usually is investigated with the use of mainte-
nance costs constraints for optimization performance. However, a few PM models
are developed based on availability optimization. For example, in [48] the authors
investigate the steady-state availability of imperfect repair model for repairable two-
state items. The authors use the renewal theory for providing analytical solutions for
single and multi-component systems.
In another work [49], the author introduces an ARP with non-negligible down-
times. In this work, the author develops the sufficient conditions for the ARP in the
aspect of the existence of a global minimum to the asymptotic expected cost rate.
The introduction of periodic testing or inspections in ARP performance is given
in [50]. The author in this work introduces an ARP for components whose failures can
occur randomly but are detected only by periodic testing or inspections. The devel-
oped model includes finite repair and maintenance times and cost contributions due
to inspection (or testing), repair, maintenance, and loss of production (or accidents).
The analytical solution encompasses general cost rate and unavailability equations.
The continuation of inspection maintenance and PM optimization problems is given
in [51], where the authors focus on the issues of random failure and replacement time
implementation.
In [52], the authors introduce replacement policies for a unit that is running suc-
cessive works with cycle times. In the paper, three replacement policies are defined
that are scheduled at continuous and discrete times:

• Continuous age replacement: The unit is replaced before failure at a

planned time T
Preventive Maintenance Modeling 5

• Discrete age replacement: The unit is replaced before failure at completion

of the Nwcth working cycle
• Age replacement with overtime: The unit is replaced before failure at the
first completion of some working cycle over the planned time T

Analytical equations of the expected cost rate with numerical solutions are provided.
The authors also present the comparison of given replacement policies.
Another extension of ARP modeling is given in [53], where the authors investigate
the problem of PM uncertainty by assuming that the quality of PM actions is a random
variable with a defined probability distribution. Following this, the authors analyze an
age reduction PM model and a failure rate PM model. Under the age reduction PM
model, it is assumed that each PM reduces operational stress to the existing time units
previous to the PM intervention, where the restoration interval is less than or equal to
the PM interval. The optimization criteria also is based on maintenance cost structure.
The issues of warranty policy are investigated in [54]. The author in this work
investigates a general age-replacement model that incorporates minimal repair,
planned replacement, and unplanned replacement for a product under a renewing
free-­replacement warranty policy. The main assumptions of the ARP are compatible
with [43,44]. The authors assume that all the product failures that cause minimal repair
can be detected instantly and repaired instantaneously by a user. Thus, it is assumed
in this study that the user of the product should be responsible for all minimal repairs
before and after the warranty expires. Following this, for the product with an increas-
ing failure rate function, the authors show that a unique optimal replacement age exists
such that the long-run expected cost rate is minimized. The authors also compare
­analytically the optimal replacement ages for products with and without warranty.
The warranty policy problem is analyzed in [55], where the authors propose
an age-dependent failure-repair model to analyze the warranty costs of products.
In this paper, the authors consider four typical warranty policies (fixed warranty,
renewing warranty, mixture of minimal and age-reducing repairs, and partial rebate
warranty).
The last group of ARP models applies to PM strategies based on the implementa-
tion of shock models. The simple age-based policy with shock model is presented
in [56]. In this work, the authors introduce the three main cumulative damage m ­ odels:
(1) a unit that is subjected to shocks and suffers some damage due to shocks, (2) the
model includes periodic inspections, and (3) the model assumes that the amount of
damage increases linearly with time. For the defined shock models, optimal replace-
ment policies are derived for the expected cost rate minimization.
The extension of the given models is presented in [57], where the authors study
the mean residual life of a technical object as a measure used in the age replacement
model assessment. The analytical solution is supplied with a new U-statistic test pro-
cedure for testing the hypothesis that the life is exponentially distributed against the
alternative that the life distribution has a renewal-increasing mean residual property.
Another development of general replacement models of systems subject to shocks
is presented in [58], where the authors introduce the fatal and nonfatal shocks occur-
rence. The fatal shock causes the system total breakdown and the system is replaced,
whereas the nonfatal shock weakens the system and makes it more expensive to run.
6 Reliability Engineering

Following this, the authors focus on finding the optimal T that minimizes the long-
run expected cost per unit time.
Another extension of the ARP with shock models is to introduce the minimal repair
performance. Following this, in [59] the authors extend the generalized replacement
policy given in [58] by introducing minimal repair of minor failures. Moreover, in the
given PM model, the cost of minimal repair of the system is age dependent.
Later, in [60], the authors introduce an extended ARP policy with minimal repairs
and a cumulative damage model implementation. Under the developed maintenance
policy, the fatal shocks are removed by minimal repairs and the minor shocks increase
the system failure rate by a certain amount. Without external shocks, the failure rate
of the system also increases with age due to the aging process. The optimality criteria
also are focused on the long-run expected cost per unit time. This model is extended
later in [61], where the authors consider the ARP with minimal repair for an extended
cumulative damage model with maintenance at each shock. According to the devel-
oped PM policy, when the total damage does not exceed a predetermined failure level,
the system undergoes maintenance at each shock. When the total damage has reached
a given failure level, the system fails and undergoes minimal repair at each failure.
The system is replaced at periodic times T or at Nth failure, whichever occurs first.
To sum up, many authors usually discuss ARPs of single-unit systems analyti-
cally. The main models that address this maintenance strategy also should be sup-
plemented by works that investigate the problem of ARP modeling with the use of
semi-Markov processes (see, e.g., [62,63]), TTT-plotting (see, e.g., [64]), heuristic
models (see, e.g., [65]), or approximate methods implementation (see, e.g., [66]).
The authors in [67] introduce the new stochastic order for ARP based on the com-
parison of the Laplace transform of the time to failure for two different lifetime
distributions. The comparison of ARP models for a finite horizon case based on a
renewal process application and a negative exponential and Weibull failure-time dis-
tribution is presented in [68]. The additional interesting problems in ARP modeling
may be connected with spare provisioning policy implementation (see, e.g., [69]) or
multi-state systems investigation (see, e.g., [62,70,71]).
The quick overview of the given ARPs is presented in Table 1.1.
Another popular PM policy for single-unit systems is block replacement policy
(BRP). For the given maintenance policy, it is assumed that all units in a system are
replaced at periodic intervals regardless of their individual age in kT time moments,
where k = 1, 2, 3, and so on. The maintenance problem usually is aimed at finding
the optimal cycle length T either to minimize total maintenance and operational
costs or to maximize system availability. The simple BRP, when the maintenance
times are negligible, is based on the optimization of the expected long-run mainte-
nance cost per unit time as a function of T, given as [72]:

cr N (T ) + c p
C (T ) = (1.2)
T

where:
N(t) is the expected number of failure/renewals for time interval (0,t)
TABLE 1.1
Summary of PM Policies for Single-Unit Systems
Type of Maintenance Policy Planning Horizon Optimality Criterion Modeling Method Typical References
ARP Infinite (∞) The long-run expected cost per time unit Bayesian approach [47]
ARP Infinite (∞) The long-run expected cost per unit time, Analytical [38]
availability function
ARP Infinite (∞) The long-run expected cost per time unit Analytical [39,40–42,44,53,54,​
60,118]
ARP Infinite (∞) The expected cost rate Analytical [45,49,51,​56,59,61,​
66,119]
Preventive Maintenance Modeling

