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 Chapter 8 Internal Flow

Solutions Manual for

Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals and Applications

Third Edition

Yunus A. Çengel & John M. Cimbala

McGraw-Hill, 2013

Chapter 8
Internal Flow

PROPRIETARY AND CONFIDENTIAL

This Manual is the proprietary property of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

(“McGraw-Hill”) and protected by copyright and other state and federal laws. By
opening and using this Manual the user agrees to the following restrictions, and if the
recipient does not agree to these restrictions, the Manual should be promptly returned
unopened to McGraw-Hill: This Manual is being provided only to authorized
professors and instructors for use in preparing for the classes using the affiliated
textbook. No other use or distribution of this Manual is permitted. This Manual
may not be sold and may not be distributed to or used by any student or other
third party. No part of this Manual may be reproduced, displayed or distributed
in any form or by any means, electronic or otherwise, without the prior written
permission of McGraw-Hill.

8-1
PROPRIETARY MATERIAL. © 2014 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use.
Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or
posted on a website, in whole or part.
 Chapter 8 Internal Flow

Laminar and Turbulent Flow

8-1C
Solution We are to compare pipe flow in air and water.

Analysis Reynolds number is inversely proportional to kinematic viscosity, which is much smaller for water than for
air (at 25C, air = 1.56210-5 m2/s and water =   = 0.89110-3/997 = 8.910-7 m2/s). Therefore, for the same diameter and
speed, the Reynolds number will be higher for water flow, and thus the flow is more likely to be turbulent for water.

Discussion The actual viscosity (dynamic viscosity)  is larger for water than for air, but the density of water is so
much greater than that of air that the kinematic viscosity of water ends up being smaller than that of air.

8-2C
Solution We are to compare the wall shear stress at the inlet and outlet of a pipe.

Analysis The wall shear stress w is highest at the tube inlet where the thickness of the boundary layer is nearly
zero, and decreases gradually to the fully developed value. The same is true for turbulent flow.

Discussion We are assuming that the entrance is well-rounded so that the inlet flow is nearly uniform.

8-3C
Solution We are to define and discuss hydraulic diameter.

Analysis For flow through non-circular tubes, the Reynolds number and the friction factor are based on the hydraulic
4 Ac
diameter Dh defined as Dh  where Ac is the cross-sectional area of the tube and p is its perimeter. The hydraulic
p
4 Ac 4D 2 / 4
diameter is defined such that it reduces to ordinary diameter D for circular tubes since D h   D.
p D

Discussion Hydraulic diameter is a useful tool for dealing with non-circular pipes (e.g., air conditioning and heating
ducts in buildings).

8-2
PROPRIETARY MATERIAL. © 2014 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use.
Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or
posted on a website, in whole or part.
 Chapter 8 Internal Flow
8-4C
Solution We are to define and discuss hydrodynamic entry length.

Analysis The region from the tube inlet to the point at which the boundary layer merges at the centerline is
called the hydrodynamic entrance region, and the length of this region is called hydrodynamic entry length. The entry
length is much longer in laminar flow than it is in turbulent flow. But at very low Reynolds numbers, Lh is very small
(e.g., Lh = 1.2D at Re = 20).

Discussion The entry length increases with increasing Reynolds number, but there is a significant change in entry
length when the flow changes from laminar to turbulent.

8-5C
Solution We are to discuss why pipes are usually circular in cross section.

Analysis Liquids are usually transported in circular pipes because pipes with a circular cross section can withstand
large pressure differences between the inside and the outside without undergoing any significant distortion.

Discussion Piping for gases at low pressure are often non-circular (e.g., air conditioning and heating ducts in buildings).

8-6C
Solution We are to define and discuss Reynolds number for pipe and duct flow.

Analysis Reynolds number is the ratio of the inertial forces to viscous forces, and it serves as a criterion for
determining the flow regime. At large Reynolds numbers, for example, the flow is turbulent since the inertia forces are
large relative to the viscous forces, and thus the viscous forces cannot prevent the random and rapid fluctuations of the
fluid. It is defined as follows:
a
VD
(a) For flow in a circular tube of inner diameter D: Re 
 b
VD h
(b) For flow in a rectangular duct of cross-section a × b: Re 

4 Ac 4ab 2ab
where Dh    is the hydraulic diameter.
p 2( a  b) ( a  b) D

Discussion Since pipe flows become fully developed far enough downstream, diameter is the
appropriate length scale for the Reynolds number. In boundary layer flows, however, the boundary layer
grows continually downstream, and therefore downstream distance is a more appropriate length scale.

8-3
PROPRIETARY MATERIAL. © 2014 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use.
Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or
posted on a website, in whole or part.
 Chapter 8 Internal Flow
8-7C
Solution We are to compare the Reynolds number in air and water.

Analysis Reynolds number is inversely proportional to kinematic viscosity, which is much smaller for water than for
air (at 25C, air = 1.56210-5 m2/s and water =   = 0.89110-3/997 = 8.910-7 m2/s). Therefore, noting that Re = VD/,
the Reynolds number is higher for motion in water for the same diameter and speed.

Discussion Of course, it is not possible to walk as fast in water as in air – try it!

8-8C
Solution We are to express the Reynolds number for a circular pipe in terms of mass flow rate.

Analysis Reynolds number for flow in a circular tube of diameter D is expressed as

V
VD m m 4m 
Re  where V  Vavg    and   m
  Ac   D 2 / 4   D 2 
D
Substituting,
VD 4mD
 4m 4m
Re    . Thus, Re 
  D 2   /    D  D

Discussion This result holds only for circular pipes.

8-9C
Solution We are to compare the pumping requirement for water and oil.

Analysis Engine oil requires a larger pump because of its much larger viscosity.

Discussion The density of oil is actually 10 to 15% smaller than that of water, and this makes the pumping requirement
smaller for oil than water. However, the viscosity of oil is orders of magnitude larger than that of water, and is therefore the
dominant factor in this comparison.

8-10C
Solution We are to discuss the Reynolds number for transition from laminar to turbulent flow.

Analysis The generally accepted value of the Reynolds number above which the flow in a smooth pipe is turbulent is
4000. In the range 2300 < Re < 4000, the flow is typically transitional between laminar and turbulent.

Discussion In actual practice, pipe flow may become turbulent at Re lower or higher than this value.

8-4
PROPRIETARY MATERIAL. © 2014 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use.
Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or
posted on a website, in whole or part.
 Chapter 8 Internal Flow
8-11C
Solution We are to discuss the effect of surface roughness on pressure drop in pipe flow.

Analysis In turbulent flow, tubes with rough surfaces have much higher friction factors than the tubes with smooth
surfaces, and thus surface roughness leads to a much larger pressure drop in turbulent pipe flow. In the case of
laminar flow, the effect of surface roughness on the friction factor and pressure drop is negligible.

Discussion The effect of roughness on pressure drop is significant for turbulent flow, as seen in the Moody chart.

8-12E
Solution We are to estimate the Reynolds number for flow through a
pipe, and determine if it is laminar or turbulent.

Assumptions 1 The water is at 20oC. 2 The discharge area is perfectly

round (we ignore the rim effects – there appear to be some protrusions
around the rim – three of them are visible in the picture).

Properties The density and viscosity of the water are  = 62.30 lbm/ft3,
and  = 6.733  10-4 lbm/fts, respectively.

Analysis We use the people to estimate the diameter of the pipe.

Assuming the guy in the blue shirt (who by the way is Secretary of the
Interior Dirk Kempthorne) is six feet tall, the pipe diameter is about 13.8 ft.
The average velocity is obtained from the given volume flow rate,

V 4V
Vavg  
A  D2

and the Reynolds number is estimated as

D  D 4V 4 V
Re  Vavg  
   D 2  D


 
4 62.30 lbm/ft 3  300, 000 gal/s   231 in 3 3
  1 ft 
  3.424  10  3.4  10
8 8
 
 
 6.733  104 lbm/ft  s 13.8 ft   1 gal   12 in 

where we give our final result to two significant digits. Since Re > 2300, this flow is definitely turbulent.

Discussion There is absolutely no doubt that this flow is turbulent! You can even see the unsteady turbulent
fluctuations in the photograph.

8-5
PROPRIETARY MATERIAL. © 2014 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use.
Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or
posted on a website, in whole or part.
 Chapter 8 Internal Flow

Fully Developed Flow in Pipes

8-13C
Solution We are to examine a claim about volume flow rate in laminar pipe flow.

Analysis Yes, the volume flow rate in a circular pipe with laminar flow can be determined by measuring the velocity
at the centerline in the fully developed region, multiplying it by the cross-sectional area, and dividing the result by 2. This
works for fully developed laminar pipe flow in round pipes since V  Vavg Ac  (V max / 2) Ac .

