Geometric Optics & The Eye

Contents
• Mirrors
i. Plane mirror
ii. Spherical mirrors
• Lenses
i. Concave lens
ii. Diverging lens
• The Eye
1
 Mirrors
• A mirror is typically made of glass with a shiny metal backing that
reflects all the light that strikes it.

• When a mirror reflects light, it forms an image.

• An image is a copy of an object that is formed by reflection or

refraction.

• Mirrors may have flat or curved surfaces.

• The shape of a mirror’s surface determines the type of image it

forms.

• EG; some mirrors form real images, and other mirrors form virtual
images.
 Mirrors
Real image-
• formed byforms when light
the concave raysorconverge
mirror to form the image.
convex lens
Real images are formed by mirrors or lenses when light rays actually
converge and pass through the image.
Real images will be located in front of the mirror forming them.
A real image can be projected onto a piece of paper or a screen.
If photographic film were placed here, a photo could be created.

Virtual images occur where light rays only appear to have originated.
For example, sometimes rays appear to be coming from a point behind
the mirror.
Virtual images can’t be projected on paper, screens, or film since the
light rays do not really converge there.
 Mirrors, cont.
What’s the difference between real and virtual images?
• A real image forms in front of a mirror where reflected light rays
actually meet.

o It is a true image that could be projected on a screen.

• A virtual image appears to be on the other side of the mirror.

o Reflected rays don’t actually go through the mirror to the other side,
so a virtual image doesn’t really exist.

o It just appears to exist to the human brain.

Which type of image is it, real or virtual?
 Plane Mirror
• It has a flat reflective surface and forms only virtual images.

• But something is different about the image compared with the

real object in front of the mirror.

• Left and right are reversed.

• The term mirror image refers to how left and right are reversed
in an image compared with the object.

• A plane mirror forms only virtual, right-side up, and life-sized

images.
LEFT- RIGHT REVERSAL
 Plain mirror
1. Neither diverges nor converges
light rays
Plane Mirror

di=do
 IMAGE FORMATION BY A PLANE MIRROR

d0 = object distance
di = image distance
h0 = object height
hi = image height
CONCLUSION: The Image formed by an object placed in front of a flat mirror is as
far Behind the mirror as the object is in front of the mirror.
 Virtual Images in Plane Mirrors
Rays seem to come from behind
the mirror, but, of course, they
don't. It is virtually as if the rays
were coming from behind the
mirror.

"Virtually": the same as if

As far as the eye-brain system is

concerned, the effect is the same
If light energy doesn't flow from the
as would occur if the mirror were
image, the image is "virtual".
absent and the chess piece were
actually located at the spot labeled
"virtual image".
 Hall Mirror
• Useful to think in terms of images

“real” you

mirror only “image” you

needs to be half as
high as you are tall. Your
image will be twice as far from you
as the mirror.
 Type of Image
• Virtual
• Equal in Size
• Erect (Upright)
 Mirrors
Spherical mirrors

Convex
mirror
 Spherical (Curved) Mirrors

• Concave

• Convex
 Concave and Convex Mirrors
Concave and convex mirrors are curved mirrors similar to portions
of a sphere.

light rays light rays

Concave mirrors reflect light Convex mirrors reflect light

from their inner surface, like from their outer surface, like
the inside of a spoon. the outside of a spoon.
 Concave mirror
• Converges light rays
• Has a positive radius
• Has a positive focal point

NB. If a measured quantity is on the same

side of the mirror as the INCIDENT ray
then the quantity is positive
 Concave Mirrors
• Concave mirrors are approximately spherical and have a principal
axis that goes through the center, C, of the imagined sphere and ends
at the point at the center of the mirror, A. The principal axis is
perpendicular to the surface of the mirror at A.
• CA is the radius of the sphere,or the radius
of curvature of the mirror, R .
• Halfway between C and A is the focal
point of the mirror, F. This is the point
where rays parallel to the principal axis will
converge when reflected off the mirror.
• The length of FA is the focal length, f.
• The focal length is half of the radius of the
sphere.
 Concave Mirrors
• Concave mirror- surface of a mirror is curved inward. (Forms a
cave).
•Optical axis is a line drawn perpendicular to the surface of the mirror
at its center.

•Focal point - Every light ray is reflected to a certain point on the

optical axis.
•Focal point is determined by how curved the mirror is.
 Features of Concave Mirrors
•When light rays travel toward the mirror parallel to the optical axis,
they reflect through the focal point.

