May 2010, Volume 9, No.5 (Serial No.

83) Chinese Business Review, ISSN 1537-1506, USA

Socioeconomic and demographic analysis of occupational patterns

in Delhi slums, India*

Manishika Jain
(Planning Department, Hillsboro OR- 97124, USA)

Abstract: Slums are a major concern for the contemporary urban planners, especially in the developing world.
They typically represent an imbalance between migration into cities and economic growth of the city. For a long
time, governments have tried to improve the quality of life for the slum dwellers, with varying degree of success.
Such efforts understate the need to continually understand various aspects of the slum economics. This article is an
attempt to comprehend the socio-demographic and economic patterns of the population in slums of Delhi, India.
The study employs the use of field survey technique comprising of questions that tapped the education level,
income, gender and occupational status of the respondents. The sample consisted of 5053 participants and further
classified as working and non-working population. On the basis of the survey, the occupational patterns are
analyzed and classified at three different levels (macro, meso and micro). The study reveals high degree of positive
correlation between the education level, economic status and gender parity in the slums.
Key words: slums; occupational structure; gender disparity; urban planning

1. Introduction

1.1 State of slums: Global perspective

A slum is an area that combines one or many of the following characteristics: inadequate access to safe water,
inadequate access to sanitation and other infrastructure, poor structural quality of housing, overcrowding and
insecure residential status (UN-HABITAT, 2001).
Studies reveal that 924 million people or 31.6% of the world’s urban population live in slums. Slum dwellers
account for 43% of the urban population in the developing regions as compared to 6% of the urban population in
developed regions. In 2001, Asia had 554 million slum dwellers, or 60% of the world’s total. Projections for the
next 30 years reveal that the number of slum dwellers worldwide will increase to 2 billion if no firm action is
taken to remedy the situation (UN-HABITAT, 2001).
1.2 State of slums in India
In the Indian context, The Slum Areas (Improvement and Clearance) Act, 1956, defined slum areas as (1)
being in any respect unfit for human habitation, or (2) by reason of dilapidation, overcrowding, faulty
arrangement and design of such buildings, narrowness or faulty arrangement of streets, lack of ventilation, light or

*
Acknowledgement: The author would like to express the sincere gratitude to Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi for granting
the financial assistance to carry out this project. The heartfelt gratitude to Prof. Sudesh Nangia, Prof. Aslam Mahmood and Dr.
Dipendra Nath Das, Faculty at CSRD, JNU, New Delhi. The author would also like to thank the colleagues, who were constantly
there in the survey and the slum dwellers who cooperated with the author in providing the information.
Manishika Jain, Ph.D., Planning Department; research fields: urban development and planning, GIS and remote sensing, urban
finance and infrastructure, people’s participation, rural-urban linkages and socio-environmental issues.

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 Socioeconomic and demographic analysis of occupational patterns in Delhi slums, India

sanitation facilities or any combination of these factors, which are detrimental to safety, health or morals.
The population of slums accounted for 24.1% of urban cities with a population above one million in India
(Government of India, 2005a). According to 2001 census, 19% of the total population of Delhi lives in slums
(Government of NCT of Delhi, 2006). The studies of education in slum areas in India are confined mainly to
children’s survey focusing on a few slums (Banerjee, 2000). The educational disparity in the urban areas is
under-researched in India (Govinda, 2002). Urban poverty level was estimated at 50% in 1996 (Gupta & Mitra,
2002) in notified sample slums in Delhi. After 1980’s growth rate of migrants has also increased leading to
population explosion in the slums and also emergence of new slums.
1.3 Classification of slums in India
Notified slums: Where the slum is distributed in defined as pockets. In Delhi, the old city of Shajahanbad
(walled city) its extension and certain urban villages have been notified.
Unauthorized colonies: These are developed by private colonizers for profit without any regards to the
community facilities or basic amenities required for an individual plot. The present population in such colonies in
Delhi is nearly 20 lakhs.
Resettlement colonies: They are so called because under Slums Clearance Program (1969-1970),
municipality/Delhi Development Authority allotted small plots and developed them in a planned way. Many of
these have not yet been occupied and have living conditions where are even poorer than notified slums (Ali, 1991).
One surveyed as part of this research was Khayala. The residents of such colonies are allotted pattas (title deed for
a patch of land) for 5 to 7 years for Rs. 5,000 or Rs. 7,000 respectively and thereafter for a monthly rent of Rs. 6.
In Delhi there are 46 resettlement colonies with 15 lakh people.
Squatter/Jhuggi Jhopri Clusters (J. J. Clusters): These are built all over Delhi and are basically illegal. These
are conglomeration of houses built without a foundation on public land, on drain sides, on side of railway tracks,
on banks of Yamuna River, etc. Such houses are made of straw, mud, loose bricks, tin, wood, corrugated sheet etc.
They are haphazardly arranged and are worst among the worst in health and socio-economic status. Recent
estimates put the population of these J. J. Clusters to around 18 Lakh (Government of NCT of Delhi 2006).