Discussion This is not true for turbulent flow, so one must be careful that the flow is laminar before trusting this
measurement. It is also not true if the pipe is not round, even if the flow is fully developed and laminar.

8-14C
Solution We are to examine a claim about volume flow rate in laminar pipe flow.

Analysis No, the average velocity in a circular pipe in fully developed laminar flow cannot be determined by simply
measuring the velocity at R/2 (midway between the wall surface and the centerline). The average velocity is Vmax/2, but the
velocity at R/2 is
 r2  3V
V ( R / 2)  V max 1  2   max , which is much larger than Vmax/2.
 R  r R / 2 4

Discussion There is, of course, a radial location in the pipe at which the local velocity is equal to the average velocity.
Can you find that location?

8-15C
Solution We are to discuss the value of shear stress at the center of a pipe.

Analysis The shear stress at the center of a circular tube during fully developed laminar flow is zero since the
shear stress is proportional to the velocity gradient, which is zero at the tube center.

Discussion This result is due to the axisymmetry of the velocity profile.

8-6
PROPRIETARY MATERIAL. © 2014 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use.
Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or
posted on a website, in whole or part.
 Chapter 8 Internal Flow
8-16C
Solution We are to discuss whether the maximum shear stress in a turbulent pipe flow occurs at the wall.

Analysis Yes, the shear stress at the surface of a tube during fully developed turbulent flow is maximum since
the shear stress is proportional to the velocity gradient, which is maximum at the tube surface.

Discussion This result is also true for laminar flow.

8-17C
Solution We are to discuss how the wall shear stress varies along the flow direction in a pipe.

Analysis The wall shear stress w remains constant along the flow direction in the fully developed region in both
laminar and turbulent flow.

Discussion However, in the entrance region, w starts out large, and decreases until the flow becomes fully developed.

8-18C
Solution We are to discuss the fluid property responsible for development of a velocity boundary layer.

Analysis The fluid viscosity is responsible for the development of the velocity boundary layer.

Discussion You can think of it this way: As the flow moves downstream, more and more of it gets slowed down near
the wall due to friction, which is due to viscosity in the fluid.

8-19C
Solution We are to discuss the velocity profile in fully developed pipe flow.

Analysis In the fully developed region of flow in a circular pipe, the velocity profile does not change in the flow
direction.

Discussion This is, in fact, the definition of fully developed – namely, the velocity profile remains of constant shape.

8-7
PROPRIETARY MATERIAL. © 2014 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use.
Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or
posted on a website, in whole or part.
 Chapter 8 Internal Flow
8-20C
Solution We are to discuss the relationship between friction factor and pressure loss in pipe flow.

Analysis The friction factor for flow in a tube is proportional to the pressure loss. Since the pressure loss along
the flow is directly related to the power requirements of the pump to maintain flow, the friction factor is also proportional
to the power requirements to overcome friction. The applicable relations are
m PL m PL
Wpump  and Wpump 
 

Discussion This type of pressure loss due to friction is an irreversible loss. Hence, it is always positive (positive being
defined as a pressure drop down the pipe). A negative pressure loss would violate the second law of thermodynamics.

8-21C
Solution We are to discuss whether fully developed pipe flow is one-, two-, or three-dimensional.

Analysis The geometry is axisymmetric, which is two-dimensional. However, since the velocity profile does not
change down the pipe axis, u is a function only of r, and thus the velocity is one-dimensional with respect to radial
coordinate r. Pressure, on the other hand, varies only with axial location x in fully developed pipe flow (ignoring the
hydrostatic pressure component, which acts independently of the flow component). So, the pressure is one-dimensional
with respect to axial coordinate x.

Discussion In the developing portion of the flow, u varies with x as well as with r, and thus the flow is two-dimensional
in the developing region.

8-22C
Solution We are to discuss the change in head loss when the pipe length is doubled.

Analysis In fully developed flow in a circular pipe with negligible entrance effects, if the length of the pipe is
doubled, the head loss also doubles (the head loss is proportional to pipe length in the fully developed region of flow).

Discussion If entrance lengths are not negligible, the head loss in the longer pipe would be less than twice that of the
shorter pipe, since the shear stress is larger in the entrance region than in the fully developed region.

8-8
PROPRIETARY MATERIAL. © 2014 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use.
Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or
posted on a website, in whole or part.
 Chapter 8 Internal Flow
8-23C
Solution We are to compare the head loss when the pipe diameter is halved.

Analysis In fully developed laminar flow in a circular pipe, the head loss is given by
2 2 2
LV 64 L V 64 L V 64 L V
hL  f   
D 2 g Re D 2 g V D /  D 2 g D D 2g

V V
The average velocity can be expressed in terms of the flow rate as V   . Substituting,
Ac D 2 / 4

64 L  V  64 4 LV 128LV

hL    
D 2 2g  D 2 / 4  D 2 2 gD 2 gD 4
 
Therefore, at constant flow rate and pipe length, the head loss is inversely proportional to the 4th power of diameter, and
thus reducing the pipe diameter by half increases the head loss by a factor of 16.

Discussion This is a very significant increase in head loss, and shows why larger diameter tubes lead to much smaller
pumping power requirements.

8-24C
Solution We are to explain why friction factor is independent of Re at very large Re.

Analysis At very large Reynolds numbers, the flow is fully rough and the friction factor is independent of the
Reynolds number. This is because the thickness of viscous sublayer decreases with increasing Reynolds number, and it
be comes so thin that the surface roughness protrudes into the flow. The viscous effects in this case are produced in the
main flow primarily by the protruding roughness elements, and the contribution of the viscous sublayer is negligible.

Discussion This effect is clearly seen in the Moody chart – at large Re, the curves flatten out horizontally.

8-25C
Solution We are to define and discuss turbulent viscosity.

Analysis Turbulent viscosity t is caused by turbulent eddies, and it accounts for momentum transport by
u
turbulent eddies. It is expressed as  t    u v    t where u is the mean value of velocity in the flow direction and
y
u  and u  are the fluctuating components of velocity.

Discussion Turbulent viscosity is a derived, or non-physical quantity. Unlike the viscosity, it is not a property of the
fluid; rather, it is a property of the flow.

8-9
PROPRIETARY MATERIAL. © 2014 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use.
Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or
posted on a website, in whole or part.
 Chapter 8 Internal Flow
8-26C
Solution We are to discuss the dimensions of a constant in a head loss expression.

V 2
Analysis We compare the dimensions of the two sides of the equation h L  0.0826 fL . Using curly brackets to
D5
mean “the dimensions of”, we have L  0.0826  1L  L3 t 1  L5  , and the dimensions of the constant are thus
2

0.0826  L1t 2  . Therefore, the constant 0.0826 is not dimensionless. This is not a dimensionally homogeneous
equation, and it cannot be used in any consistent set of units.

Discussion Engineers often create dimensionally inhomogeneous equations like this. While they are useful for
practicing engineers, they are valid only when the proper units are used for each variable, and this can occasionally lead to
mistakes. For this reason, the present authors do not encourage their use.

8-27C
Solution We are to discuss the change in head loss due to a decrease in viscosity by a factor of two.

Analysis In fully developed laminar flow in a circular pipe, the pressure loss and the head loss are given by
32 LV P 32 LV
PL  and hL  L 
D 2
g gD 2
When the flow rate and thus the average velocity are held constant, the head loss becomes proportional to viscosity.
Therefore, the head loss is reduced by half when the viscosity of the fluid is reduced by half.

Discussion This result is not valid for turbulent flow – only for laminar flow. It is also not valid for laminar flow in
situations where the entrance length effects are not negligible.

8-28C
Solution We are to discuss the relationship between head loss and pressure drop in pipe flow.

Analysis The head loss is related to pressure loss by h L  PL / g . For a given fluid, the head loss can be converted
to pressure loss by multiplying the head loss by the acceleration of gravity and the density of the fluid. Thus, for constant
density, head loss and pressure drop are linearly proportional to each other.

Discussion This result is true for both laminar and turbulent pipe flow.

8-10
PROPRIETARY MATERIAL. © 2014 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use.
Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or
posted on a website, in whole or part.
 Chapter 8 Internal Flow
8-29C
Solution We are to discuss if the friction factor is zero for laminar pipe flow with a perfectly smooth surface.

Analysis During laminar flow of air in a circular pipe with perfectly smooth surfaces, the friction factor is not zero
because of the no-slip boundary condition, which must hold even for perfectly smooth surfaces.

Discussion If we compare the friction factor for rough and smooth surfaces, roughness has no effect on friction factor
for fully developed laminar pipe flow unless the roughness height is very large. For turbulent pipe flow, however,
roughness very strongly impacts the friction factor.