• Focal length- distance from the center of the mirror to the focal
point.
0
82a425d79

Concave Mirrors
 How a Concave Mirror Works
•The image that is formed by a concave mirror changes depending on
where the object is located relative to the focal point of the mirror.

•When an object is farther from a concave mirror than twice the focal
length, the image appears smaller and upside down.

•What happens if you place an object exactly at the focal point of the
concave mirror?

•If the object is at the focal point, the mirror reflects all light rays parallel
to the optical axis.

•No image forms because the rays never meet.

 Concave Mirrors: Object beyond C

object
The image formed
when an object is
placed beyond C is
•C •F located between C and
F. It is a real, inverted
image
image that is smaller in
size than the object.
Concave Mirrors: Object between C and F

The image formed

object when an object is
placed between C and F
•C •F is located beyond C. It
is a real, inverted image
image that is larger in size
than the object.
Concave Mirrors: Object in front of F
The image formed
when an object is
placed in front of F is
object located behind the
image
mirror. It is a virtual,
•C •F upright image that is
larger in size than the
object. It is virtual
since it is formed only
where light rays seem
to be diverging from.
 Concave Mirrors: Object at C or F

What happens when an object is placed at C?

The image will be formed at C also, but it
will be inverted. It will be real and the
same size as the object.

What happens when an object is placed at F?

No image will be formed. All rays will
reflect parallel to the principal axis and will
never converge. The image is “at infinity.”
 Summary for Concave Mirror
When object is: Image is:
• Beyond C • Between C and F

• At C • At C

• Between C and F • Beyond C

• At F • No image

• Between F and mirror • Virtual image

 Convex Mirrors
• convex mirror- curves outward like the back of a spoon.

•Light rays that hit a convex mirror

spread apart, after they are reflected.
•Rays never meet.
•Form virtual image.
•The image is upright and smaller than
the actual object is.

•Because convex mirrors cause light rays to diverge, they allow large
areas to be viewed.

• Convex mirrors have a wide field of view.

 Convex Mirrors
•Its focal point and center are located
behind the mirror. light rays
• This means a convex mirror has a
negative focal length.
• Light rays reflected from convex mirrors
always diverge, so only virtual images
will be formed.

• Rays parallel to the principal axis will reflect as if coming from the
focal point behind the mirror.
• Rays approaching the mirror on a path toward F will reflect parallel
to the principal axis.
 Convex Mirror
• Diverges light rays
• Has a negative radius
• Has a negative focal point

NB. If a measured quantity is not on the

same side of the mirror as the INCIDENT
ray then the quantity is negative
 Convex Mirrors

• Rays never meet

• Form virtual image.

• The image is upright and smaller than the actual

object is.

• As the object is moved closer to the mirror, the

image will approach the size of the object.
 Convex Mirror Diagram
The image formed by
a convex mirror no
matter where the
object object is placed will
image
be virtual, upright,
•F •C and smaller than the
object. As the object
is moved closer to the
mirror, the image will
approach the size of
the object.
 Convex Mirrors
• Curves outward
• Reduces images
• Virtual images
–Use: Rear view mirrors, store
security…
CAUTION! Objects are closer than they
appear!
 Summary for Convex Mirror
Always:

• Virtual, reduced, upright image

Summary For Mirrors
Mirror Equation
1=1+1
f do di

Magnification
M= hi = -di
ho do
 Sign Convention
do + object is in front of the mirror

di + real image, in front of the mirror

di - virtual image, behind the mirror

hi + erect image
hi - inverted image

f + converging (concave) mirrors

f - diverging (convex) mirrors
 Sign conversion
• If a measured quantity is on the same side
of the mirror as the INCIDENT ray then the
quantity is positive
• If a measured quantity is not on the same
side of the mirror as the INCIDENT ray
then the quantity is negative
 Problem
• Find the image distance, height and type
for a 5cm object placed 60cm from a
concave mirror of focal length of 18cm.

• Answer: di=25.7cm, hi=-2.14cm,

Real, Inverted, Reduced
 Lenses
Lenses are made of transparent materials, like Convex (Converging)
glass or plastic, that typically have an index of Lens
refraction greater than that of air.

Each of a lens’ two faces is part of a sphere

and can be convex or concave (or one face
may be flat).
If a lens is thicker at the center than the edges, Concave (Diverging)
it is a convex, or converging lens, since Lens
parallel rays will be converged to meet at the
focus.
A lens which is thinner in the center than the
edges is a concave, or diverging lens, since
rays going through it will be spread out.
 Lenses: Focal Length

• Like mirrors, lenses have a principal axis perpendicular to their

surface and passing through their midpoint.
• Lenses also have a vertical axis, or principal plane, through their
middle.

