Linguistics

 Etymology the study of origin and history of a word. Greek (etymon “original
form”logia “study of”).
 Coinage the invention of totally new terms. Names for commercial
products that become general terms. Xerox, aspirin.
 Eponyms new words based on the name of a person or a place. Hoover,
sandwich, jeans, Fahrenheit.
 Borrowing the taking over of words from other languages. Croissant
(French), piano (Italian), pretzel (German), sofa (Arabic), tattoo(Tahitian),
yogurt (Turkish), zebra(Bantu).
 Loan translation or Calque is a special type of borrowing. In this process
there is a direct translation of the elements of a word into the borrowing
language. Perros calientes dog hot, hot dog.
 Compounding there is a joining of two separate words to produce a single
form. Bookcase, textbook, wallpaper, fast food, low paid
 Blending the combination of two separate forms to produce a single new
term taking only the beginning of one word and joining it to the end of the
other word. Smoke and fog (smog), binary/digity (bit), motor/hotel (motel),
Spanish/English (Spanglish), teleprinter/exchange (telex).
 Clipping occurs when a word of more than one syllable is reduced to a
shorten form. Facsimile (fax), gasoline (gas), fanatic (fan), telephone
(phone), doctor (doc).
 Hypocorisms a longer word is reduced to a single syllable then “y” or “ie” is
added to the end. Telly (television), brekky (breakfast), comfy
(comfortable).
 Backformation a word of one type is reduced to form a word of another
type. Television (televise), donation (donate) emotion (emote), worker
(work), editor (edit), sculptor (sculpt).
 Conversion a change in the function of a word. For example when a noun
comes to be used as a verb. Butter (buttered the toast), vacation
(vacationing in Florida), party (parties).verbs becoming in adjectives see-
through. Verbs becoming in nouns guess, must, spy, phrasal verbs print
out.
 Acronyms are new words formed from the initial letters of a set of other
words CD(compact disk) VCR(video cassette recorder) NASA UNESCO
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 Derivation Affixes: small bits of English language. Prefixes: affixes added
to the beginning of the word. Suffixes: affixes added to the end of the
word. Infixes: is an affix incorporated inside another word.
Hallebloodylujah, absogoddamlutely, singabloodypore.
 Multiprocesses more than one process in the creation of a word. Deli
delicatessen(borrowing and clipping), snowballed (compounding and
conversion), Waspish (acronym and suffix)
 Morphology the study of basic forms in language.
 Morphemes: a minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function.
 Free morphemes: morphemes that can stand by themselves as single
words. Open, tour, but, near
When free morphemes are used with bound morphemes attached the
basic words forms are known as stems. Undressed
Pref stem suf
Bound free bound
 Bound morphemes are forms that cannot stand alone and are attached to
another form. Re, -ist,-ed,-s. All affixes in English are bound morphemes.
 FREE MORPHEMES are divided in two categories:
 Lexical morphemes: a set of nouns, adjectives and verbs, words that carry
the content of the message we convey. Girl, man, house, open, long.
We can add new lexical morphemes to the language so they are
described as an open class of words.
 Functional morphemes: this set consists of the functional words in the
language such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns: and,
but, on, near, the, them, it. We never add new functional morphemes to
the language; they are described as a closed class of words.
 BOUND MORPHEMES are divided in two categories:
 Derivational morphemes: we use these morphemes to make new words or
to make words of a different grammatical category from the stem. ness
change the adjective good to the noun goodness. Derivational morphemes
include suffix-ish, ly, ment; and prefixes re, pre, ex, miss, co, un.
 Inflectional morphemes: these are used to indicate aspects of the
grammatical function of a word. Inflectional morphemes are used to show
if a word is plural or singular, if it is past tense or not, and if it is
comparative or possessive form. English has 8 inflectional morphemes:
`s possessive and –s plural are attached to nouns. there are 4 inflections
attached to verbs –s 3rd person singular, -ing present participle,-ed past
tense and en past participle. There are 2 inflections attached to
adjectives:-est superlative and er comparative. All inflectional morphemes
are suffixes.
 Morphs the actual forms used to realize morphemes. The form cars
consists of two morphs cars, a lexical morpheme and an inflectional
morpheme(plural) ,buses buses
 Allomorphs are s, es, zero (plurals irregulars man men). A group of
diffent morph, all version of one morpheme. Zero morpheme when there
is a group of different morphs.
  Others languages: we attach a derivational morpheme to a stem then
add and inflectional morpheme mic (die) tia(cause to) s (future)
mictias (will kill).
 Kanuri karite (excellent) nᵊmkarite (excellence). The prefix nᵊm is a
derivational morpheme that can be used to derive nouns from
adjectives.
 Ganda omusawo (doctor) abasawo (doctors). Omu is an inflectional
prefix used with singular nouns and the inflectional prefix aba is used
with the plural of those nouns.
 Ilocano ulo (head) ululo (heads) there is a repetition of the first part of
the singular form. this process is known as reduplication(repeating all or
part of a form)
 Tagalog basa (read) bumasa (read!) babasa (will read) um is inserted
after the first consonant It is an infix.The future in Tagalog is made by
reduplication.
 Semantics is the study of the meaning of words, phrases and sentences.
 Linguistics semantics deals with the conventional meaning convey by the
use of words, phrases and sentences of a language.
 Conceptual meaning covers those basic, essentials components of
meaning that are convey by the use of a word. Words as needle include
thin, sharp, steel instrument. These components are part of the conceptual
meaning of needle
 Associative meaning people have different association. They might
associate needle with pain, illness, blood, drugs.
 Semantic features the noun that can be the subject of the verb must
denote an entity that is capable of doing sth. animate, does not
animated, human, human, female, female women animate,human,
female.