ARP Infinite (∞) The mean cost rate Analytical [120]

ARP Infinite (∞) The total cost rate, the expected Analytical [50]
unavailability
ARP Infinite (∞) The expected replacement cost rate Analytical [52]
ARP Infinite (∞) The expected warranty cost Analytical [55]
ARP Infinite (∞) The steady-state availability function Analytical [48]
ARP Infinite (∞) The survival function Analytical [121]
ARP Infinite (∞) The mean time to failure Analytical (Laplace [67]
transform)
ARP Infinite (∞) The long-run expected cost per unit time, Multi-attribute value model [122]
availability, lifetime, and reliability
functions
ARP Infinite (∞) The expected long-run cost rate Heuristic model [65]
ARP Infinite (∞) The expected long-run cost rate Semi-Markov decision [63]
process
(Continued)
7
 8

TABLE 1.1 (Continued)

Summary of PM Policies for Single-Unit Systems
Type of Maintenance Policy Planning Horizon Optimality Criterion Modeling Method Typical References
ARP Infinite (∞) The expected long-run cost rate Semi-Markov process [62]
ARP Infinite (∞) The long-run average cost per unit time Proportional hazard model [64]
and TTT-plotting
ARP Infinite (∞) The total system costs Simulation model [69]
ARP Infinite (∞) State-age-dependent policy Multi-phase Markovian model [71]
ARP Infinite (∞) Mean residual life Analytical/simulation [57]
ARP Infinite (∞) The expected cost of operating the system Analytical [123]
over a time interval
ARP Infinite (∞) The expected long-run cost per unit time, Analytical [78]
the total discounted cost
ARP Infinite (∞)/finite The expected cost rate per unit time Analytical [46]
ARP Infinite (∞)/finite The long-run expected cost per unit time Analytical [43,58,124]
ARP Finite Expected cumulative cost Analytical [68]
ARP Finite Customer’s expected discounted Continuous-time Markov [70]
maintenance cost process
BRP Infinite (∞) The long-run expected cost per time unit Analytical [72,74–80,83,​
125–127]
BRP Infinite (∞) The long-run expected cost per time unit Analytical/semi-Markov [81]
processes
BRP Finite The long-run expected cost per time unit Analytical [7]
(Continued)
Reliability Engineering
 Another Random Document on
Scribd Without Any Related Topics
“I am indeed poor, and shall always be so until the Bible is published
in Bengali and Hindostani, and the people want no further
instruction.”—Dr. William Carey, Letter from India, 1794.

WILLIAM CAREY.
Between the years 1786 and 1789, when William Gifford, just
liberated by the generous interference of a friend from the yoke of
apprenticeship to a cruel master, was receiving instruction from the
Rev. Thomas Smerdon, when Robert Bloomfield, a journeyman
shoemaker in London, was preparing in his mind the materials for
the “Farmer’s Boy,” and when Samuel Drew, the young shoemaker of
St. Austell, was reading “Locke on the Understanding,” and learning
to think and reason as a metaphysician, there lived at Moulton in
Northamptonshire a poor shoemaker, school-teacher, and village
pastor, who was cherishing in his great heart the project of forming
a society for the purpose of sending out Christian missionaries to the
heathen world. This poor young man, in spite of his obscure
position, his meagre social influence, his limited resources, and his
lack of early educational advantages, became the originator of the
great foreign missionary enterprises which constitute so remarkable
a feature in the religious history of this country at the close of the
last and the beginning of the present century. He was the first
missionary chosen to be sent out by the committee of the society he
had been the means of establishing. His field of labor was India,
where for more than forty years, “without a visit to England or even
a voyage to sea to recruit his strength,” and without losing a vestige
of his early enthusiasm for his Christian enterprise, he toiled on at
the work of preaching the gospel and translating the Sacred
Scriptures. From 1801 to 1830, he was Professor of Oriental
Languages in a college founded at Fort William by the Marquis of
Wellesley, Governor-General of India. As an Oriental linguist he had
few equals in his day, and few have ever exceeded him in the extent
and exactitude of his acquaintance with the languages of India. He
compiled grammars and dictionaries in Mahratta, Sanskrit, Punjabi,
Telugu, Bengali, and Bhotana. But his chief work was the translation
of the Scriptures into Bengali and other languages. No less than
twenty-four different translations of the Bible were made and edited
by him, and passed through the press at Serampore under his
supervision. One account speaks of “two hundred thousand Bibles,
or portions thereof, in about forty Oriental languages or dialects,
besides a great number of tracts and other religious works in various
languages;“ and adds that ”a great proportion of the actual literary
labor involved in these undertakings was performed” by this
prodigious worker. A truly noble life-work was this for any man. It
may be questioned if more work of a solid and useful character was
ever pressed into one human life. What monarch or ruler of a vast
empire, what statesman or judge, what scientific or literary worker,
what man of genius in business or the professions, has ever thrown
more energy into his life-work or achieved more worthy results for
all his toil than this humble shoemaker and village pastor from
Northamptonshire, who first gave to the various races of Northern
India the Bible in their own language?
No one who is at all familiar with the work of the Christian Church in
the present century, will need to be told that we are speaking of the
famous pioneer missionary to Bengal, Dr. William Carey. And surely
no list of illustrious shoemakers would be complete that did not
include the name of this good man. His experience of the “gentle
craft” was somewhat extensive. He was bound apprentice to the
trade, and afterward worked as,a journeyman for more than twelve
years. When he became known to the world, he was often spoken of
as “the learned shoemaker.” Indeed, he was not always honored
with so respectful a title as this. More often than not he was alluded
to as “the cobbler,” and his own strict honesty and modesty of spirit
led him to prefer the latter epithet. His humble origin and occupation
were sometimes the occasion of an empty sneer on the part of men
whose class feeling and religious prejudice prevented their
appreciation of his splendid mental gifts and high purpose in life,
and who consequently endeavored, but in vain, to bring his grand
and Christ-like undertaking into contempt. That famous wit, the Rev.
Sydney Smith, sometime prebendary of Bristol and canon of St.
Paul’s, tried to set the world laughing at the “consecrated cobbler.” It
was a sorry joke, and quite unworthy of a Christian minister, and
must have been sorely repented of in after-years. One would have
thought that Sydney Smith’s undoubted piety, and natural kindliness
of heart, let along his strong bias in favor of all that was liberal in
religion and politics, would have saved him from such a cruel and
flippant sneer. But wit is a brilliant and dangerous weapon, and few
men know how to use it as much as Sydney Smith did without injury
to their own reputation or the feelings of other people.
Carey, as we have said, did not object to being called a “cobbler,”
although the term did not accurately describe his degree of
proficiency in the trade. It was reported in Northamptonshire that he
was a poor workman, the neighbors declaring that though he made
boots, he “could never make a pair.”[35] In a letter to Dr. Ryland he
contradicts this report and says: “The childish story of my shortening
a shoe to make it longer is entitled to no credit. I was accounted a
very good workman, and recollect Mr. Old keeping a pair of shoes
which I had made in his shop as a model of good workmanship.“ He
cautiously adds, ”But the best workmen sometimes, from various
causes, put bad work out of their hands, and I have no doubt but I
did so too.”[36] This is more than likely, for he was subject to long
fits of mental abstraction as he sat at the stall:

“His eyes
Were with his heart, and that was far away.”
He pined for the field of missions and chafed against the cruel “bars
of circumstance” that kept him in his native land. While engaged in
shoemaking, he was so intent on learning Latin, Greek, and Hebrew
that he often forgot to fit the shoes to the last. No wonder if shoes
were not “a pair,” and were sometimes returned; no wonder that
while he became one of the first linguists in the world in his day he
was spoken of by his neighbors as nothing more than “a cobbler!”
With reference to his poor abilities in the craft a good story is told of
the way in which he silenced an officious person whose “false pride
in place and blood” had betrayed him into some disparaging remarks
about Carey as a shoemaker. His biographer[37] says: “Some thirty
years after this period, dining one day with the Governor-General,
Lord Hastings, at Barrakpore, a general officer made an impertinent
inquiry of one of the aides-de-camp whether Dr. Carey had not once
been a shoemaker. He happened to overhear the conversation, and
immediately stepped forward and said, “No, sir; only a cobbler!”
In the brief story we have to tell of the life of this remarkable man,
we shall, as seems most appropriate to our purpose, confine our
remarks almost entirely to the work he accomplished before he
ceased to be a shoemaker. His father and grandfather held the
position of parish clerk and schoolmaster at Pury, or Paulersbury, in
Northamptonshire, where William Carey was born, 17th August,
1761. His only education was received in the village school, and this
was very slight and rudimentary; yet it was sufficient to give him a
start in the work of educating himself. As a boy he was always fond
of reading, and chose such books as referred to natural history.
Botany and entomology were favorite subjects. His bedroom was
turned into a sort of museum, chiefly remarkable for butterflies and
beetles. Of books of travel and accounts of voyages he never seems
to have wearied; the history and geography of any country also
afforded him special delight. He was a bright, active, good-looking,
intelligent boy, by no means a recluse and bookworm, caring nothing
for out-door exercise and sports. He was as fond of games as any
boy in the village, and as clever at them, and so became a general
favorite. His quickness of intellect and perseverance with any hobby
he took up often led the neighbors to predict success for him in
future life. The perseverance and courage, which were such marked
features of his character as a man, were shown in his boyhood by a
curious incident. Attempting to climb a tree one day, he fell and
broke his leg, and was an invalid for six weeks. As soon as he could
crawl to the bottom of the garden, he made his way to the very tree
from which he had fallen, climbed to the top of it, and brought down
one of the highest branches, which he carried into the house,
exclaiming, “There, I knew I would do it!”
At the age of twelve he showed the first signs of a taste and
capacity for the acquisition of languages. A copy of Dyche’s Latin
Grammar and Vocabulary had come into his hands, and he at once
set to work, of his own free will and choice, to study the introductory
portion, and to commit all the Latin words, with their meanings, to
memory. Such an incident as this was quite enough to show that he
was a boy of no common mind, and that he would well repay any
outlay that might be made in giving him a classical training. But that
was out of the question; the village school could not afford such a
training, and anything better, in the shape of grammar-school or
college, was not to be had, for his friends were poor and had no
patrons to assist them. What he might have done in an university it
is idle to suppose. Undoubtedly, he would have distinguished
himself, but it may be reasonably doubted whether he would have
been led into the path of Christian philanthropy and usefulness
which the stress of circumstances at Moulton led him to think and
adopt. It must have been painful for his parents, with their sense of
the boy’s merits and ambition as a scholar, to see him languishing at
home, unable to find sufficient food for his hungry and capacious
young mind, while they also were unable to satisfy his passion for
books, or send him to a school adequate to his requirements. And
doubly painful must it have been for him as for them, when they felt
that the time had come for him to learn a trade, and the thought of
further schooling must be given up.
One can imagine his feelings when told that he must be apprenticed
to a shoemaker. Not that such an occupation was necessarily a
bugbear to a boy in his position, for thousands of village lads would
not have regarded it in that light; but it was so to him. His heart had
been set on a very different kind of occupation. He was eager for
study, and felt within him the movement of an impulse to do
something great in the world, and this apprenticeship was a bitter
disappointment, saddening his young heart, and quenching for a
time all his bright hopes. But only for a time did he lose heart. He
was one of those who are no friends to despair, who do not
understand defeat, and whose spirit and determination rise in the
face of difficulties. It was not to be expected in his circumstances
that life could offer him any position of greater honor or advantage
than a cobbler’s stool. He would not, therefore, murmur at his
necessary lot. He would rather take to it with as good a grace as
possible, and make the best of it. He would use every means and
chance of self-improvement, and if he could not have his heart’s
desire in the way he had intended, he would have it in some other
way; anyhow he would have it. A broken purpose should no more
stand in the way of his climbing the “tree of knowledge” than a
broken leg had prevented his climbing to the top of the tree in his
father’s garden.
So he settled to his work with Charles Nickolls of Hackleton at the
age of fourteen, with no prospect but that of being bound to wield
the awl and bend over the last until he had come to be twenty-one
years of age. Soon after entering the shoemaker’s room he found a
copy of the New Testament, in the notes to which occurred a
number of Greek words. This opened up another field of study, and
he determined to enter upon it. Copying out the words, he took
them for explanation to a young man who was a weaver in the
village where his father lived. This weaver came from Kidderminster,
had seen better days, and had received a good education. He
assisted young Carey, then fifteen years of age, in mastering the
rudiments of Greek. With such a start he did not rest until he had
procured and could read the Greek New Testament. In the second
year of his apprenticeship his indentures were cancelled on account
of the death of his master, and Carey became a journeyman, of
course at very low wages, under Mr. Old. At this time there lived in
the neighborhood a clergyman who was one of the lights of a dark
period in the religious history of this country—the Rev. Thomas
Scott, the popular evangelical preacher, writer, and Bible
commentator. His own career was very remarkable. From the
position of a laboring man he had risen to occupy good rank as a
clergyman, and with very meagre advantages in early life he had
become, or was rapidly becoming, one of the best sacred classics in
the country. The man who had laid aside the shepherd’s smock for
