Lesson 2 - Methods of Philosophizing

Determining
the
Truth
How c an I know
the truth?
 TODAY'S DISCUSSION:

TRUTH AND KNOWLEDGE REASONING / INFERENCE

1.1 Truth, Fact, and Opinion 2.1 What is reasoning?

1.2 Theories of Truth 2.2 Informal Fallacies

I.

ON TRUTH
Truth (Gk.aletheia) means
"unconcealedness" or "disclosure"
 TRUTH, FAC T, AND OPINION
1.1
Truth Opinion
a proposition a judgment based on personal
believed to be the absolute reality. convictions, which may or may not
be factual, truthful, or false.

Fact
a piece of information
having objective reality which is acknowledged by the greater whole.
 Consider a delinquent student, for example.Many
teachers detest the student for his/her slackness –
absencesin class, missing projects, and constant
failures inexams.It is a fact that this particular

Case
student is indeedslack, for many evidencesupport the
said allegation. However, in a sense, this cannot also
bethe truth. The said student couldbeexperiencing
challenges at home; difficulties in copingwith the class;
or having personality disorders whichmakehim/her
delinquent in school.Therefore, the fact that the
student is a slack mayor may not bethe truth at all.
 EXAMPLES

Fact Opinion Truth

One foot is All menare 1+1=2
twelve inches created equal
Burj Khalifa is Cheating is 2 is a prime number
the tallest wrong The sum of 2 odd
buildingin the We will all
world succeedin this number is even.
Manila is the life.
capital city of
Ph
Theories of Truth Correspondence
Theory

Example:
"Birds can fly."
2 THEORIES OF TRUTH
1 based on his/her
statements’ coherence

CoherenceTheory
to a certain set of
established beliefs.

A proposition is true
if it is consistent with a system of other For example:
propositions considered true. “pigs are uncleananimals” is true
to the Muslimcommunity.

2
3 puts premium to the a possibility of different
“truths” from different
culture of a person and
perspectives.
his/her set of beliefs as
imposed by the society.
 3 THEORIES OF TRUTH

PRAGMATIC THEORY

A proposition is true
if it is useful.

Linkedthe nature of truth with the

principle of action and the concept of
Judgment must becontinually verified utility.
and validated byhaving closeencounter
and interaction with the world.
Example: Concept of prayer as beneficial.
II.

REASONING / INFERENCE
Assignment

Short Reporting
Fallacies (20 points)

Instructions:
1.The class will be divided into 4 groups.
2. Each of the group will be assigned
with 2 fallacies.
3.Content of the report:
a. Definition of fallacies assigned
b. Three examples each
4. Duration of report: 10 minutes
5.Rubric: Accuracy (10 points), Creativity
& Presentation (10 points)
Assignment

Assigned Topics
Group 1 Group 2
Appeal to force Appeal to popular opinion
Appeal to pity Appeal to tradition

Group 3 Group 4
begging the question fallacy of composition
fallacy of equivocation fallacy of division
2.1

Reasoning
the process of knowing or establishing truth by
means of reason
2.2 REASONING/FALLACIES

Fallacies Informal
Fallacies
errors or mistakes in
reasoning
aka material fallacies
errors inreasoningduesolelyto an
anomalyor defect inthe content (or
inthe meaning of words or
sentences)of anargument
I n f o r m a l Fallacies
1

Ad hominem
attacking the individual
person instead of the argument

“You are irritatingly ugly, that is why you

cannot be promoted.”
2

Appeal to force
Telling the hearer that something bad will
happen to him/her if s/he does not accept the
argument
“You have to pass this text message to
10 people or else you receive bad luck.”
3

Appeal to pity
Urging the hearer to accept the argument based
upon an appeal to emotions, sympathy, etc.

“I cannot take the exam. You have to

consider my dog just died.”
4

Appeal to popular opinion

Urging the hearer to accept a position because
majority of the people hold to it

“Everybody wants him/her to be president;

we should support him/her too.”
5

Appeal to tradition
Trying to get someone to accept something because
it has been done or believed for a long time

“We have been doing this since time immemorial,

therefore this is the right thing to do.”
6

Begging the question

Assuming the thing that you are trying to prove is
true

"I am pretty because my mom said I am pretty,

and I believe her.”
7

Fallacy of composition
Assuming that what is
true of the part is true to the whole

“Hydrogen (H) is air. Oxygen (O) is air.

Therefore, H2O is air.”
8

Fallacy of Division
Assuming that what is
true of the whole is true for the parts

“Her entire family is a family of beauty queens.

I’m sure she will be a beauty queen too.”
9

Fallacy of Equivocation
Using the same term in an argument in different
places but the word has different meanings.

“Her grandmother loves to eat apples, but she is

the apple of the eye of her grandmother. I’m
sure her grandmother will have a hard time
eating her.”
 Reflection time!
What three concepts have you
learned so far? Explain them.

End of Lesson 2!
Questions are welcome!