2. Survey details

2.1 Surveyed slums

The research is based on the survey of below mentioned slums in Delhi covering a population of 5053 individuals:
z Khayala Resettlement Colony;

z Madanpur Khadar;

z Yamuna Pusta-Phase I and Phase II;

z Govind Puri (Notified Slum);

z Kusumpur Pahari (JNU Complex);

z Munirka Village (JNU Complex);

z Priya Kuli Camp (JNU Complex).

2.2 Survey methodology

The occupational analysis of slum dwellers in this research is based on the household survey conducted across
the seven slums of Delhi. The occupational structure of the slum dwellers is classified at three different levels:
z Macro-level classification: At this level the workers are classified into formal and informal occupational sectors;

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 Socioeconomic and demographic analysis of occupational patterns in Delhi slums, India

z Meso-level classification: At this level the workers are classified into secondary, tertiary and quaternary
economic sectors;
z Micro-level classification: At this level the workers are classified by occupation;

The occupational status of workers is further cross tabulated with respect to the following parameters:
z Educational level;

z Income level;

z Male-female participation or gender disparity: This is analyzed using Modified Sopher’s Index. Modified

Sopher’s index = log (X2/X1) + log (200-X2/200-X1), Where X2>X1 always and represent percent male and female
population (Sopher, 1974, 1980; Kundu & Rao, 1986).

3. Data analysis and results

3.1 Demographic analysis of the occupational patterns of Delhi slums

Population of the seven slums was classified into working and non-working and the percentage of workers
was calculated. The study includes a total 5053 individuals out of which 32.6% are engaged in economic activities.
The rest of the population is dependent on working population. Slums having better economic status show higher
work force participation, i.e., Khayala resettlement colony shows a work force of 37.4% as compared to
Govindpuri J. J. Cluster where the work force is only 28.4% as shown in Table 1.

Table 1 Work classification of the Delhi slum dwellers

Slums Working population Non-working population Total
Count 270 690 960
Govindpuri Within slum (%) 28.10 71.90 100.00
Within work group (%) 16.40 20.30 19.00
Count 453 762 1216
Khayala Within slum (%) 37.40 62.60 100
Within work group (%) 27.40 22.20 23.90
Count 172 388 560
Kusumpur Pahar Within slum (%) 30.70 69.30 100.00
Within work group (%) 10.40 11.40 11.10
Count 82 202 284
Munirka Within slum (%) 28.90 71.10 100.00
Within work group (%) 5.00 5.90 5.60
Count 173 349 522
Madanpur Khadar Within slum (%) 33.10 66.90 100.00
Within work group (%) 10.50 10.20 10.30
Count 86 163 249
Priya Kuli Camp Within slum (%) 34.50 65.50 100.00
Within work group (%) 5.20 4.80 4.90
Count 411 852 1263
Yamuna Pusta Within slum (%) 32.50 67.50 100.00
Within work group (%) 25.00 25.00 25.00
Count 1,647 3,406 5,053
All slums Within slum (%) 32.60 67.40 100.00
Within work group (%) 100.00 100.00 100.00