• They have a focal point, F, and the focal length is the distance from
the vertical axis to F.
• There is no real center of curvature, so 2F is used to denote twice
the focal length.
 What Do Lenses Do ??
When light passes through a Lens, it is refracted (bent). This bending of light
produces an image of the object that is different from it original appearance.
Objects viewed through lenses produce images that vary based on where the
object is located and on the type of lens that is used.

There are two types of lenses.

A converging lens. And A diverging lens

This is also called a This is also called a

convex lens because concave lens
the surface of the because the surface
lens has a convex of the lens has a
shape. concave shape.

This lens looks like a

“cave” if you were
walking into it.
The converging lens causes horizontal light rays to converge (come together) when it hits.

The diverging lens causes horizontal light to diverge (move apart) when it hits.
Terminology Principle Axis = The horizontal
line drawn through the center

2f f f 2f 2f f f 2f

f = Convex lens Focal point

f = Concave lens Focal point
= the point through which all
= the point at which all
horizontal rays hitting the lens
horizontal rays hitting the
pass through when they
lens appear to come from
refract (bend)
when they refract (bend)

IMPORTANT
These focal points are negative (-)
In the diverging lens

Point 2f is twice the focal point and is used as a reference point in a lens problem
Terminology Also
Continued ... Distance object
ho = object height
is placed from
the lens center hi = image height
An object d0
placed
near a lens

2f f f 2f The image of
the object that
di is produced by
Distance image the lens
is formed from
the lens center
Front Side of Lens Back Side of Lens
(the virtual side) (the real side)

When images are formed on the front side When images are formed on the back
of the lens they are virtual images. When side of the lens they are real images.
you look through a lens and the object Real images can be projected onto a
looks different than usual you see a virtual screen.
image (such as a magnifying glass)
 Convex Lenses
Thicker in the center
than edges.
– Lens that converges
(brings together) light
rays. The Magnifier
– Forms real images
and virtual images
depending on position
of the object
 Concave Lenses
• Lenses that are
thicker at the edges
and thinner in the
center.
– Diverges light rays The De-Magnifier
– All images are
erect and reduced.
 Lens Equations
Lens Equations - You can find out where and what an image should look like by
using the lens equations

To find the distance of To find the Magnification and

the image from the lens Orientation of the Image

1 1 1
  d i hi
M M
f d0 di do ho

Important - when using a diverging lens the focal point (f) must be made negative (-)

Convex lenses can form any types

Determining the Image of these images
di = (+) real image - real or virtual
di = (-) virtual image - smaller, same size, or larger
M = (+) upright - inverted or upside down
M = (-) inverted (upside down)
|M|=1 same size
|M|<1 smaller Concave lenses can only form
|M|>1 larger one type of image ALWAYS

note | M | = (absolute value of M)

- smaller, upright, virtual
Example: A concave lens with (f = 4 cm, d0 = 8 cm)

1 1 1
 
f d0 di
1 1 1 Note that the f is (-) since it’s
 
 4 8 di a concave lens

1
 0.25  0.125 
di
1
 0.375  d i   2.67 cm
di

d i
M
do
di = (-) so its virtual

 (2.67 cm) M = (+) so its (upright)

M M  0.33 |M|<1 so its smaller
8
 Convex Lens: Object Beyond 2F

The image formed

when an object is
object placed beyond 2F is
located behind the
lens between F and
•2F •F •F •2F 2F.

image It is a real, inverted

image which is
smaller than the object
itself.
 Convex Lens: Object Between 2F and F

The image formed

when an object is
object
placed between 2F
and F is located
•2F •F •F •2F beyond 2F behind
the lens.
It is a real, inverted
image, larger than
image
the object.
 Convex Lens: Object within F
The image formed when an
object is placed in front of F
is located somewhere beyond
image F on the same side of the lens
as the object.
•2F •F •F •2F It is a virtual, upright image
object which is larger than the
object. This is how a
magnifying glass works.
When the object is brought
convex lens used close to the lens, it will be
as a magnifier magnified greatly.
 Concave Lenses
Rays traveling parallel to the principal
axis of a concave lens will refract as if
2• •F •F 2• coming from the focus.