8-30C
Solution We are to discuss why the friction factor is higher in turbulent pipe flow compared to laminar pipe flow.
Analysis In turbulent flow, it is the turbulent eddies due to enhanced mixing that cause the friction factor to be
larger. This turbulent mixing leads to a much larger wall shear stress, which translates into larger friction factor.
Discussion Another way to think of it is that the turbulent eddies cause the turbulent velocity profile to be much fuller
(closer to uniform flow) than the laminar velocity profile.

8-31
Solution The velocity profile for the flow of a fluid between two large parallel plates is given. A relation for the flow
rate through the plates is to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The flow is steady and incompressible.
Analysis

h
y

h
3Ub   y     y 2   y 
h h 2 1

 h
 0

V  U ( y )dA  U ( y )bdy  2 U ( y )bdy  2
2 
  h  
0  0

1    dy  3Ubh 1     d  
  h    h 
1 y / h

 y  y 3 1
V  3Ubh     
 h  h  3

0 y / h

 1   2
V  Ubh 1    0  3Ubh  2Ubh
 3   3

8-11
PROPRIETARY MATERIAL. © 2014 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use.
Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or
posted on a website, in whole or part.
 Chapter 8 Internal Flow
8-32
Solution Water flows in a reducing pipe section. The flow upstream is laminar and the flow downstream is turbulent.
The ratio of centerline velocities is to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The flow is steady and incompressible.
Analysis

V1  V2 ,  u dA   u dA
1
1 1 2 2

R1 R2
r12 r2 1 / 7

0
u1 (1 
R1 2
)2 r1dr1  u 2 (1 
0
R2
) 2 r2 dr2

1 1/ 7
 r  r   r   r  r2 r 

0

u1 1  ( 1 ) 2  1  d  1   u 2
R 1  R1   R1 
 1  2 
 R 2  R2
d  2
 R2



r1 r2

 x , 
 y
R2 R2
1/ 7

 x  x dx  u  1  y 
3
uu 2 y dy

R
1
 r2 
2 r dr   R1 2 u1
0

V1  u1 1  2

 R1 
 2
R2 1/ 7
 r  49 2
V1  
0
u 2 1 


R2 
2  r dr  u 2
60
R2

V1  V2
u1 49
 R12  u2 R2
2 60
2
u1  R2  49
  . 
u 2  R1  30
2
u1  4  49 16 8
  .  
u 2  7  30 30 15

8-12
PROPRIETARY MATERIAL. © 2014 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use.
Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or
posted on a website, in whole or part.
 Chapter 8 Internal Flow
8-33
Solution The average flow velocity in a pipe is given. The pressure drop, the head loss, and the pumping power are
to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The flow is steady and incompressible. 2 The entrance effects are negligible, and thus the flow is fully
developed. 3 The pipe involves no components such as bends, valves, and connectors. 4 The piping section involves no
work devices such as pumps and turbines.
Properties The density and dynamic viscosity of water are given to be  = 999.7 kg/m3 and  = 1.30710-3 kg/ms,
respectively.
Analysis (a) First we need to determine the flow regime. The Reynolds number of the flow is

VD (999.7 kg/m 3 )(0.9 m/s)(1.2  10 -3 m)

Re    826.1
 1.307  10 -3 kg/m  s Water
D = 0.12 cm
which is less than 2300. Therefore, the flow is laminar. Then the 0.9 m/s
friction factor and the pressure drop become
L = 15 m
64 64
f    0.07748
Re 826.1
2
L V 15 m (999.7 kg/m 3 )(0.9 m/s) 2 
 1 kN  1 kPa 

P  PL  f  0.07748  392 kPa
D 2 0.0012 m 2  1000 kg  m/s 2  1 kN/m 2 
 
(b) The head loss in the pipe is determined from
PL L V2 15 m (0.9 m/s) 2
hL   f  0.07748  40.0 m
g D 2g 0.0012 m 2(9.81 m/s 2 )
(c) The volume flow rate and the pumping power requirements are
V  VAc  V (D 2 / 4)  (0.9 m/s) (0.0012 m) 2 / 4  1.018  10 6 m 3 /s
 1000 W 
W pump  VP  (1.018  10 6 m 3 /s)(392 kPa )   0.399 W
 1 kPa  m 3 /s 
Therefore, power input in the amount of 0.399 W is needed to overcome the frictional losses in the flow due to viscosity.

Discussion If the flow were instead turbulent, the pumping power would be much greater since the head loss in the pipe
would be much greater.

8-13
PROPRIETARY MATERIAL. © 2014 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use.
Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or
posted on a website, in whole or part.
 Chapter 8 Internal Flow
8-34
Solution Air enters the constant spacing between the glass cover and the plate of a solar collector. The pressure drop
of air in the collector is to be determined.
Assumptions 1 The flow is steady and incompressible. 2 The entrance effects are negligible, and thus the flow is fully
developed. 3 The roughness effects are negligible, and thus the inner surfaces are considered to be smooth,   0. 4 Air is an
ideal gas. 5 The local atmospheric pressure is 1 atm.
Properties The properties of air at 1 atm and 45 are  = 1.109 kg/m3,  = 1.94110-5 kg/ms, and  = 1.75010-5 m2/s.
Analysis Mass flow rate, cross-sectional area, hydraulic diameter, average velocity, and the Reynolds number are

m  V  (1.11 kg/m 3 )(0.15 m 3 /s )  0.1665 kg/s Air

2 Glass cover 0.15 m3/s
Ac  a  b  (1 m)(0.03 m)  0.03 m
5m
4 Ac 4(0.03 m 2 )
Dh    0.05825 m
p 2(1  0.03) m

V 0.15 m 3 / s
V  5m/ s Collector plate
Ac 0.03 m 2
Insulation
VD h (5 m/s)(0.05825 m) 4
Re    1.664  10
 1.750  10 5 m 2 /s
Since Re is greater than 4000, the flow is turbulent. The friction factor corresponding to this Reynolds number for a smooth
flow section (/D = 0) can be obtained from the Moody chart. But to avoid reading error, we use the Colebrook equation,
1  / D 2.51  1  2.51 
 2.0 log     2.0 log 0  
f  3 . 7 Re f  f  16,640 f 
   
which gives f = 0.0271. Then the pressure drop becomes
L V 2 5m (1.11 kg/m 3 )(5 m/s) 2  1N  1 Pa 
P  PL  f  0.0271    32.3 Pa
D 2 0.05825 m 2  1 kg  m/s 2  1 N/m 2 
 
Discussion The friction factor could also be determined easily from the explicit Haaland relation. It would give f =
0.0270, which is sufficiently close to 0.0271.

8-14
PROPRIETARY MATERIAL. © 2014 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use.
Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or
posted on a website, in whole or part.
 Chapter 8 Internal Flow
8-35E
Solution The flow rate and the head loss in an air duct is given. The minimum diameter of the duct is to be
determined.
Assumptions 1 The flow is steady and incompressible. 2 The entrance effects are negligible, and thus the flow is fully
developed. 3 The duct involves no components such as bends, valves, and connectors. 4 Air is an ideal gas. 5 The duct is
smooth since it is made of plastic,   0. 6 The flow is turbulent (to be verified).
Properties The density, dynamic viscosity, and kinematic viscosity of air at 100F are  = 0.07088 lbm/ft3,  =
0.04615 lbm/fth, and  = 0.6512 ft2/s = 1.80910-4 ft2/s.
Analysis The average velocity, Reynolds number, friction factor, and the head loss relations can be expressed as (D is
in ft, V is in ft/s, Re and f are dimensionless)

V V 12 ft 3 / s
V  
Ac D 2 / 4 D 2 / 4
Air
VD VD D
Re  
 1.809  10  4 ft 2 / s 12 ft3/s

1  / D 2.51   
 2.0 log    2.0 log 2.51 
   Re f  L = 400 ft
f 3.7 Re f
   
L V2 L V2 400 ft V2
hL  f  50  f  f
D 2g D 2g D 2(32.2 ft/s 2 )
This is a set of 4 equations in 4 unknowns, and solving them with an equation solver gives

D = 0.88 ft, f = 0.0181, V = 19.8 ft/s, and Re = 96,040

Therefore, the diameter of the duct should be more than 0.88 ft if the head loss is not to exceed 50 ft. Note that Re > 4000,
and thus the turbulent flow assumption is verified.
The diameter can also be determined directly from the third Swamee-Jain formula to be
 4.75 5.2  0.04
 LV 2   9.4  L 
D  0.66  1.25  
  V   
  gh L   gh L  
 
0.04
  400 ft  
5.2

 0.66 0  (0.180  10 ft / s )(12 ft / s ) 
3 2 3 9 .4  
  (32.2 ft/s 2 )(50 ft)  
 
 0.89 ft

Discussion Note that the difference between the two results is less than 2%. Therefore, the simple Swamee-Jain relation
can be used with confidence.