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 Socioeconomic and demographic analysis of occupational patterns in Delhi slums, India

3.1.1 Macro-level occupational classification

Here the working population is classified into formal and informal sectors. Formal sector is one where the
state can intervene directly or indirectly into the matters of the sector. Informal sector is defined to have low level
organization with no division between labor and capital, having small scale, existing labor relations are from
casual employment and personal/social relation rather than contractual arrangements with formal guarantees’
(Hussmanns & Mehran, 1999).
The study reveals 72.8% workers in informal sector and 27.2% in formal sector.
Govindpuri: This notified slum has a large percentage (81.1%) of population engaged in informal sector. One
major occupation was astrology, i.e., card reading and parrot reciting.
Khayala: This resettlement colony matches the middle class income level of a smaller town. Here both the
formal and informal sector contributes roughly 50% of the total workers.
Madanpur Khadar: Having poor standard of living only 22.7% of the total population is engaged in formal
sector. Many workers pose as doctors and teachers but the inbuilt fallacy was that these doctors were not the
registered medical practitioners but were still categorized in formal sector.
Yamuna Pusta: This J. J. Cluster records a highest percentage of population (85.4%) as informal workers. In
Phase-I most of the workers are employed in the fish selling market.
JNU complex: This includes Kusumpur Pahari, Munirka Village and Priya Kuli Camp. Here around 77% to
79% of the working population is engaged in informal sector. These slums show low level of subsistence, low
level of income which in turn is reflective of the economic conditions of the slum dwellers (see Table 2).

Table 2 Macro-level classification of workers in Delhi slums

Slums Formal sector Informal sector Total
Count 51 219 270
Govindpuri
Within slum (%) 18.90 81.10 100.00
Count 224 228 452
Khayala
Within slum (%) 49.60 50.40 100.00
Count 39 135 174
Kusumpur Pahari
Within slum (%) 22.4 77.60 100.00
Count 17 65 82
Munirka
Within slum (%) 20.70 79.30 100.00
Count 39 133 172
Madanpur Khadar
Within slum (%) 22.70 77.30 100.00
Count 18 68 86
Priya Kuli Camp
Within slum (%) 20.90 79.10 100.00
Count 60 351 411
Yamuna Pusta
Within slum (%) 14.60 85.40 100.00
Count 448 1,199 1,647
All slums
Within slum (%) 27.20 728 100.00

3.1.2 Meso-level occupational classification

At this level, the workers are classified into secondary, tertiary and quaternary economic sectors. The primary
sector of the economy is involved in extracting or harvesting products from the earth. Secondary sector of
economy is involved in manufacturing finished product. Tertiary sector refers to the service sector and related
occupations. Quaternary sector of the economy is involved in intellectual activities.

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 Socioeconomic and demographic analysis of occupational patterns in Delhi slums, India

The primary sector was non-existent in the surveyed slums and hence, it was kept out of the analysis. 54.2%
of workers were engaged in tertiary sector providing personal and community services (like the services provided
by tailor, barber, clerk, etc.). 38.3% of workers were engaged in secondary sector mainly in manufacturing and
construction. The quaternary sector had a meager existence, only 7.5% of the total population was involved in
such activities. But the existence of quaternary sector is definitely a sign that the technology is slowly making its
way into the lives of slum dwellers with more and more youth getting educated (see Table 3).
Govindpuri: This is a less organized cluster with dominance of informal sector. The area shows a large
percentage of population engaged in tertiary sector which help to provide services in the nearby urban colonies.
The secondary workers are predominantly engaged as masons. This slum has a negligible population of
quaternary workers.
Khayala: Secondary workers constitute the highest proportion of workers in this resettlement colony (57.1%).
15% of workers engaged in quaternary sector show a high level of income and economic standards. The region
also reveals a higher per capita income than others.
Yamuna Pusta: With low level of subsistence and poor economic conditions, people are mainly engaged in
providing services to suburban areas of Delhi and across Yamuna Settlements.
Madanpur Khadar: The workers here are engaged mostly in manufacturing sector. Service industry also
forms a major source of livelihood in this region.
JNU Complex: Priya Kuli Camp and Munirka show a smaller percentage of people engaged in white collar
jobs compared with Kusumpur Pahari. Priya and Kusumpur have a high percentage of population engaged in
tertiary sector.