the clergyman’s surplice, and who on one occasion doffed his clerical
attire, donned the shepherd’s clothes again, and sheared eleven
large sheep on an afternoon, was not likely to neglect or overlook a
youth of more than ordinary intelligence and application to study
because the youth happened to spend his days at the shoemaker’s
stall. Mr. Scott on his visiting rounds now and then turned in at Mr.
Old’s, and was struck with the boy’s bright look and rapt attention to
any remarks that the visitor might make. Occasionally young Carey
would venture to ask a question. So appropriate and far-seeing were
his inquiries that Mr. Scott discerned his young friend’s uncommon
powers, and often declared that he would prove to be “no ordinary
character.” In later years, when William Carey was known throughout
England as a pioneer in mission work, as a great Oriental linguist,
and the first translator of the New Testament into Bengali, Mr. Scott,
as he passed by the old room where the thoughtful and studious
young shoemaker had once sat at work, would point to it and say,
“That was Mr. Carey’s college.”
But with all this mental activity and zest for knowledge there was no
moral purpose in his life, and as he grew older he became more and
more loose and careless in his habits, and, as he himself would have
it, even vicious, until he came to be about eighteen years of age. But
there is no proof of any evil conduct to justify the use of such a term
as “vicious” in describing his life at this time. He spoke of himself, no
doubt, after the religious fashion of the age, and judged his early
conduct by the severe moral standard adopted by his co-religionists.
His complete mental awakening, like that of Samuel Drew, seems to
have come as a result of the moral change wrought in him at the
time of his religious conversion. A variety of causes, as is the rule,
led to this crucial event in his life, “that vital change of heart which
laid the foundation of his Christian character.” First of all he was
indebted to the good example of a fellow-workman, then to the
earnest preaching of the Rev. Thomas Scott. Mr. Marshman says, “It
was chiefly to the ministrations of Mr. Scott that Carey was indebted
for the progress he made in his religious career, and he never
omitted through life to acknowledge the deep obligation under which
he had been laid by his instructions.” Brought up as a strict
Churchman, he was confirmed at a suitable age, and regularly
attended the services at the parish church. But at the time we are
speaking of, when personal religion became the chief subject of his
thoughts, he sought light and help by every available means. The
little Baptist community, among whom he had many friends, showed
him much sympathy: he began to attend their meetings for prayer,
and eventually cast in his lot among them. They encouraged him to
become a preacher, and his first sermon, delivered at Hackleton
when he was nineteen years of age, was delivered in one of their
assemblies. For three and a half years he was on the preachers’
plan, and regularly “supplied the pulpits” in this village and Earl’s
Barton as a kind of pastor. “It was during these ministerial
engagements,” says his biographer, “that his views on the subject of
baptism were altered, and he embraced the opinion that baptism by
immersion, after a confession of faith, was in accordance with the
injunctions of Divine Writ and the practice of the apostolic age. He
was accordingly baptized by Dr. John Ryland, his future associate in
the cause of missions, who subsequently stated at a public meeting
that, on the 7th of October, 1783, he baptized a poor journeyman
shoemaker in the river Nene, a little beyond Dr. Doddridge’s chapel
in Northampton.”[38]
During these years he was diligently prosecuting his studies, and
read the Scriptures in Hebrew, Greek, and Latin. Like many another
poor student, he was fain to borrow what he could not buy in the
way of books, and “laid the libraries of all the friends around him
under contribution.” Notwithstanding his extraordinary abilities and
diligence, he does not seem to have displayed any marked qualities
as a preacher. It was with difficulty he got through his trial sermons
before the church of which he was now a member. The very decided
“personal influence” of the pastor, the Rev. John Suttcliffe, was
required to enable the modest young shoemaker to obtain the
church’s sanction to his receiving “a call to the ministry.” The church
to which he ministered at Earl’s Barton was poor, and scarcely able
to keep its pastor in clothing, much less provide for his entire
maintenance. For this he was dependent on his trade, and as the
times were now very bad he was obliged to travel from village to
village to dispose of his work and obtain fresh orders. Nothing but
the assistance of his relatives saved him at this time from
destitution.
And here we are bound to pause and notice the greatest mistake
Carey made in all his life. We refer to his marriage at the age of
twenty to the sister of his former employer. “This imprudent union,”
it is said, “proved a severe clog on his exertions for more than
twenty-five years.” The match was about as unfortunate and
unsuitable as a match could be. Mrs. Carey was much older than her
husband, ill-educated in mind and temper, and quite incapable of
sympathizing with her husband’s studies and projects. How he came
to contract such a miserable union passes comprehension, for he
was remarkably sensible and business-like in common affairs. But
there are those who can cultivate another man’s vineyard while they
neglect their own, wise for others and simple for themselves; and in
regard to this particular business, as Froude the historian has well
said, some men are apparently “destined to be unfortunate in their
relations with women.” The judicious Hooker was judicious in
everything else but the choice of a wife, for he married a jade who
was wont to give him the baby to nurse and stand and scold him
into the bargain, as he sat writing the works that were destined to
make his name illustrious for all time. Molière, who exposed in the
most masterly manner in his plays the follies and foibles of the
women of Parisian society in his day, married, to his bitter regret, as
weak and vain a woman as any that figures in his own works.
Milton’s second wife went home again within three months of their
wedding-day; and John Wesley’s wife left him a short while after
their marriage. But if these good men made a mistake in their
choice, they one and all acted with good sense and feeling in their
treatment of their ill-matched partners. Nothing could be better than
the common-sense of stern John Wesley in his reply to a friend who
asked him if he would not send for his truant wife home again. He
answered in Latin, but this is what his words mean, “I did not send
her away, and I will not fetch her back again.” Carey acted with
much kindness and discretion toward his miserable partner; but he
found it harder to transform her into a sensible woman than to
transform his own Baptist Conference into a missionary society.[39]
In 1786, he took the pastorate of a small church at Moulton; yet,
even here, he was obliged to eke out his poor living by shoemaking,
and even to add to his other labors the task of teaching a school.
For this task he was utterly unfit. However well he might teach
himself, he could never teach boys. He knew this, and was
accustomed to say, “When I kept school, it was the boys who kept