8-15
PROPRIETARY MATERIAL. © 2014 by McGraw-Hill Education. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use.
Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or
posted on a website, in whole or part.
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Water Bailiff, one of the great officers of the city, whose business is to
prevent all encroachments on the river Thames; to look after the
fishermen for the preservation of the young fry, and to prevent their
being destroyed by the use of unlawful nets. For this purpose there are
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days in the week to attend the Lord Mayor. Maitland.

Watercock alley, East Smithfield.

Watergruel row, Hackney.

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Watermen, a company under the power and command of the Lord Mayor. For
the regulation of this fraternity several statutes have been made,
particularly on the second and third of Philip and Mary, when it was
enacted, among other things, that at the first court of Aldermen in
London, next after the first of March, eight overseers should be chosen
out of the watermen between Gravesend and Windsor, to keep order
among the rest.
That the Lord Mayor and Aldermen of London, and the justices of peace
within the counties adjoining to the river Thames, upon complaint of any
two of the overseers, or of any waterman’s master, have power, not only
to hear and determene any offence committed against this act; but to
enlarge any watermen unjustly confined by those overseers; but also to
punish the overseers themselves, in case they make an ill use of their
power.
That the court of Aldermen should assess the fares of watermen, which
being subscribed by two at least of the privy council, should be set up in
Guildhall and Westminster Hall, &c. and the waterman that takes more
than according to the fare so assessed, shall, for every such offence,
suffer half a year’s imprisonment, and forfeit 40s.
That any waterman withdrawing himself in time of pressing, shall suffer
a fortnight’s imprisonment, and be prohibited rowing any more on the
Thames for a year and a day.
Other regulations were made in the succeeding reigns, particularly in
that of William III. when for the better ordering and governing the
watermen, wherrymen and lightermen, on the river Thames, it was
enacted, that every lighterman, or owner, keeper, or worker of any
lighter, or other large craft on the Thames between Gravesend and
Windsor, shall be taken to be of the society, or company of wherrymen,
watermen and lightermen, who by this act are made a society, or
company under the direction of the court of Lord Mayor and Aldermen of
this city; who are thereby impowered annually to appoint eight persons
of the best character among the watermen, and three persons out of
twelve annually nominated by the lightermen; which eleven persons are
to be stiled, the overseers and rulers of all the wherrymen, watermen,
and lightermen, that shall use or exercise any rowing upon the river of
Thames between Gravesend and Windsor; in order to keep good order
among the watermen and lightermen.
By this act the rulers and assistants of the company are likewise enabled
annually on the first of June, to appoint and direct the watermen of the
principal towns, stairs, and plying places between Gravesend and
Windsor; and to chuse a free waterman who is a housekeeper, for each
of the said places, to be of their assistants, so that they do not exceed
the number of sixty, nor be less than that of forty; to which shall be
added nine lightermen, who together shall compose the number of
assistants of the said company.
These overseers are by the above act impowered to appoint any number
of watermen not exceeding forty, to ply and work on Sundays between
Vauxhall and Limehouse, at such stairs and plying places, being
seventeen in number, besides the two at Westminster, for carrying
passengers across the river Thames, for one penny each: the money
arising thereby, which annually amounts to about 1450l. including those
at Westminster, is by each of the working watermen to be paid every
Monday morning, to the order of the said rulers; who, after having paid
those watermen their proper wages, the surplus is to be applied to the
use of the poor of the company. The watermen of Westminster being
however exempt from the immediate direction of the watermens
company in this affair, they annually appoint their own watermen to ply
and work on Sundays, for carrying passengers across the Thames, from
and to Westminster bridge and Stangate, and the horse-ferry at
Lambeth; which money is applied to the use of the poor watermen, or
their widows, of St. Margaret’s parish.
It is also declared in the said act, that if the Lord High Admiral, or the
Commissioners of the Admiralty, shall at any time give notice to the
watermens company, that there is occasion for a certain number of that
company to serve on board the royal navy; then all such persons as shall
be duly summoned for that purpose, and shall not appear before the
overseers and rulers of that company, shall not only suffer imprisonment
for one month; but be rendered incapable of enjoying any privilege
belonging to the company for two years.
In the year 1701, an order was made by the court of rulers, auditors and
assistants of the company of watermen and lightermen of the river
Thames, observing, that several watermen and their apprentices, while
they are rowing upon that river, or at their plying places between
Gravesend and Windsor often use immodest, obscene, and lewd
expressions towards passengers, and to each other, that are offensive to
all sober persons, and tend to the corruption of youth, it is ordained,
that any waterman, or lighterman, after the sixteenth of October 1701,
convicted of using such expressions, shall forfeit 2s. 6d. for every such
offence, and if any waterman or lighterman’s apprentice shall offend in
the same manner, his master or mistress shall on his conviction, forfeit
the like sum; or in case of their refusal, the offender shall suffer such
correction as the rulers of this company shall think fit and necessary.
And that the forfeitures, when paid, shall be applied to the use of the
poor, aged, decayed, and maimed members of the company, their
widows and children.
By the constitutions of this company, all boats and barges belonging to
the several members thereof are obliged to be numbered and entered in
the company’s register; and to prevent the citizens from being imposed
upon, the following table of rates have been appointed by the court of
Lord Mayor and Aldermen to be taken by the respective watermen
rowing upon the river Thames, between Gravesend and Windsor.
Rates of Watermen plying upon the river Thames, either with oars, or
skullers.
Oars. Skul.
s. d. s. d.
From London Bridge to Limehouse, New
Crane,
Shadwell dock, Bell wharf, Ratcliff cross 1 0 0 6
From London Bridge to Wapping dock,
Wapping Old and
New-stairs, the Hermitage, or
0 6 0 3
Rotherhithe Church stairs
From St. Olave’s to Rotherhithe Church
stairs,
and Rotherhithe stairs 0 6 0 3
From Billingsgate and St. Olave’s to St.
0 6 0 3
Saviour’s mill
From any stairs between London bridge
0 6 0 3
and Westminster
From either side above London bridge to
1 0 0 6
Lambeth, or Vauxhall
From Whitehall to Lambeth, or Vauxhall 0 3 0 6
From the Temple, Dorset-stairs, Black
Friars stairs, or
Paul’s wharf, to Lambeth 0 8 0 4
Over the water directly, from any place
between Vauxhall
and Limehouse 0 4 0 2
Rates of oars up and down the river, as well for the whole fare as company.
Up the River.
Fare. Comp.
To Chelsea, Battersea, and Wandsworth 1 6 0 3
To Putney, Fulham, or Barnelms 2 0 0 4
To Hammersmith, Chiswick, or Mortlack 2 6 0 6
To Brentford, Isleworth, or Richmond 3 6 0 6
To Twickenham 4 0 0 6
To Kingston 5 0 0 9
To Hampton Court 6 0 1 0
To Hampton Town, Sunbury, or Walton 7 0 1 0
To Weybridge, and Chertsey 10 0 1 0
To Stanes 12 0 1 0
To Windsor 14 0 1 0

Down the River.

Fare. Comp.
s.
s. d.
d.
From London to Gravesend 4 6 0 9
To Grays, or Greenhithe 4 0 0 8
To Purfleet, or Erith 3 0 0 6
To Woolwich 2 6 0 4
To Blackwall 2 0 0 4
To Greenwich, or Deptford 1 6 0 3

Rates of carrying goods in the tilt-boat from London to Gravesend.

l. s.
d.
0 0
For every single person in the ordinary passage
9
0 2
For a hogshead
0
 0 0
For a whole firkin
2
0 0
For half a firkin
1
0 0
One hundred weight
4
0 0
One sack of corn, salt, &c.
6
0 0
An ordinary chest, or trunk
6
0 0
An ordinary hamper
6
1 2
The hire of the whole tilt-boat
6