Table 3 Meso-level classification of workers in Delhi slums

Slums Secondary sector Tertiary sector Quaternary sector Total
Count 106 157 7 270
Govindpuri
Within slum (%) 39.30 53.10 2.60 100.00
Count 258 126 68 452
Khayala
Within slum (%) 57.10 27.90 15.00 100.00
Count 24 128 22 174
Kusumpur Pahari
Within slum (%) 13.80 73.60 12.60 100.00
Count 28 48 6 82
Munirka
Within slum (%) 34.10 58.50 7.30 100.00
Count 68 100 4 172
Madanpur Khadar
Within slum (%) 39.50 58.10 2.30 100
Count 12 73 1 86
Priya Kuli Camp
Within slum (%) 14.00 84.90 1.20 100.00
Count 134 261 16 411
Yamuna Pusta
Within slum (%) 32.60 63.50 3.90 100.00
Count 630 893 124 1,647
All slums
Within slum (%) 38.30 54.20 7.50 100.00

3.1.3 Micro-level occupational classification

Occupations were divided into following fifteen categories based on reasoned inferences. Similar
occupations were grouped together into one category:
z Hawkers and vendors (Class 1);

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 Socioeconomic and demographic analysis of occupational patterns in Delhi slums, India

z Sweepers, rickshaw pullers and washer men (Class 2);

z Cooks, gardeners and painters (Class 3);

z Tailors, barbers and cobblers (Class 4);

z Waiters, wage laborers and security guards (Class 5);

z Carpenters and craftsmen (Class 6);

z Construction workers (Class 7);

z Repair workers (Class 8);

z Salesmen, photographers and video recorders (Class 9);

z Shopkeepers (Class 10);

z Astrologers and social workers (Class 11);

z Factory workers and manufacturing workers (Class 12);

z Drivers (Class 13);

z High class professionals (Class 14);

z Others (Class 15).

The highest percentage of workers was hawkers and vendors; next important category was that of waiters,
wage laborers and security guards. Shopkeepers formed the third most prevalent category. A good percentage of
workers were engaged as sweepers, washer-men, cooks, gardeners, painters and rickshaw pullers. Rest of the
categories occupied only a minor percentage (see Table 4).

Table 4 Percentage wise micro level occupations classification in Delhi slums

Slums
Occupations Govindpuri Khayala Kusumpur Munirka Madanpur Priya Kuli Yamuna All slums
(%) (%) Pahari (%) (%) Khadar (%) Camp (%) Pusta (%) (%)
Class 1 10.70 19.90 5.70 18.30 17.40 8.10 36.70 20.20
Class 2 2.20 0.90 18.40 8.50 14.00 20.90 15.10 9.30
Class 3 6.30 7.10 16.70 15.90 2.90 2.30 4.40 7.00
Class 4 10.70 6.00 4.00 4.90 5.20 1.20 4.40 5.80
Class 5 19.30 3.10 18.40 19.50 22.70 37.20 7.50 13.10
Class 6 1.10 1.80 0.60 0.00 2.30 1.20 1.70 1.50
Class 7 2.20 2.00 3.40 3.70 1.20 7.00 3.20 2.70
Class 8 4.40 2.70 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.70 1.60
Class 9 4.80 13.70 5.20 8.50 5.80 1.20 1.20 6.50
Class 10 11.90 21.70 4.60 2.40 14.00 15.10 10.70 13.40
Class 11 6.30 0.40 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.20 1.20
Class 12 8.90 1.80 0.60 1.20 5.80 1.20 8.50 4.90
Class 13 5.20 2.40 9.80 3.70 5.80 0.00 3.20 4.10
Class 14 2.20 14.20 12.60 9.80 2.90 4.70 2.20 7.20
Class 15 3.70 2.40 0.00 3.70 0.00 0.00 0.20 1.50
Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00

Govindpuri: The highest proportion of workers in Govindpuri as are engaged as waiters, wage laborers and
security guards. The next important category is that of vendors and hawkers and then came tailors, barbers and
cobblers. High class professionals constitute only a minor proportion of the society.
Khayala: This region had a large fraction of shopkeepers and then hawkers and vendors. High class
professionals constitute the biggest proportion here when compared with other slums. A small fraction of

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 Socioeconomic and demographic analysis of occupational patterns in Delhi slums, India

population is engaged as sweepers, washermen and rickshaw pullers.