F F

Rays traveling toward the focus will

refract parallel to the principal axis. •2F •F •F 2•
F

Rays traveling directly through the center

•2F •F •F 2• of a concave lens will leave the lens
traveling in the exact same direction, just
F as with a convex lens.
 Concave Lens Diagram

No matter where the object

is placed, the image will be
object on the same side as the
object.
•2F •F •F •2F The image is virtual,
image upright, and smaller than
the object with a concave
lens.
 Ray Diagrams (for convex lenses)
We use ray diagrams to draw a picture of what the image would look like
3 Light rays are drawn all originating from the tip of the OBJECT. The point
where these rays intersect gives the location where the tip of the IMAGE will be
Lets try an example with f = 5 cm, do = 12 cm

The first light ray we draw

goes through the center of
the lens

2f f f 2f

This light ray passes

through unaffected and
keeps going the same way
 Ray Diagrams (for convex lenses)
The second light ray we draw goes
horizontally towards the lens and
stops in the center of it (the light
actually bends the whole time its in
the lens, but as a convention we make
it bend when it hits the center.

2f f f 2f

This light bends and passes

through the focal point on
the other side of the lens
Ray Diagrams (for convex (CONVERGING) lenses)

The last light ray we draw

goes through the focal point
on the front side at stops at
the center of the lens

2f f f 2f

This light ray bends and

emerges horizontal on the
back side
 Putting it all together. A convex lens (converging) with (f = 2 cm, d0=5 cm)
Draw all three rays and the point where
they intersect represents the point where Describe the image:
the tip of the image will be formed
Real
Smaller
Inverted

image

2f f f 2f

Check the math

1 1 1
 
f d0 di
1 1 1
 
2 5 di
d i
0.5  0.2 
1 M
do di = (+) so its real
di
M = (-) so its inverted
1  3.33
0.3  d i  3.33 cm M   0.67 |M|<1 so its smaller
di 5
 Special Examples (For Convex Lenses)
1- When the object is located exactly on (f) the rays will not intersect anywhere and
there will be no image

2- When the object is placed in front of (f) the rules are a little bit different

Lets try - A convex lens with Notice the rays do not intersect on this
(f = 2 cm, d0=1 cm)
side. So we have to extend these
refracted rays back to the front of the
The first two rays
lens to see where they appear to come from
are the same as
before
The intersection of the
extensions through the lens
Image show you where the tip of
the image will be formed

2f f f 2f

The third ray cannot be drawn

through (f) since we are in front
of it so it is drawn as if it Describe the image:
originated at (f), and this ray Virtual
refracts horizontal after hitting Larger
the center.
Upright
 Ray Diagrams (for concave (DIVERGING) lenses)
The nice thing about Concave lenses is that the ray diagrams are ALWAYS,
ALWAYS the same. They are slightly different then the convex lenses however
and you should be careful to notice the differences. In this type of lens, you
always have to extend the refracted rays back behind to find the image
Lets try an example with f = 5 cm, do = 12 cm

The first light ray we draw

goes through the center of
the lens

2f f f 2f

This light ray passes

through unaffected and
keeps going the same way
 Ray Diagrams (for concave lenses)

The second light ray we

draw goes horizontally
towards the lens and stops
in the center of it
This light bends as if it
came from the focal point on
the front of the lens

2f f f 2f
 Ray Diagrams (for concave lenses)

The last light ray we draw

goes TOWARDS the focal
point on the other side and
stops at the center of the
lens

2f f f 2f

This light ray bends and

emerges horizontal on the
back side
Putting it all together. A concave lens (diverging) with (f = 2 cm, d0=5 cm)
Draw all three rays and extend the refracted
rays back behind the lens. The point where
the extensions meet is the image point
Rays don’t intersect over
here so they are extended
back to the front of the
lens

2f f Image f 2f

Describe the image:

Virtual Remember when doing the
math (f = (-)).. The math for
Smaller this lens will always show
Upright di = (-) so its virtual
M = (+) so its upright
|M|<1 so its smaller
 Examples
• Convex lens s=30cm f=10cm s’=?
1 1 1 1 1 1
   
s s' f s' f s
1 1 1 3 1 2 1
     s’=15cm
s' 10cm 30cm 30cm 30cm 15cm

 s'  15cm  1
m    0.5
s 30cm 2

The image is real because s’ is positive

The image is inverted because m is negative
The image is diminished because |m|<1
 Examples
• Convex lens s=5cm f=10cm s’=?
1 1 1 1 1 1
   