Any waterman who takes more than the above rates is liable to forfeit
40s. and to suffer half a year’s imprisonment, and if he sets up a sail
between Lambeth and London Bridge, upon complaint being made, as
hereafter mentioned, forfeits 5s.
However any person going by water, need not make any bargain with
the waterman, but only let him know at what stairs he is to land him;
then paying him according to the foregoing rates, if he refuses to accept
the money, the best way is to offer him more money than he demands,
and to charge him not to take more than his due: But be sure to
remember the number of your waterman’s boat; for if he has taken more
than his fare, and you have a mind to correct him for imposing upon
you, you may go to Watermens hall, by the Old Swan-stairs, and
acquaint the clerk with your business (giving him at the same time the
number of the boat) who will summon the waterman to the hall, to
answer to your complaint: And if he is found to have acted against the
prescribed rules, he will be punished according to the nature of his
crime, whether it relates to exaction, sauciness, or other misbehaviour
towards you.
It is proper to add, that to prevent the losing the lives of persons
passing on the river, it is enacted in a statute of the 10th of George II.
that no tilt-boat, row-barge, or wherry, take at one time more than
thirty-seven passengers, and three more by the way; nor in any other
 boat or wherry more than eight, and two more by the way; nor in any
ferry-boat or wherry, allowed to work on Sundays, any more than eight
passengers, on pain of forfeiting for the first offence 5l. for the second
offence 10l. and for the third offence to be disfranchised for twelve
months from working on the river, and from enjoying the privileges of
the company: And in case any person shall be drowned, where a greater
number of passengers is taken in than is allowed, the watermen shall be
deemed guilty of felony, and transported as felons.
By the same statute it is also enacted, that every tilt-boat shall be of the
burthen of fifteen tons, and any other boat or wherry three tons; and
that no Gravesend boats or wherries with close decks or bails nailed
down, and not moveable, be navigated, tilt-boats only excepted, on the
penalty of 10l.
Any watermen or wherrymen who wilfully or negligently lose their tide
from Billingsgate to Gravesend, or from thence to Billingsgate, by putting
ashore for other passengers, or by waiting or loitering by the way, so
that the first passengers shall be set on shore two miles short of the
place to which they are bound; such passengers shall be discharged
from paying any thing for their passage.
The rulers of the watermens company are to appoint two or more
officers to attend, one at Billingsgate, at every time of high-water at
London Bridge, and the other at Gravesend at the first of flood; who
shall publicly ring a bell for fifteen minutes, to give notice to the tilt-
boats and wherries to put off. And if such wherrymen, &c. do not
immediately put off on ringing the said bell; and do not effectually
proceed on their voyage, but put on shore within two miles of
Billingsgate or Gravesend, as the case may be; or if such boats are not
navigated by two sufficient men, the youngest to be eighteen years old
at least; in every such case the owners of such boats shall forfeit 5l. to
be levied on the boats or goods of the owners of such boats.
And if the company of watermen neglect setting up the said bells, and
appointing proper persons to ring them, they shall forfeit 50l. as shall
such persons appointed to ring the said bells, forfeit 40l. for every
neglect.

Watermen’s Hall near London Bridge, a handsome brick building situated with
its front towards the Thames.
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Water street, 1. Arundel street: 2. Black Friars: 3. Bridewell Precinct.

Watford, a market town in Hertfordshire on the east side of Cashiobury,

and seventeen miles from London, is situated upon the Colne, where it
has two streams that run separately to Rickmansworth. The town is very
long but consists of only one street, which is extremely dirty in winter,
and the waters of the river at the entrance of the town, were frequently
so much swelled by floods as to be impassable: But in the year 1750,
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bounds. In the church are several handsome monuments; there are also
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Watling street, St. Paul’s church-yard; thus called from the Roman road of
the same name, which ran through this street. Maitland.

Wat’s alley, Long ditch.

Watson’s Almshouse, in Old street, near Shoreditch, was erected chiefly at the
expence of Mr. William Watson, citizen and weaver, for the widows of
twelve weavers, who annually receive 20s. and twenty-four bushels of
coals, with a gown every second year. Maitland.

Watson’s rents, Angel alley.†

Watts’s court, Deadman’s place.†

Watts’s rents, St. Catharine’s lane.†

Wax Chandlers, a company incorporated by letters patent granted by King

Richard III. in the year 1483. This corporation is governed by a master,
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Weatherby’s rents, Whitecross street Cripplegate.†

Weaver alley, near Spicer’s street, Spitalfields.

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to have been the most ancient guild of this city, for in the reign of Henry
I. they paid 16l. a year to the crown for their immunities. Their privileges
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Henry II. which are still in the company’s possession; but are without a
date; and in these letters, the annual sum payable to the crown is fixed
at two marks of gold, to be paid yearly at Michaelmas, on the penalty of
10l.
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who in the seventh of Henry IV. were put under the management, and
authority of the Lord Mayor and Aldermen of the city.
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assistants, with a livery of 279 members, whose fine upon their
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Weavers Arms yard, Booth street, Spitalfields.*

Weavers lane, Horselydown.†

Weavers street, Fleet street Spitalfields.

Webb’s court, Red Lion alley.†

Webb’s square, Shoreditch.†

Webb’s yard, Vine yard, Old Horselydown lane.†

Weddon street, Chancery lane, Fleet street.

Weigh-house, at the north-west corner of Love lane, entering into Little

Eastcheap. This house stands on the ground where the church of St.
Andrew Hubbard stood before the fire of London, at which time the
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King’s beam, foreign merchandize brought to London. It was under a
master, and four master porters, with labouring porters under them; who
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beam, and to carry them back.
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government of a company first incorporated by letters patent granted by
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company of copper miners of the principality of Wales: by which charter
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limitation. Maitland.

Well alley, 1. in the Minories: 2. near Tooley street, Southwark: 3.

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Well and Bucket alley, Old street.

Well and Bucket court, Old street.

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estate of the late Earl of Oxford, and thus named from Wellbeck his
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Wellclose square, by the upper end of Rosemary lane, by some called

Marine square, from the number of sea officers who live there. It is a
neat square of no great extent; its principal ornament is the Danes
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with trees, and surrounded by a handsome wall adorned at equal
distances with iron rails.
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appears to have understood ornaments, he has not been too lavish in
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has a considerable diminution in the upper stage, which has on each
side, a pediment, and is covered by a dome, from which rises an elegant
turret, supported by composite columns.

Well court, 1. Glean alley, Tooley street: 2. Queen street, Cheapside: 3.

Shoe lane, Fleet street.

Well yard, 1. Church-yard alley, Rosemary lane: 2. Little Britain.

Wells, a rivulet which anciently ran through a part of this metropolis, and
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springs uniting to supply its current. It afterwards obtained the name of
Turnmill brook, from certain mills erected upon it, by the Knights of St.
John of Jerusalem, which appellation is still preserved in a street of that
name called Turnmill street, through part of which this water took its
course, towards the bottom of Holbourn hill, and thence into the
Thames. Maitland.

Wells row, Islington.

Wells street, 1. Coverlid’s fields, East Smithfield.† 2. Great Jermain street.†

3. Hackney.†

Wells yard, 1. Mainhard street, near St. Giles’s Pound. † 2. Wells row,
Islington.

Wenches yard, in the Minories.||

Wentworth street, Petticoat lane, Spitalfields.†

Were’s row, Whitechapel.†

Westbury street, Wheeler street, Spitalfields.†

West court, Spitalfields market.

Westby’s Almshouse, on Hoxton causeway, was founded by Mrs. Mary Westby

of Bocking in Essex, widow, in the year 1749, for ten poor women.
Maitland.
Westerham or Westram, a neat well built market town, on the western borders
of Kent, situated about eight miles to the west of Sevenoaks. Near this
place, a very noble seat was begun to be built by a private gentleman;
but it was finished by the late Earl of Jersey, and called Squirries. The
house stands on a small eminence with respect to the front; but on the
back of the edifice the ground rises very high, and is divided into several
steep slopes; near the house are some woods, through which are cut
several ridings. On the other side the hill behind the house arise nine
springs, which, uniting their streams, form the river Dart, or Darent.

West Ham, a pleasant village, about a mile from Stratford in the Essex Road;
thus named from another Ham on the east called East Ham. Here are
the country houses of several wealthy citizens.

West Harding street, Fetter lane, Fleet street.

West lane, Rotherhith wall.

West lane stairs, Rotherhith.