me.” His circumstances at this time ought to be fully stated in order
that the reader may form some idea of the hardship Carey had to
endure and the absorbing personal duties and cares in the midst of
which he began to cherish his great purpose “to convey the gospel
of Jesus Christ to some portion of the heathen world.” His ministerial
stipend from all sources and the proceeds of his school would not
together put him in the position of Goldsmith’s ideal village pastor,
who was “passing rich on forty pounds a year.” So that he was
obliged, even at Moulton, to have recourse to shoemaking. A friend
of his at the time remarks, “Once a fortnight Carey might be seen
walking eight or ten miles to Northampton, with his wallet full of
shoes on his shoulder, and then returning home with a fresh supply
of leather.”
The time spent at Moulton was, in spite of its many cares and
hardships, a time of great progress in study. It was during these
years he adopted the plan of allotting his time, a plan to which he
rigidly adhered all through his life, and by means of which he was
able in after-years to accomplish tasks which seemed to onlookers
sufficient for the energies of two or three ordinary men. Now began
also the acquaintance with men whose friendship was of the
greatest service to a man like Carey, and largely influenced and
helped him in his life-work—Mr. Hall (the father of the eminent pulpit
orator Robert Hall), Dr. Ryland, John Suttcliffe, and Andrew Fuller. All
these lived within a few miles of each other, and belonged to the
same association of Baptist churches, called the Northamptonshire
Association. It was at one of the meetings of this association that
Fuller first met with Carey and heard him preach. So delighted was
Fuller with the devout thoughtfulness and Christian catholicity of
Carey’s discourse, that he met the preacher as he came down from
the pulpit and thanked him in the warmest manner. In this cordial
meeting commenced a friendship and fellowship in Christian work
which lasted for twenty years until Fuller’s death, and which proved
a source of untold blessings to the heathen world.
Carey’s first thought of missions came into his mind when reading
Captain Cook’s account of his voyage round the world. He was in the
habit of blending study with his task as a shoemaker, or while sitting
among his boys at school. This book impressed his imagination, and
stirred his compassion to the utmost, as he contemplated the vast
extent of the world and the large proportion of its inhabitants who
were living in ignorance of the true God, and of the Saviour of
mankind. In order to realize the facts more vividly, he constructed a
large map of the world, and marked it in such a manner as to
indicate the numerical relation of the heathen to the Christian
nations. This map was fixed on the wall in front of his work-stool, so
that he might raise his head occasionally and look upon it as he sat
at his daily toil. While he mused on the map and the facts it
represented, “the fire burned.” It was the means of inspiring in him
the purpose never to tire nor rest until he and others had gone out
to convey the good news of the Gospel to his suffering fellow-men in
distant lands. It was to this circumstance that William Wilberforce
alluded, in a speech made in the House of Commons twenty years
after, when, urging Parliament to grant missionaries free access to
India, he said: “A sublimer thought cannot be conceived than when
a poor cobbler formed the resolution to give to the millions of
Hindoos the Bible in their own language.”
With this purpose in mind, Carey went to the meetings of his
brethren, longing for an opportunity of expressing his thoughts and
calling forth their sympathies. But he had to endure a terrible trial at
the outset—a trial which only Christian faith and love could endure.
The older men, who ruled in an almost supreme manner in these
councils, sternly rebuked his presumption, as they deemed it, and
called him an “enthusiast”—a term employed very recently by a
noble duke in the House of Lords in the same connection. No term
could have described Carey more correctly. It was a term of honor,
though meant in reproach and condemnation. The word means one
inspired by God, and surely Carey’s Christlike thought and zeal for
his fellow-men was an inspiration. He was an enthusiast of the type
of Robert Raikes of Gloucester, who only six or seven years
before[40] had begun the work of Sabbath-schools in that city; or
John Howard, whose great work, published within a year or two of
this time,[41] on the condition of the prisons in Europe, and
especially in England and Ireland, created a merciful revolution in
the treatment of our criminal class; or Thomas Charles of Bala,
whose pity for the Welsh girl who had no Bible of her own, and had
been unable to walk six or seven miles to a place where she could
have access to one, led him to take steps which resulted in the
formation of the British and Foreign Bible Society. The founder of the
Baptist Missionary Society was a man of this type, and such men are
the greatest benefactors of their race, no matter whether they be
clergymen like Charles, or country gentlemen like Howard, or
cobblers and Nonconformist village pastors like Carey.
At the first meeting in which Carey ventured to submit the subject of
Christian missions, the senior minister present spoke in the following
oracular manner: “Brother Carey ought certainly to have known that
nothing could be done before another Pentecost, when an effusion
of miraculous gifts, including the gift of tongues, would give effect to
the commission of Christ, as at the first; and that he (Mr. Carey) was
a miserable enthusiast for asking such a question.” And then, as if to
settle the whole question once for all, and shut the mouth of Mr.
Carey forever, the stern old man turned to the humble young pastor
and said, “What, sir! can you preach in Arabic, in Persic, in
Hindostani, in Bengali, that you think it your duty to preach the
gospel to the heathen?” Little did the speaker imagine that he was
addressing the very man who would subsequently hold the office of
Professor of Oriental Languages, at Fort William for twenty years,
become one of the greatest proficients the world has known in two
of the very languages he had named, and not only preach in them
but translate the Scriptures into them, as a boon and legacy of love
to the people of Hindostan. When on another occasion Carey,
nothing daunted by his first repulse, and willing to forgive and forget
his rebuff for the sake of the cause he cherished, asked his brethren
once more to consider the question of missions, the same stern
voice exclaimed, “Young man, sit down; when God pleases to
convert the heathen, He will do it without your aid or mine.”
But the old man was not a prophet. God did not choose to work
without the aid of William Carey, though the time was not yet. The
undaunted moral hero had other battles to fight before he stood on
the field of missions.
In 1789 Carey became the pastor of a church in Leicester. For four
years he labored zealously at his ministerial duties, studied with
great diligence, availing himself of new and valuable friendships for
this purpose, and never failing to bring up his favorite theme for
discussion at the meetings of the Baptist ministers. Before he left
Moulton, as we have seen, he began to raise the question in the
public assemblies. On one occasion the debate ran on the question
he had introduced, “Whether it were not practicable, and our