 Semantics roles:
 Agent the entity that performs the action .the boy kicked the ball .The boy
is the agent.
Agents are typically human, they can be non-human. A natural force the
wind,the car, the dog
 Theme or patient the entity that is involved in or affected by the action.
The boy kicked the ball. The ball is the theme.
The theme can be an entity that is described. The ball is red
The theme is non human, but can be human. The dog chased the boy.The
same physical entity can appear in two different semantic roles in a
sentence. The boy cut himself
 Instrumenter if an agent uses another entity to perform an action it is an
instrument. He drew the picture with a crayon a crayon is a instrument.
 Location semantic roles designate where an entity is. On the table,in the
room.
 Sources where the entity moves from, from Chicago,
 Goal where the entity moves to, to New Orleans.
 Lexical relations:
 Synonymy: two or more words with very closely related meaning. They
can be substituted for each other in sentences. Big/large, car/automobile,
freedom/liberty.
Antonyms two forms with opposite meanings. They are divided between
into two types Gradable opposites along scale big/small, can be used in
comparative constructions. Non gradable direct opposite, complementary
pairs. Comparative constructions are not used. alive/dead, male/female,
married/single, true/false. Reversives enter/exit, pack/unpack,
lengthen/shorten, raise/lower, tie/untie.
Hyponymy: occurs when the meaning of one form is included in the
meaning of another. Animal/dog, vegetable/carrot, flower/rose. Dog is an
Hyponym of animal.
Creature
Animal insect: Superordinate higher level terms

Dog horse: co-hyponyms words that share the same superordinate term
Prototype the general idea which we have of the things. the prototypes
helps us explains the meaning of certain words. There is some general
patterns to the categorization process involves in prototypes. Birds has
feathers, has wings: a pigeon a penguin.
Homophones: occurs when two or more written forms have the same
pronunciation. Meat/meet, flour/flower, right/write, to/two/too.
Homonyms: occurs when one form written or spoken has two or more
meanings. Homonyms have the same form. In a dictionary homonyms
have two or more entries. Bank (of a river), bank (institution), pupil (at
school), pupil in the eye, race(speed), race(ethnic group).
Polysemy two or more words with the same forms and related meanings.It
is one form written or spoken having a multiple meanings that are all
related by extension. Head the object on top of your body, person at the
top of a company. foot of a person of a bed.In a dictionary a word has a
single entry with different meanings.
Metonymy a close connection that can be based on a container-contents
relation(bottle/water), a whole-parts relation (house/roof) or a
representative –symbol relationship (king/crown, President/white house).
 Neurolinguistics the study of the relationship between language and the
brain.
 Parts of the brain: right Hemisphere, left hemisphere. The most important
parts are in areas above the left ear.
 Broca`s area or the anterior speech cortex. Damage in this part of the
brain produce difficulty in producing speech. Paul Broca, a French
surgeon discovered this area in 1860.
Broca`s area is involved in the production of speech.
 Wernicke`s area or posterior speech cortex. Damage in this part of the
brain produces speech comprehension difficulties. Carl Wernicke, a
doctor discovered this area in 1870. Wernicke`s area is involved in the
understanding of speech.
 The motor cortex controls movements of the muscles. This area was
discovered by Penfield and Robert 1950.
 Arcuate fasciculus is a bundle of nerve fibers. This connect the
Wernicke`s area and Broca`s areas. This was also a Wernicke`s
discovery.
 The localization view The word is heard and comprehended via
Wernicke`s area. This signal is then transferred via the Arcuate fasciculus
to Broca`s area where preparations are made to produce it. A signal is
then send to part of the motor cortex to physically articulate the word.
 The tip of the tongue phenomenon is when we feel that some word is just
eluding us, that we know the word but it just won`t come to the surface. It
occurs with uncommon words and names. There are phonological
similarities between the word we`re trying to say and the mistake we
produce. speakers produce secant, sextet or sexton instead of sextant.
 Malapropisms: fire distinguisher for extinguisher. “Near misses”.
 Slips of the tongue: shory stort instead of short story
 Spoonerisms The interchange of two initial sounds you have hissed all my
mystery lectures. A Sound carried over from one words to the next. Black
bloxes for black boxes.tup of tea
 Aphasia: an impairment of language function due to localized brain
damage that leads to difficulty in understanding or producing linguistic
forms.
 Broca`s aphasia language disorder characterized by a reduced amount of
speech, distorted articulation and slow speech. Omission of functional
morphemes: articles, prepositions and inflections plural –s, -ed. I eggs
and eat and drink coffee breakfast.
 Wernicke`s aphasia language disorder in auditory comprehension. People
can produce very fluent speech but is difficult to make sense of.
 Conduction aphasia damage to the arcuate fasciculus. People
mispronounce words, but do not have articulation problems.
 Dichotic listening test is a technique that has demonstrated a left
hemisphere dominance for syllables and word processing. Anything
experienced on the right-hand side of the body is processed in the left
hemisphere and anything on the left side is process in the right
hemisphere.
Non verbal sounds (music, birds singing) are recognized more often via
the left ear, meaning they are processed more often via the right
hemisphere.
The left hemisphere specializes in language sounds.
 The critical period occurs during the childhood, when the human brain is
most ready to receive input and learn a particular language
 Discourse analysis includes how we make sense of what we read, how
we can recognize well-constructed texts, how we understand speakers
who communicate more than they say, and how we take part in
conversation.
It is concerned with the study of language in text and conversation.
 Discourse is language beyond the sentence.
 Cohesion ties and connections that exist within texts. Words that maintain
reference father, he, my. That convertible, the car.
 Coherence