Westminster, had its name from its abbey or minster situated to the
westward of the city of London; which according to several modern
historians was thus denominated to distinguish it from the Abbey of
Grace on Tower Hill, called Eastminster: but Maitland proves this to be a
mistake, by shewing that the former is called Westminster in a charter of
sanctuary granted by Edward the Confessor in the year 1066, and that
the latter was not founded till 1359; he therefore supposes that the
appellation of Westminster was given to distinguish it from St. Paul’s
church in the city of London. In early times, this noble part of the great
metropolis of the kingdom, was a little, mean, unhealthy place, with
nothing worthy of notice but its minster or abbey, situated in a marshy
island, surrounded on one side by the Thames, and on the others by
what was called Long ditch; a branch of the river which began near the
east end of the place, where Manchester court is now situated,
intersected King street, and running along where Gardener’s lane now is,
to the place called from thence Long ditch, crossed Tothill street, a little
to the west of the Gatehouse, and continued its course along
the south wall of the abbey garden, where a common sewer is erected
over it. The island thus formed was in a manner a waste over grown
with thorns and briars, and was thence called Thorny Island.
In this situation was the abbey, minster, or monastery founded; for the
convenience of which a few houses were probably first erected, and
these at length grew into a small town, in ancient books called the town
of Westminster.
It was thus for many ages a place entirely distinct from London, and
there was a large space between them. The Strand was the road which
led from London to that town, and it was open on either side to the
Thames and to the fields. In 1385 we find that this road was paved as
far as the Savoy; and many years after Sir Robert Cecil building a house
at Ivy bridge, his interest brought the pavement of the road to be
extended thither; and many of the houses of the nobility were erected in
the Strand.
Westminster owed its most distinguished privileges to Henry VIII. for in
the 37th year of his reign an act was passed to authorize him by either
letters patent or proclamation, to make it an honour, a title of distinction
which he was impowered by the same act to confer upon Kingston upon
Hull, St. Osyth’s in Essex, and Donnington in Berkshire; and after the
dissolution of the monastery, he converted it into a bishoprick, in the
year 1541, with a dean and twelve prebendaries, and appointed the
whole county of Middlesex, except Fulham, which was still to belong to
the bishoprick of London, as its diocese. Upon this occasion Westminster
became a city, for the making of which, according to the Lord Chief
Justice Coke, nothing more is required than the appellation of a bishop’s
see. It had many years before been the seat of the royal palace, the
high court of parliament, and of our law tribunals; most of our
Sovereigns had been crowned, and had their sepulchres in the abbey
church, and the ancient palace, being almost destroyed by fire, the last
mentioned Prince had here his palace of Whitehall, which he purchased
of Cardinal Wolsey. He also built the palace of St. James’s, inclosed a
fine spot of ground which he converted into a park, for the
accommodation of both palaces, and this was no sooner finished, than
he erected the stately gate lately near the banquetting house, and added
to it a magnificent gallery for the accommodation of the royal family, the
nobility and gentry, to sit in, in order to see the justings and other
military exercises in the tilt yard; and soon after the same Prince
erected, contiguous to the said gate, a tennis-court, cock-pit, and places
for bowling.
From that time the buildings about Westminster began to extend on
every side; though it did not long enjoy the honour of being a city, and
even the palace was some time after burnt; for it never had but one
bishop, and he being translated to the see of Norwich, by Edward VI. in
1550, the new bishoprick was dissolved by that Prince; and its right to
the epithet of city was thereby lost, though by public complaisance it has
retained that name ever since: but yet Westminster had not any arms till
the year 1601. For a more particular account of the antiquities of
Westminster, see the articles Abbey, Westminster Hall, Whitehall, &c.
The city of Westminster at present consists but of two parishes, St.
Margaret’s and St. John the Evangelist; but the liberties contain seven
parishes, which are as follow: St. Martin’s in the fields, St. James’s, St.
Anne’s, St. Paul’s Covent Garden, St. Mary le Strand, St. Clement’s
Danes, and St. George’s Hanover square; and the precinct of the Savoy.
Each of the above parishes is of such a prodigious extent, considering
the number of houses they contain; that it would be impossible for one
tenth part of the inhabitants to attend divine worship at one and the
same time, there are therefore many chapels of ease for the
convenience of those who could not be so well accommodated in their
parish churches.
The government of both the city and liberties are under the jurisdiction
of the dean and chapter of Westminster, in civil as well as ecclesiastical
affairs, and their authority also extends to the precinct of St. Martin’s le
Grand, by Newgate street, and in some towns of Essex, that are
exempted from the jurisdiction of the Bishop of London, and the
Archbishopric of Canterbury: but the management of the civil part has
ever since the reformation been in the hands of laymen, elected from
time to time, and confirmed by the dean and chapter.
Of these magistrates, the principal is the High Steward, who is usually
one of the prime nobility: this great officer is chosen by the dean and
chapter; his post is not unlike that of chancellor of an University, and he
holds it during life: but upon his death or resignation, a chapter is called
for the election of another, in which the dean sits as high steward, till the
election be over.
The next great officer is the Deputy Steward, who is chosen by the high
steward, and confirmed by the dean and chapter. This officer, who also
holds his post during life, supplies the place of a sheriff, for he keeps the
 court leet, with the other magistrates, and is always chairman at the
quarter sessions.
The High Bailiff, who is the next in rank, is nominated by the dean, and
confirmed by the high steward. He likewise holds his office for life, and
has the chief management in the election of members of parliament for
Westminster, and all the other bailiffs are subordinate to him. He
summons juries, and in the court leet sits next to the deputy steward. To
him all fines, forfeitures and strays belong, which renders his place very
beneficial; but it is commonly executed by a deputy well versed in the
laws.
There are also sixteen burgesses and their assistants, whose office in all
respects resembles that of the Aldermen’s deputies of the city of London,
each having his proper ward under his jurisdiction; and out of these are
elected two head burgesses, one for the city, and the other for the
liberties, who take place in the court leet, next to the head bailiff.
There is also a High Constable, who is also chosen by the court leet, and
has all the other constables under his direction.
Thus the government of Westminster has but little resemblance to that
of an opulent and noble city; it being much more like that of a little
country borough, since its representatives are chosen by its
householders, and it has not the power of making freemen; has no
trading companies; nor any other courts, besides those of the leet, the
sessions, and a court of requests lately erected, and yet, according to
Maitland, it contains 15,445 houses; many of which are laid out in
handsome streets and squares, and pays annually 11,870l. 8s. 9d. on
account of the church; and 20,723l. 17s. 3d. on account of the poor.
Besides the above officers, there are in Westminster, and its liberties, 52
inquestmen, 12 surveyors of the highways, 55 constables, 31 beadles,
236 watch-men, and 80 scavengers, who pay to the rakers 4127l. per
annum for cleaning the streets.

Westminster Bridge. The horse-ferry at Westminster was perhaps one of the

most frequented passages over the river of Thames, ever since
the building of London Bridge, and laying aside the ancient ferry there.
From the multitude of coaches, carriages and horses continually passing
and repassing at all hours, times, and seasons, many inconveniences
and accidents unavoidably happened, and in a course of time many lives
were lost. To prevent these inconveniences and dangers the Archbishop
of Canterbury and several other noblemen, in the year 1736, procured
an act of parliament for building a bridge across the Thames, from New
Palace yard, to the opposite shore in the county of Surry: but this act
was not obtained without great opposition from the people of London
and Southwark, and some fainter efforts used by the bargemen and
watermen of the Thames; but private interest was obliged to give way to
the public advantage, and preparations were made for carrying on this
great work under the sanction of the legislature.
At length the ballastmen of Trinity house were employed to open a large
hole for the foundation of the first pier to the depth of five feet under
the bed of the river, and this being finished and levelled at the bottom, it
was kept to a level by a proper inclosure of strong piles. Mean while, a
strong case of oak, secured and strengthened with large beams, was
prepared of the form and dimensions of the intended pier in the clear;
this was made water proof and being brought over the place, was
secured within the piles.
In this wooden case the first stone was laid on the 29th of January,
1738–9, by the late Earl of Pembroke; the case of boards was above the
high-water mark, and it sinking gradually by the weight of the prodigious
blocks of stone strongly cemented to its bottom, the men continued to
work as on dry ground, though at a great depth under water. Thus the
western middle pier was first formed, and in the same manner were all
the other piers erected, and when finished, the planks on the sides being
taken off, the stone work appeared entire. The superstructure was
added in the common method, and the whole finished in the most neat
and elegant manner, and with such simplicity and grandeur, that whether
viewed from the water, or more closely examined by the passenger who
goes over it, it fills the mind with an agreeable surprise.
This bridge is universally allowed to be one of the finest in the world. It
is adorned and secured on each side by a very lofty and noble
balustrade, there are recesses over every pier, which is a semioctogan.
Twelve of them are covered with half domes, viz., four at each end, and
four in the middle. Between these in the middle are pedestals on which
was intended a group of figures; this would greatly add to the
magnificence by making the centre more principal (which it ought to be)
and giving it an air of magnificence and grandeur suitable to the city to
which it belongs; a great number of lamps are so agreeably disposed on
the top of the recesses as at once to contribute to the purposes of use
and beauty. This magnificent structure is 1223 feet in length, and above
three hundred feet longer than London Bridge. The ascent at the top is
extremely well managed, and the room allowed for passengers, consists
of a commodious foot way seven feet broad on each side, paved with
broad Moor stone, and raised above the road allowed for carriages. This
last is thirty feet wide, and is sufficient to admit the passage of three
carriages and two horses on a breast, without the least danger.
The construction and distance of the piers from each other are so
managed, that the vacancies under the arches allowed for the water-
way, are four times as much as at London Bridge, and in consequence of
this, there is no fall, nor can the least danger arrive to boats in passing
through the arches. The piers, which are fourteen, have thirteen large
and two small arches, all semicircular. These with two abutments
constitute the bridge, whose strength is not inferior to its elegance.
The length of every pier is seventy feet, and each end is terminated with
a saliant angle against either stream. The breadth of the two middle
piers is seventeen feet at the springing of the arches, and contain three
thousand cubic feet, or near two hundred tons of solid stone; and the
others on each side, regularly decrease one foot in breadth, so that the
two next to the largest are each sixteen feet, and so on to the two least
next the sides, which are no more than twelve feet wide at the springing
of the arches.
The centre arch is seventy-six feet wide, and the others decrease in
width four feet on each side, so that the two next to the centre arch are
seventy-two feet wide, and so on to the least of the large arches, which
are each fifty-two feet wide, and the two small ones in the abutments
close to the shore, are about twenty feet in width.
The foundation of the bridge is laid on a solid and firm mass of gravel
which lies at the bottom of the bed of the river; but at a much greater
depth on the Surry, than the Westminster side; and this inequality of the
ground, required the heights of the several piers to be very different; as
some have their foundations laid at five feet, and others at fourteen feet
under the bed of the river. The piers are all four feet wider at their
foundation than at the top, and are founded on the bottoms of the
above mentioned wooden cases formed of the most substantial work,
eighty feet in length, twenty-eight in breadth, and these timbers are two
feet in thickness. The caisson or wooden case, in which the first pier was
built, contained an hundred and fifty loads of timber; and forty thousand
pound weight is computed to be always under water in stone and timber.