bounden duty, to attempt somewhat toward spreading the gospel in
the heathen world?” Not satisfied with the result of such discussions,
the village shoemaker and pastor sat down to write a pamphlet on
this subject, entitled “Thoughts on Christian Missions.” When he
showed this pamphlet to his friends Fuller, Suttcliffe, and Ryland,
they were amazed at the amount of knowledge it displayed, and
deeply moved by Carey’s zeal and persistence in the good cause; but
all they could do in the matter was to put him off for a time by
counselling him to revise his production. It appears that at the time
this brochure was penned the poor shoemaker with his family were
“in a state bordering on starvation, and passed many weeks without
animal food, and with but a scanty supply of bread.”
In the year 1791, at a meeting held at Clipstone in
Northamptonshire, Carey again read his pamphlet, and was
requested to publish it. This was a decided step in advance, and
prepared the way for the events of the following year, when the
desire of his heart was accomplished in the formation of a
missionary society. In May, 1792, he preached the famous sermon
which is said to have done more than anything else to consummate
this missionary enterprise.[42] The two main propositions of this
discourse have passed into something like a proverb on the lips of
missionary advocates: “Expect great things from God; attempt great
things for God.” Although the discourse made a deep impression,
Carey was distressed beyond all self-control when he found his
friends were about to separate without a distinct resolution to form a
society. He seized Andrew Fuller’s hand “in an agony of distress,”
and tearfully pleaded that some steps should at once be taken.
Overcome at last by his entreaties, they solemnly resolved on the
holy enterprise.
After this the history of the Society is a record of meetings,
committees, travels, and labors, of deputations to the churches,
difficulties and embarrassments, in the midst of which no one was
more devoted and useful in bringing the plans of the young Society
into working order than Carey’s valuable friend, Andrew Fuller. The
first subscription list was made up at another meeting of the
Association, held at Kettering, in Carey’s own county, in the autumn
of the same year. Its promises amounted to £13 2s. 6d. This little
fund was the precursor of the tens of thousands which have since
flowed into the treasuries of our modern Christian Missionary
Societies. In twenty-nine days after the fund was started at
Kettering, Birmingham followed with the noble gift of £70.
The Society was now fairly started, with the resolution formally
recorded on its minute-books “to convey the message of salvation to
some portion of the heathen world.” On the 9th of January, 1793,
Carey and a colleague were appointed by the Committee to proceed
at once to India. Carey’s colleague was a man of extraordinary
missionary zeal, who had “lately returned from Bengal, and was
endeavoring to establish a fund in London for a mission to that
country.”[43] He was a Baptist, and on hearing of the schemes of his
brethren in England, he readily fell in with their proposal that he
should accompany Carey to India. But the question of finding a
berth on an English vessel was not easily settled. No English captain
dare take them out without a government license, and to obtain a
license as missionaries was not to be thought of. Having at one time
gone on board a vessel with all their baggage, they were obliged by
the captain, who felt that he was risking his commission in taking
them on board, to land again and return to London. They were
compelled at length to have recourse to a Danish vessel, the Cron
Princessa Maria, whose captain, an Englishman by birth, though
naturalized as a Dane, looked favorably on their enterprise. On the
13th of June, 1793, Carey and his companion set sail from the
shores of England, their expedition as ambassadors for Christ as
little heeded by the world at large as that of the Cilician tentmaker
and his little band of preachers who set sail seventeen centuries
before from the port of Alexandria Troas for the shores of Europe.
The story of Carey’s life and work in India cannot be followed in
detail. We have come to the close of that portion of his history which
properly belongs to these brief sketches of illustrious shoemakers. A
few sentences must suffice to give a picture of his labors as a
missionary and the result of those labors. For six or seven years
Carey and his friends had to endure much hardship, and their
proceedings were hampered by difficulties of various kinds. To begin
with, they had no legal standing in the country, and were forced at
length to take up their quarters under the Danish flag at Serampore.
“Here they bought a house, and organized themselves into a family
society, resolving that whatever was done by any member should be
for the benefit of the mission. They opened a school, in which the
children of those natives who chose to send them were instructed
gratuitously.”[44] The funds supplied from home were but scanty,
and they were compelled to resort to trade for their livelihood and
the means of carrying on their work. “Thomas, who was a surgeon,
intended to support himself by his profession. Carey’s plan was to
take land and cultivate it for his maintenance.“[45] At one time,
when funds were exhausted, Mr. Carey ”was indebted for an asylum
to an opulent native;” at another time, driven to distraction by want
of money, by the apparent failure of his plans, and the upbraidings
of his unsympathetic partner, he removed with his family to the
Soonderbunds, and took a small grant of land, which he proposed to
cultivate for his own maintenance; and, later on, he thankfully
accepted, as a way out of his difficulties and a means of furthering
his missionary projects, the post of superintendent of an indigo
factory at Mudnabatty. This post he held for five or six years. No
sooner had he got into this position of comparative independence
than he wrote home and proposed that “the sum which might be
considered his salary should be devoted to the printing of the
Bengali translation of the New Testament.” This generous proposal is
a fair illustration of his self-sacrificing spirit from the beginning to the
end of his missionary life. To the work of translating and circulating
the Scriptures in the languages of India he devoted not only all his
time and his vast mental powers, but whatever private funds might
be at his command. As the work proceeded, and he became known
and employed by the government in various professorships, these
funds were often very considerable. In 1807, when Carey held the
Professorship of Oriental Languages at the Fort William College, at a
salary of £1200 a year, Mr. Ward, one of his colleagues, wrote, in
reply to some unfriendly remarks made in an English publication,
that Dr. Carey and Mr. Marshman “were contributing £2400 a year,“
and receiving from the mission fund ”only their food and a trifle of
pocket-money for apparel.”
In 1800 the missionary establishment, now strengthened by the two
worthy colleagues just named, was removed to Serampore, a Danish
settlement about fifteen miles from Calcutta. A printing press and
type were purchased, and the work of printing the Scriptures
commenced. Carey had been quietly but most diligently going on
with the translation of the Scriptures into Bengali during the previous