Madanpur Khadar: Waiters, wage laborers and security guards occupy a major section of population in this
region. Next important occupation in this region was that of vendors, hawkers, shopkeepers and sweepers. No one
was found to be engaged in astrology or as social workers.
Yamuna Pusta: Vendors and hawkers constitute a major proportion, and sweepers constitute the next biggest.
Very few people are involved as repair workers and as high class professionals.
JNU Complex: Largest fraction of population is engaged as waiters in Priya Kuli camp. This camp also has
the largest fraction of waiters of all the other slums. It also shows highest percentage of, sweepers, cleaners and
maids. No one was found to be engaged as driver or repair worker. Within JNU Complex, Munirka has the highest
proportion of high class professionals and Kusumpur Pahari has the highest proportion of drivers.
3.2 Socioeconomic analysis of occupational patterns in Delhi slums
3.2.1 Analysis of occupation patterns with respect to educational levels
The majority of the vendors, hawkers, cooks, gardeners, painters, carpenters, craftsmen and construction
workers have an educational level up to 10th class. Nearly 50% of sweepers, rickshaw pullers, washer-men,
waiters, wage laborers and security guards are educated below 5th class and a very few are educated above 10th
class. Nearly 75% of the repair workers are educated below 10th class. Unemployment was also a factor affecting
type of occupation. So, although 25% of the sweepers are educated above 10th class, due to lack of skilled jobs
they are forced to work as sweepers. Nearly 55% of salesmen, photographers and recorders are educated up to
10th class. Most of the shopkeepers and around 50% of the astrologers and social workers are educated up to 10th
class. No astrologer or social worker was found to be educated below 5th class. 50% of the high class
professionals have an education level above 10th class.
Overall 44.4% of working population is educated up to 10th class. 30.2% of working population is without
education or only educated up to 5th class. Nearly 25% of the total working population is illiterate. Only 25.4% of
the working population is educated past 10th class. Many people with higher degrees but without suitable
employment have resentment towards the society, increasing the number of anti-social activities in and around the
slums.
3.2.2 Analysis of occupational classification with respect to income levels
Nearly 70% of the vendors, hawkers, cooks, gardeners, tailors, painter, barbers, cobblers, waiters, wage
laborers and security guards have an income level of less than Rs. 2,000 per month. Nearly 90% of the sweepers,
rickshaw pullers and washermen have an income level even less than Rs. 2000 per month. For carpenter and
craftsmen income structure is a bit favorable with 58.3% workers having income up to Rs. 5,000 per month.
Repair workers, shopkeepers, photographers and recorders are nearly 5% of the workers but have income of more
than Rs. 10,000 per month. For most of the construction activities, the wages are less than Rs. 2,000 per month.
About 65% of the drivers have an income of Rs. 2,000 per month. Only 7% of high class professionals earn more
than Rs. 10,000 per month.
Overall, nearly 60% of the working population has an income of less than Rs. 2,000. 5.2% of the workers
have income of Rs. 10,000 and merely 0.8% of workers have income above Rs. 10,000. Inter slum disparity is
very high with Khayala having a high income level and Yamuna Pusta with very low income level.
3.2.3 Analysis of occupation with respect to gender participation
Gender participation across occupations was analyzed using modified Sopher’s index. Vendors and hawkers
have around 80% male workers while sweepers, rickshaw pullers and washermen have nearly 50% male workers.