Westminster Bridge.

S. Wale delin. B. Green sc. Oxon.

Walton Bridge.

The materials are much superior to those commonly used on such

occasions: the inside is usually filled up with chalk, small stones, or
rubbish; but here all the piers are the same on the inside as without, of
solid blocks of Portland stone, many of which are four or five tons
weight, and none less than a ton, except the closers, or smaller ones,
intended for fastening the others, one of which has its place between
every four of the large ones. These vast blocks are perfectly well
wrought for uniting; they are laid in Dutch terrace, and also fastened
together with iron cramps run in with lead. All this iron work is however
entirely concealed, and so placed that none of them can be affected by
the water.
It is also worthy of remark, that the soffit of every arch is turned and
built quite through with blocks of Portland stone, over which is built and
bonded in with it, another arch of Purbeck stone, four or five times
thicker on the reins than over the key; and by this secondary arch,
together with the incumbent load of materials, all the parts of every arch
 are in equilibrio, and the whole weight so happily adjusted, that each
arch can stand single, without affecting, or being affected by the other
arches. In short, between every two arches a drain is contrived to carry
off the water and filth, that might in time penetrate and accumulate in
those places, to the great detriment of the arches.
Though the greatest care was taken in laying the foundation deep in the
gravel, and using every probable method to prevent the sinking of the
piers, yet all this was in some degree ineffectual, for one of them sunk
so considerably when the work was very near compleated, as to retard
the finishing it a considerable time. This gave the highest satisfaction to
those who had opposed this noble work: but the commissioners for
building the bridge, immediately ordered the arch supported by that pier,
on the side where it had sunk, to be taken down, and then caused the
base of the pier to be loaded with incredible weights, till all the
settlement that could be forced was made. After this the arch was
rebuilt, and has ever since been as secure as the rest.
In short the last stone was laid in November 1747, eleven years and nine
months from the beginning of the construction; a very short period,
considering the vastness of the undertaking, the prodigious quantity of
stone made use of, hewn out of the quarry, and brought by sea; the
interruptions of winter, the damage frequently done by the ice to the
piles and scaffolding, and the unavoidable interruptions occasioned twice
a day by the tide, which for two years together, reduced the time of
labour to only five hours a day. The expence of erecting this bridge, and
of procuring all the requisite conveniences was defrayed by parliament,
and amounted to 389,000l. which was raised by several lotteries.
This bridge, considered in itself, is not only a great ornament to this
metropolis, and of the most singular advantage to the city of
Westminster; but it has entirely changed the appearance of that city;
new and beautiful streets have been erected; those that were before
narrow, crooked and ill built, have been widened,rendered straight and
rebuilt with regularity and elegance. And new plans of improvement are
daily formed, and continually putting in execution.

Westminster Fire Office, in Bedford street, Covent Garden, was originally kept
at Tom’s coffee-house, in St. Martin’s lane; the deed of settlement was
executed on the 13th of February, 1717, and two days after was inrolled
in the high court of chancery. Maitland.
This office was erected for insuring only houses from fire, and, like the
Hand-in-Hand fire office, is a joint copartnership, every one insuring
becoming an equal sharer in the profits and loss, in proportion to his or
her respective insurance.
The conditions of insurance are,
I. No house is insured at more than 2000l. but such sums of money as
the directors, or any three or more of them shall think proper, may be
insured upon the wing or wings of any house, having a brick wall
between the wings and the body of the house, by a separate policy;
provided such sum do not exceed three fourths of the value of the
wings.
II. New houses may be insured when tiled in; but not at more than two
thirds of their value.
III. The limits of insurance in this office extend to twenty-five miles
distance from it; but the proprietors of all houses that are five miles, or a
greater distance, are to defray the charge of the surveyor and
messenger’s journey, to survey the premises, and set up the mark; and
also to defray the charge of the director’s journey to estimate a damage,
when and after such loss happens, and the directors are impowered to
deduct the charges out of the money due on such loss.
IV. All whose houses are insured pay 12s. deposit and 4s. per cent.
premium, on all brick houses, and double for all timber buildings; as a
pledge for the performance of their covenants, to be returned at the
expiration of their policies, with the yearly dividends of profits, incident
charges and contribution to losses first deducted. Persons paying for
each policy, besides the stamps; 4d. for all houses within, and 1s.
without the bills of mortality.
V. Each policy is to contain but one house, unless where two, three or
more small houses stand together, in which case 500l. may be insured
upon them, each being distinctly valued.
VI. Every insurance is for seven years; and such insurance is to continue
in force till six o’clock of the evening of that day seven years, on which
the same is dated; and in the mean time such insurers property in the
premises insured ceases, when such insurer or legal representative, may
receive the return of deposit due upon the respective policy or policies,
the same being delivered up to the office to be cancelled. But the
deposit-money on policies expired, not demanded within two years after,
is sunk to the society, and all policies either new or to be renewed,
directed to be made out and not taken away in three months after, are
cancelled. The earned money paid for such new policies is sunk; and the
stamp and charge of such renewed policies are deducted out of every
insurer’s deposit-money.
VII. Every house that is by reason of fire destroyed from the first floor
upwards, is deemed as demolished, and the directors are impowered
either to pay the money insured thereon within sixty days after notice
given to them at their office, or to rebuild the same with all convenient
speed; but no more than 30l. is allowed for any chimney piece destroyed
by fire; and gilding, history, painting and carving are excepted from the
insurance.
VIII. Every member, upon any loss, is to certify the same to the directors
within thirty days after such loss happened, that skilful persons may
view and report the same, and a rate of contributions be made thereon;
otherwise the society is not obliged to make good such losses.
IX. Every member neglecting to pay his rate towards any loss for twenty-
five days after publication in the Gazette, or otherwise, forfeits double
the said rates; and neglecting to pay these forfeits, for five days more,
forfeits all his right and deposit-money, and may be excluded by the
directors from the society, and the benefit of his insurance; his covenant
nevertheless, to abide in force.
X. Contributions to losses are dated annually, and every person insuring
in the same year contributes in proportion to his insurance, to the losses,
and receives a dividend of the profits of that year, arising from interest,
&c. also in proportion to the sum insured. Every year’s account
commencing on the first of October, and ending on the 30th of
September following: but the contribution of no member is to be
charged above 10s. per cent. for brick, and double for timber houses.
XI. If any house is insured in any other office at the same time it is
insured in this such insurance is void.
XII. Twenty-four firemen are employed by this office in extinguishing
fires, all of whom are cloathed by the office, and have badges bearing
the mark of the office, which is a portcullis, crowned with the Prince of
Wales’s coronet. Settlement of the Westminster contributionship.
Westminster Hall, was first built by William Rufus, as an addition to the
palace of Westminster, and that Prince at his return from Normandy kept
the high festival of Christmas in this room, which for several reigns was
used for great feasts, whenever our Kings entertained in a splendid
manner the nobility and clergy: of this we find many instances; but what
appears most remarkable, King Henry III. on New Year’s Day 1236, gave
a public entertainment to 6000 poor men, women and children
in this hall and the other rooms of the palace.

S. Wale delin. J. Green sc. Oxon.

Westminster Hall.

At length this great hall becoming very ruinous, it was rebuilt by Richard
II. in the year 1397, as it at present appears, together with the buildings
on the east and west sides; and it was no sooner finished than it
received the appellation of the new palace, to distinguish it from the old
palace, where the house of Lords and Commons at present assemble.
In the year 1399, the King kept his Christmas here, during which time
10000 persons were plentifully entertained in this spacious hall, and the
other rooms of the palace; for whose supply were daily killed about
eighty oxen, and three hundred sheep, besides a vast number of fowls.
It is still used for our coronation feasts; and for the three great courts of
 justice, the chancery, king’s bench, and common pleas, besides the court
of exchequer which adjoins to it.
The front of this hall is extremely narrow, it is built with stone in the
gothic taste, with a tower on each side the entrance, adorned with
abundance of carved work. The print represents this front. The hall itself
is esteemed the largest room in Europe unsupported by pillars, it being
270 feet in length and 74 broad. The roof is admired for the excellence
of the workmanship, and the sides contain a number of shops belonging
to booksellers, &c. It is paved with stone, and to the courts of justice at
the end is an assent by a flight of steps. The inside is most remarkable
for being so wide and having no columns to support a roof so large. It is
a regular Gothic, and gives us a good idea of the skill in architecture of
our fore fathers so early as the time of Richard II.