years of anxiety and varied missionary labor. Whatever cares
weighed on brain and heart, the true work of his life, to which he
had devoted himself, was never relinquished.
On the 18th of March, 1800, the first sheets of the Bengali New
Testament were struck off, and on the 7th of February in the
following year, “Mr. Carey enjoyed the supreme gratification of
receiving the last sheet of the Bengali New Testament from the
press, the fruition of the ‘sublime thought’ which he had conceived
fifteen years before.” It is not surprising that we should read the
following record of the manner in which these humble missionaries
expressed their devout gratitude to God on the consummation of
this part of their Christian labors: “As soon as the first copy was
bound, it was placed on the communion table in the chapel, and a
meeting was held of the whole of the mission family, and of the
converts recently baptized, to offer a tribute of gratitude to God for
this great blessing.” In 1806 the New Testament was ready for the
press in Sanskrit, the sacred language of India, the language of its
most ancient and venerated writings, and the parent of nearly all the
languages of modern India. Simultaneously with this were being
issued proof-sheets of the New Testament in Mahratta, Orissa,
Persian, and Hindostani, besides dictionaries and grammars, and
other publications for the use of students. It is well-nigh impossible
to form a correct idea of the amount of religious zeal, mental energy,
and physical endurance involved in labors like those of Dr. Carey,
extending over forty years in the climate of Bengal. He is said to
have regularly tired out three pundits, or native interpreters, who
came one after the other each day to assist him in the correction
and revision of his translations. A letter written in 1807, when the
degree of D.D. was conferred on Mr. Carey by the Brown University,
United States, gives a graphic sketch of the ordinary day’s work
performed by him at this period: “He rises a little before six, reads a
chapter in the Hebrew Bible, and spends the time till seven in private
devotion. He then has family prayer with the servants in Bengali,
after which he reads Persian with a moonshee who is in attendance.
As soon as breakfast is over he sits down to the translation of the
Ramayun with his pundit till ten, when he proceeds to the college
and attends to its duties till two. Returning home, he examines a
proof-sheet of the Bengali translation, and dines with his friend Mr.
Rolt. After dinner he translates a chapter of the Bible with the aid of
the chief pundit of the college. At six he sits down with the Telugu
pundit to the study of that language, and then preaches a sermon in
English to a congregation of about fifty. The service ended, he sits
down to the translation of Ezekiel into Bengali, having thrown aside
his former version. At eleven the duties of the day are closed, and
after reading a chapter in the Greek Testament and commending
himself to God he retires to rest.”[46]
Strangely enough, about this time a controversy was going on in
certain English journals as to the value of the work that Carey and
his coadjutors were doing in India. We have no wish to speak
bitterly of the satire and severity of the articles written by Sydney
Smith in the Edinburgh Review. They were not simply sallies of wit,
but serious essays, written in a spirit of deliberate hostility to this
missionary enterprise. What else can be thought of an article
commencing with words like these: “In rooting out a nest of
consecrated cobblers, and in bringing to light such a perilous heap of
trash as we are obliged to work through in our articles on Methodists
and missionaries, we are generally considered to have rendered a
useful service to the cause of rational religion.” Such articles
condemned themselves; and it is fair to add that their author himself
lived to regard them as a mistake, and to express to Lord Macaulay
his regret that he had ever written them.[47]
But even in that day Carey and his heroic band of Christian fellow-
laborers had plenty of sympathizers and supporters both in the
Church of England and the Nonconformist denominations. Robert
Southey the poet came forward with generous enthusiasm in their
defence, and in a carefully-written article in the Quarterly Review[48]
vindicated their character and labors. Among other remarkable
statements in their behalf, he was able to say: “These ‘low-born and
low-bred mechanics’ have translated the whole Bible into Bengali,
and have by this time printed it. They are printing the New
Testament in the Sanskrit, the Orissa, the Mahratta, the Hindostani,
the Guzerat, and translating it into Persic, Teligna, Carnata, Chinese,
the language of the Sieks and the Burmans, and in four of these
languages they are going on with the Bible. Extraordinary as this is,
it will appear still more so when it is remembered that of these men
one was originally a shoemaker, another a printer at Hull, and the
third the master of a charity-school at Bristol. Only fourteen years
have elapsed since Thomas and Carey set foot in India, and in that
time these missionaries have acquired the gift of tongues. In
fourteen years these ‘low-born, low-bred mechanics’ have done
more to spread the knowledge of the Scriptures among the heathen
than has been accomplished or even attempted by all the world
beside. A plain statement of fact will be the best proof of their
diligence and success. The first convert was baptized in December,
1800,[49] and in seven years after that time the number has
amounted to 109, of whom nine were afterward excluded or
suspended, or had been lost sight of. Carey and his son have been in
Bengal fourteen years, the other brethren only nine. They had all a
difficult language to acquire before they could speak to a native, and
to preach and argue in it required a thorough and familiar
knowledge. Under these circumstances the wonder is, not that they
have done so little, but that they have done so much; for it will be
found that, even without this difficulty to retard them, no religious
opinions have spread more rapidly in the same time, unless there
was some remarkable folly or extravagance to recommend them, or
some powerful worldly inducement.” This liberal Tory an evangelical
High Churchman goes on to say: “Other missionaries from other
societies have now entered India, and will soon become efficient
laborers in their station. From Government all that is asked is
toleration for themselves and protection for their converts. The plan
which they have laid for their own proceedings is perfectly prudent
and unexceptionable, and there is as little fear of their provoking
martyrdom as there would be of their shrinking from it if the cause
of God and man require the sacrifice.”
Having lived to see his desire accomplished in the establishment of
many other missionary societies besides his own; having been the
means of translating the Sacred Scriptures in the languages spoken
probably by two hundred millions of people; this good man, working
up to the close of his life, died at Calcutta on the 9th of June, 1834.
As he lay ill, Lady Bentinck, the wife of the Governor-General, paid
him frequent visits, and good “Bishop Wilson came and besought his
blessing.” He instructed his executors to place no memorial over his
tomb but the following simple inscription:
 WILLIAM CAREY,
Born August 1761; Died June 1834.
“A wretched, poor, and helpless worm,
On Thy kind arms I fall.”