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 Socioeconomic and demographic analysis of occupational patterns in Delhi slums, India

Cook, gardener, carpenter, painter, waiter, wage laborer and security guard have nearly 90% male workers while
astrologers, social workers, repair workers, salesmen, photographers and video recorders have nearly 92%-93%
male workers. Tailors, barbers, cobblers and high class professionals have nearly 80% male workers. Overall
working population is composed of 83% male workers and 17% female workers.
Vendors and hawkers, tailors, barbers, cobblers, drivers, high class professionals and shopkeepers have low
gender disparity. Astrologers, social workers, repair workers, factory workers, manufacturing workers, salesmen,
photographers, video recorders, cooks, gardeners, painters, waiters, wage laborers, security guards have very low
gender disparity. Sweepers, rickshaw pullers, washer-men, construction workers, carpenters, craftsmen have a
high gender disparity (see Table 5).

Table 5 Gender disparity amongst various occupations in Delhi slums

Occupation Male Female Disparity index
Hawkers and vendors 19.5 23.6 0.08
Sweepers, rickshaw puller and washer men 5.3 28.6 0.70
Cook, gardener and painter 7.8 3.2 0.39
Tailor, barber and cobbler 5.6 6.4 0.05
Waiter, wage laborer and security guard 14.9 4.6 0.52
Carpenter and craftsmen 1.8 0.01 2.25
Construction 3.2 0.4 0.91
Repair works 1.8 0.7 0.41
Salesman, photographer and recorder 7.3 2.5 0.47
Shopkeeper 12.5 17.9 0.16
Astrologer and social worker 1.3 0.7 0.26
Factory worker and manufacturing workers 5.4 2.1 0.41
Drivers 4.9 4 0.09
High class professionals 7.1 7.5 0.02
Others 1.5 1.4 0.03

3.2.4 Slum wise analysis of occupation

Govindpuri: The gender disparity is high in this region. Both male and female workers are mostly engaged in
services, manufacturing and trading services. The largest fraction of workers in services is educated up to 10th
class. A large percentage of workers in trade and communication are educated above 10th class. In communication
sector, none of the worker is educated below 5th class.
Yamuna Pusta: Large fraction of the male workers is engaged in wholesale and retail trade, restaurants and
hotels, and then in community, personal and social services. Yamuna Pusta has maximum vegetable/fruits and fish
sellers. Trade and service sector in this region have low gender disparity. The highest number of workers in this
region is engaged in retail and wholesale trade. These workers are more educated than the workers engaged in
construction, transport and business services. Maximum number of workers engaged in community and personal
services are educated above 10th class. All the workers in Finance and business services sector have education
level above 5th class.
Madanpur Khadar: Most of the male workers are engaged in community, personal and social services. More
female workers are engaged in business activities than trade activities. Most of the workers have education below
5th class and only the business and manufacturing sector have dominant proportion of workers educated up to
10th class.

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 Socioeconomic and demographic analysis of occupational patterns in Delhi slums, India

Priya Kuli Camp: Most of the male workers are engaged in community, personal and social services,
wholesale and retail trade. Most of the workers are educated below 5th class. Business and finance is the only
sector with very few workers especially those above 10th class educational level.
Motilal Nehru Camp: Most of the workers are engaged in community, personal and social services, wholesale
and retail trade. Overall educational level is poor. Workers engaged in trading activities have higher education
level with most of the workers educated up to 10th class.
Kusumpur Pahari: Male population is mostly engaged in services, trade, transport and storage. Female
population is mostly engaged in service sector with few engaged in trade and construction. The largest percentage
of workers is educated below 5th class.
Khayala Resettlement Colony: The male workforce is mostly engaged in trade, services, finance and business.
Female workforce is mostly engaged in business and service sectors. There is no participation in construction,
storage and transport activities. This slum has the minimum percentage of people educated below 5th class. High
percentage of workers is engaged in services, trade and business activities.

4. Conclusion

Khayala Resettlement Colony has the largest fraction of skilled workers with high educational level as
compared with Govindpuri and Yamuna Pusta. Workforce gender disparity is also low in the better off colonies
where more freedom is given to women.

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(Edited by Ruby and Chris)

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