Westminster Hall court, Dunning’s alley, Bishopsgate street.

Westminster Infirmary, a plain neat building in James street, by Petty France,

Westminster; founded for the relief of the sick, and of those who suffer
by any of the unavoidable accidents to which the human frame is always
liable. This charitable and noble foundation was first set on foot on the
second of December, 1719, when the subscription was first opened, and
trustees appointed. Benefactions were soon procured, and several of the
most eminent Physicians and Surgeons not only became subscribers, but
generously offered their assistance gratis. About the beginning of April
1720, a house was taken in Petty France, and fitted up with all the
necessary accommodations for an infirmary; but it being soon
found too small to contain the number of miserable objects brought
thither, they four years after were removed to a larger house in Chapel
street, where they continued till the present edifice in James street was
erected.
The standing orders of this noble charity are as follow.
I. All persons who shall subscribe 2l. 2s. or more per annum, are
trustees of this charity: but any trustee or subscriber neglecting to pay
his subscription for the space of two years, is no longer deemed a
trustee or subscriber, or to have any vote or privilege till his arrears are
paid.
II. Every person giving a benefaction of 30l. or upwards, immediately
becomes a trustee.
III. Every person who, by will, bequeaths a legacy of 50l. or upwards,
may nominate another person, who, immediately after payment of the
said legacy, is deemed a trustee.
IV. Each trustee may have one in-patient and one out-patient at a time;
every person who becomes a subscriber of 2l. 2s. per annum, may have
two in-patients and four out-patients in a year, and every person who
becomes a subscriber of 1l. 1s. per annum, may have one in-patient and
two out-patients in a year; but the treasurer, physicians, and surgeons,
may have each two in-patients and two out-patients at a time, or four
out-patients.
V. No person is to act as a trustee during the time that he, or any other
person for his benefit, is employed as a tradesman, or appointed to work
for, or supply the charity with provisions, or any other commodity, nor for
the space of six months after his having been so employed.
VI. No person who has the venereal disease is to be admitted as a
patient: And if any such person shall obtain admission under pretence of
some other distemper; he or she, upon the discovery, is to be
immediately discharged.
VII. Four quarterly general boards are held every year; and the weekly
board, on the Wednesday after each quarter-day, is to appoint such
quarterly board, within forty days after each quarter-day, and to
nominate a committee of three, five, or more trustees, to prepare the
business to be laid before such board.
VIII. The weekly board may, as often as they see occasion, appoint
special general boards to be held (during the intervals between the
quarterly general boards;) and may call a special general board when
required by any seven trustees; giving notice in the summons of the
occasion of calling such special board.
IX. If a ballot be demanded by three or more trustees at any quarterly or
special general board, the chairman is to appoint a special general board
for taking the same, at any time after fourteen days, and not exceeding
twenty-one days, from the demand of such ballot; which is to begin at
eleven o’clock in the forenoon, and be closed at two in the afternoon:
And notice of such ballot, and the question on which it was demanded,
is to be given to the trustees in the summons, and be advertised in some
of the public papers.
X. All general boards are to consist of at least thirteen trustees.
XI. No standing order of this society is to be repealed, or altered, or any
new one be in force, without the approbation of two general boards.
XII. The treasurer is chosen annually at the first general board after the
general audit, proposed to the weekly board three weeks before his
election.
XIII. The accounts of this society are to be annually closed upon the
31st of December.
XIV. All bonds, or other securities, for money belonging to the society,
are secured in an iron chest under three different keys, kept by the vice-
president and treasurer for the time being, and a third person nominated
by a general board.
XV. The physicians, surgeons, apothecary, clerk, and matron, are
appointed by the general board; and no addition is to be made to the
salary of the apothecary, clerk, or matron, or any gratuity given them,
without the consent of a general board. The inferior servants of the
house, and tradesmen to be employed, are also appointed by the weekly
board: And any gentleman may be candidate for physician, who has
been educated, and taken his degrees in physick, in any university, or is
a fellow or member of a college of physicians, in Great Britain or Ireland.
A general board is to appoint the day for election of a treasurer,
physician, surgeon, apothecary, clerk, or matron; and the first weekly
board is to appoint a special general board to declare such vacancy by
death or resignation; and in the mean time, the weekly board is
impowered, in case of necessity, to employ such person or persons to
officiate as treasurer, physicians, surgeons, apothecary, clerk, or matron,
as occasion requires, till a proper person is chosen by a general board.
XVI. When any extraordinary operation in surgery is to be performed, all
surgeons, who are trustees, have liberty to attend.
XVII. Pursuant to the will of a considerable benefactor to this charity,
none but Protestants are at any time to be admitted into any service or
employ in or about this infirmary.
XVIII. A weekly board, consisting of as many trustees as please to
attend, meet at the infirmary every Wednesday; and have power, from
time to time, to make such rules, and give such instructions and orders,
as they find necessary for the immediate direction of the several officers,
 servants, and others, employed in this charity; for the admitting or
dismissing of patients; and regulating every thing relating to the good
management of the house: But no new order of the weekly board is to
be of force (if objected to by any two trustees present,) till it be
approved of by the majority at the next weekly board.
XIX. Two trustees are nominated every Wednesday, by the weekly board,
to be visitors for the ensuing week, who are to attend daily, and inquire
into the behaviour of the officers, servants, and patients, the quantity
and quality of the provisions, and every thing relating to the oeconomy
of the house; and these visitors have power to suspend any servant for
misbehaviour, and to reject such provisions as they shall find deficient or
improper, and provide others in their room, till they have made their
report to the next weekly board.
XX. All questions at every board and committee are decided by the votes
of the majority of the trustees present, and of the proxies for the ladies
who are trustees, such proxy being given in writing to some person who
is a trustee, and being entered in a book to be kept for that purpose by
the secretary. And the minutes of each board and committee are to be
signed by the respective chairmen.
XXI. It having been resolved that all subscriptions to this hospital are
payable in advance, upon the respective quarter days for the year then
to come; letters, signed by the chairman of every quarterly general
board, are to be sent to each subscriber whose subscription shall then
appear to have been three months due, according to the foregoing
resolution, to remind him of such arrear, and to request the payment of
it. From the orders published by the general board.

Westminster market, a very convenient and handsome market in King street.

Westminster school, or Queen’s college, Westminster, was founded by Queen

Elizabeth, in the year 1590, for the education of forty boys, who are
taught classical learning, and in the best manner prepared for the
university. Besides whom, a great number of the sons of the nobility and
gentry are educated there, which has rendered it one of the greatest
schools in the kingdom. Instead of one master, and an usher, as at first;
there are now an upper and under master, and five ushers, who have
about 400 young gentlemen under their tuition. Maitland.
Westmoreland court, 1. Bartholomew close, so called from the mansion of the
Earls of Westmoreland, formerly situated there: 2. Noble street, Foster
lane.

Weston’s rents, Houndsditch.†

West’s gardens, New Gravel lane.†

West Side alley, near Tooley street, Southwark.

West Smithfield. See the article Smithfield. The epithet West is never used
but to distinguish it from East Smithfield.

West street, 1. Soho: 2. Spitalfields market.

Weybridge, a village in Surry, four miles south-west of Hampton Court, took

its name from a bridge formerly erected here over the river Wey. About
this village are several fine seats, particularly those of the Earls of
Portmore and Lincoln. The former was beautified by the Countess of
Dorchester, in the reign of King James II. and has a fine walk of acacia
trees, which when first planted were esteemed great curiosities. Among
the advantages of the other, is a noble terrace walk, raised so high
above the neighbouring ground, as to afford a fine prospect of the
country and the river. For some farther account of both these seats. See
Oatlands and Ham Farm.

Whalebone court, 1. Bow lane, Cheapside: 2. Little Old Bailey: 3. Lothbury: 4.

Throgmorton street.

Wharton’s court, 1. Church-yard alley.† 2. Holbourn.† 3. Lambeth or Lambert

hill, Thames street.†

Wharton’s rents, New Gravel lane.†

Wheatsheaf alley, 1. Barnaby street, Southwark.* 2. Lambeth.* 3. Michael’s

lane, Thames street.*

Wheel yard, Stony lane.

Wheelbarrow alley, Rosemary lane.

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