Mr. Marshman, who had the best means of knowing Carey and his
work,[50] says: “The basis of all his excellences was deep and
unaffected piety. So great was his love of integrity that he never
gave his confidence where he was not certain of the existence of
moral worth. He was conspicuous for constancy, both in the pursuits
of life and the associations of friendship. With great simplicity he
united the strongest decision of character. He never took credit for
anything but plodding, but it was the plodding of genius.” In all his
work, however successful, however honored by his fellow-men,
William Carey was modest and simple-hearted as a child. His
unparalleled labors as a translator of the Scriptures were performed
under the prompting of sublime faith in Divine truth, warm
unwavering love to souls, and an assured confidence in the ultimate
triumph of the kingdom of God. The shoemaker of Northamptonshire
will be remembered till the end of the world as the Christian Apostle
of Northern India.
 CHAPTER VIII.

THE PHILANTHROPIC SHOEMAKER.

“His virtues walked their narrow round,

Nor made a pause, nor left a void;
And sure the Eternal Master found
His single talent well employed.”
—Dr. Samuel Johnson.

“A young lady once said to him, ‘O Mr. Pounds, I wish you were rich,
you would do so much good!’ The old man paused a few seconds
and then replied, ‘Well, I don’t know; if I had been rich I might,
perhaps, have been much the same as other rich people. This I
know, there is not now a happier man in England than John Pounds;
and I think ’tis best as it is.’”—Memoir of John Pounds, p. 12.
“As unknown, and yet well known; ... as poor, yet making many
rich.”—The Apostle Paul. 2 Cor. vi. 9, 10.
“Verily I say unto you, Inasmuch as ye have done it unto one of the
least of these My brethren, ye have done it unto Me.”—Our Lord
Jesus Christ. Matt. xxv. 40.
 JOHN POUNDS.
In 1837 there lived at Landport and Portsmouth two notable
shoemakers. The Landport man combined with his daily task as a
shoemaker the delightful occupation of sketching and painting, and
obtained a local fame as an artist. The Portsmouth man found in the
work of teaching poor ragged children to read and write and cipher
his greatest relaxation from the drudgery of daily toil and his purest
enjoyment, and has become known, we may safely affirm,
throughout the Christian world, as a philanthropist, and one of the
first men in this country who conceived and carried out the idea of
Ragged Schools. The shoemaker-artist had a great admiration for
the shoemaker-philanthropist and painted a picture representing him
in his humble workroom, engaged in his double occupation as
shoemaker and schoolmaster, with a last between his knees and a
number of children standing before him receiving instruction. The
artist’s name was Sheaf, and his interesting picture represented John
Pounds occupied in his benevolent work as a gratuitous teacher of
the neglected children of his native town. Sheaf sold his picture to
Edward Carter, Esq., of Portsmouth, a warm admirer of John Pounds,
and one of his best friends and helpers in his work. This picture was
afterward engraved by Mr. Charpentier of Portsmouth, and it is to a
copy of the engraving the renowned Dr. Guthrie of Edinburgh refers
in the following story:
“It is rather curious, at least it is interesting to me, that it was by a
picture that I was first led to take an interest in Ragged Schools—a
picture in an old, obscure, decayed burgh, that stands on the shore
of the Firth of Forth. I had gone thither with a companion on a
pilgrimage; not that there was any beauty about the place, for it had
no beauty. It has little trade. Its deserted harbor, silent streets, and
old houses, some of them nodding to their fall, give indications of
decay. But one circumstance has redeemed it from obscurity, and
will preserve its name to the latest ages. It was the birthplace of
Thomas Chalmers. I went to see this place. It is many years ago,
and going into an inn for refreshments, I found the room covered
with pictures of shepherdesses with their crooks, and tars in holiday
attire, not very interesting. But above the chimney-piece there stood
a large print, more respectable than its neighbors, which a skipper,
the captain of one of the few ships that trade between that town
and England, had probably brought there. It represented a cobbler’s
room. The cobbler was there himself, spectacles on nose, an old
shoe between his knees, the massive forehead and firm mouth
expressing great determination of character, and below his bushy
eyebrows benevolence gleamed out on a number of poor ragged
boys and girls who stood at their lessons around the busy cobbler.
My curiosity was excited, and on the inscription I read how this man,
John Pounds, a cobbler in Portsmouth, taking pity on the poor
ragged children, left by ministers and magistrates, and ladies and
gentlemen, to run in the streets, had, like a good shepherd,
gathered in the wretched outcasts; how he had brought them to
God and the world; and how, while earning his bread by the sweat
of his brow, he had rescued from misery, and saved to society, not
less than five hundred of these children.”[51]
The biography of some of the best and most useful men the world
has known may be written almost in a sentence. In the Old
Testament there is a biography of this kind in the words, “And Enoch
walked with God: and he was not; for God took him.”[52] In the New
Testament there is another of a similar character in the brief
sentence, “There was a certain man in Cæsarea called Cornelius, a
centurion of the band called the Italian band, a devout man, and
one that feared God with all his house, who gave much alms to the
people, and prayed to God alway.”[53] The life-story of John Pounds
is told in the last sentence of Dr. Guthrie’s narrative; yet a few
farther details of the life and work of this noble-hearted man will be
read with interest by all who venerate true worth and take pleasure
in contemplating acts of Christ-like charity and mercy.
John Pounds was born at Portsmouth on the 17th of June, 1766. He
was only twelve years old when his father, a sawyer employed in the
government dockyard, had him bound apprentice as a shipwright in
the same yard. He was then a strong active boy, and worked with
his father in the yard until an accident maimed him for life, and
made him incapable of working as a shipwright. He fell into a dry-
dock and broke one of his thigh-bones, at the same time dislocating
the joint. Whether the fracture was neglected or not we do not
know; but, from some cause or other, poor Pounds went lame ever
after. From the art of making ships he was now fain to turn to that
of making shoes, and finding an old man in High Street, Portsmouth,
who was willing to give the needful instruction, John Pounds, at the
age of fifteen, became a shoemaker. Indeed, he would scarcely have
claimed that title of dignity for himself; for his chief thoughts were
given to other affairs, so that he was never an adept at his craft, and
would in all probability have preferred to be set down as “only a
cobbler.” It was not until 1804, when Pounds was thirty-eight years
of age, that “he ventured to become a tenant on his own account of
the small, weather-boarded tenement in St. Mary’s Street.” It was in
this humble abode that John Pounds lived and worked and carried
on his benevolent labors for thirty-five years. The room appears to
have been about the size and shape of an open third-class railway
carriage, and the entire tenement had more the appearance of a
shanty or hut than an ordinary dwelling-house. Yet it was amply
sufficient for the poor cobbler’s purposes, and served as the field of
operations in all his benevolent enterprises.
Pounds lived alone in his snug little home; and as his earnings,
though small, were more than enough to meet the requirements of a
bachelor, he felt it right to do something to assist his poor relatives.
He had a brother—a seafaring man—whose family was large and
stood in need of assistance. John accordingly proposed to take one
of his brother’s children and clothe, board, and educate him as if he
had been his own. With characteristic generosity of spirit, he
selected a poor little fellow who was a cripple. The child’s feet turned
inward, and, as he walked, he had to lift them one over another. The
tender-hearted cobbler could not endure to see the deformity, and
soon devised the means of remedy. A neighbor’s child who suffered
in the same way had been provided by a surgeon with a set of irons
which straightened his feet and enabled him to walk properly.
Unable to purchase irons for his own little charge, Pounds set to
work to construct something in lieu of them to answer the same
purpose. His apparatus, made out of old shoe soles, answered
admirably, and he soon had the gratification of seeing the little
fellow entirely cured of his defect. This boy grew up under his
uncle’s care, was put apprentice to a fashionable shoemaker, and
lived with Pounds till the time of his death.
When his nephew was old enough to begin to learn to read, John
Pounds resolved to do the work of a schoolmaster himself; and,
thinking that his little pupil would get on better if he had a
companion, he began to look round for some one to share the
benefit of his instructions. He selected a poor little urchin, “the son
of a poor woman who went about selling puddings, her homeless
children, unable to accompany her, being left in the open street amid
frost and snow, with no other shelter than the overhanging shade of
a bay-window.”[54] Other pupils were added in course of time, and
the shoemaker soon began to take great delight in the work of
teaching. It was not very difficult in Portsmouth to find plenty of
children whose education and training were entirely neglected by
their parents, and who were suffered to run about the streets in the
most ragged and destitute condition. The sight of these children
moved him to pity; and, once embarked on the enterprise of
reforming and teaching them, Pounds could not rest content with
having half a dozen or a dozen of them under his care, but went on
gathering them into his room until he had, in the later years of his
life, an average of forty poor children under his charge at a time. He
loved his work all the more because it was entirely gratuitous, and
because he knew that if these poor children were not thus taught
they would never be taught at all, but grow up in ignorance, misery,
and vice. No amount of pains, self-sacrifice, and anxiety was too
much for this true disciple of Christ to pay for the satisfaction of
doing such children good, and enriching and ennobling all their
future lives.
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