s s' f s' f s
1 1 1 1 2 1
    s’=-10cm
s' 10cm 5cm 10cm 10cm

 s'  (10cm) 10
m   2
s 5cm 5

The image is virtual because s’ is negative

The image is upright because m is positive
The image is enlarged because |m|>1
 Examples
• Concave lens s=30cm f=-10cm s’=?
1 1 1 1 1 1
   
s s' f s' f s
1 1 1  3 1 4
    s’=-7.5cm
s' 10cm 30cm 30cm 30cm

 s'  (7.5cm) 7.5

m    0.25
s 30cm 30

The image is virtual because s’ is negative

The image is upright because m is positive
The image is diminished because |m|<1
 Examples
• Concave lens s=5cm f=-10cm s’=?
1 1 1 1 1 1
   
s s' f s' f s
1 1 1 1  2 3
    s’=-3.33cm
s' 10cm 5cm 10cm 10cm

 s'  (3.3cm)
m   0.66
s 5cm

The image is virtual because s’ is negative

The image is upright because m is positive
The image is diminished because |m|<1
 The human eye
• An amazing optical instrument

 The human eye is a fluid-filled object that focuses images

of objects on the retina.
 The cornea, with an index of refraction of about 1.38, is
where most of the refraction occurs.
 Human eye
Some of this light will then passes through
the pupil opening into the lens, with an
index of refraction of about 1.44.
The lens flexible ciliary muscle contract or
relax to change its shape and focal length.
When the muscles relax, the lens flattens
and the focal length becomes longer so that
distant objects can be focused on the retina.
 Human eye
When the muscles contract, the lens is pushed into
a more convex shape and the focal length is
shortened so that close objects can be focused on
the retina.
 The retina contains rods and cones to detect the
intensity and frequency of the light and send
impulses to the brain along the optic nerve.
 Lenses and Eyesight
•Cornea - transparent covering on your eyeball.
•The cornea causes light rays to bend so that they converge.
•The light then passes through an opening called the pupil.

•Behind the pupil is a flexible

convex lens.

•Eye Lens- helps focus light

rays so that a sharp image is
formed on your retina.
•
 Lenses and Eyesight
•The retina is the inner lining of your eye.
•It has cells that convert the light image into electrical signals, which
are then carried along the optic nerve to your brain to be interpreted.

Focusing on Near and Far

•As an object gets farther from your eye, the focal length of the lens has
to increase.
•The muscles around the lens stretch it so it has a less convex shape.
 Focusing on Near and Far
•But when you focus on a nearby object, these muscles make the lens
more curved, causing the focal length to decrease.

Vision Problems—Farsightedness
• Farsighted- you can see distant objects clearly but can’t bring nearby
objects into focus
 Farsightedness
• Farsighted Correction- convex lens glasses or contacts. They
cause incoming light rays to converge before they enter the eye.
 Nearsightedness

• Nearsighted- you can see close

objects clearly but can’t bring far
objects into focus.

•The light rays from the objects are

focused in front of the retina.

• Nearsighted Correction- Concave

lens glasses or contacts.

• They cause incoming light rays to

diverge before they enter the eye
 Hyperopia The first eye shown suffers from
farsightedness, which is also known
as hyperopia. This is due to a focal
length that is too long, causing the
image to be focused behind the retina,
making it difficult for the person to
see close up things.
Formation of image behind The second eye is being helped with a
the retina in a hyperopic eye. convex lens. The convex lens helps
the eye refract the light and decrease
the image distance so it is once again
focused on the retina.
Hyperopia usually occurs among
adults due to weakened ciliary
Convex lens correction muscles or decreased lens flexibility.
for hyperopic eye.
Farsighted means “can see far” and the rays focus too far from the lens.
FARSIGHTED [HYPEROPIC] (Can only see distant objects clearly):
Then lens is too weak And bends light too little. Light from a nearby object
doesn’t reach a focus by the time it strikes the retina and focus beyond the
retina.
Hyperopia
 The first eye suffers from
Myopia nearsightedness, or myopia. This is
a result of a focal length that is too
short, causing the images of distant
objects to be focused in front of the
retina.
The second eye’s vision is being
Formation of image in front corrected with a concave lens. The
of the retina in a myopic eye. concave lens diverges the light rays,
increasing the image distance so that
it is focused on the retina.
Nearsightedness is common among
young people, sometimes the result
of a bulging cornea (which will
Concave lens correction refract light more than normal) or an
for myopic eye. elongated eyeball.
Nearsighted means “can see near” and the rays focus too near the lens.
 EYE DEFECTS
NEARSIGHTED [MYOPIC] (Can only see nearby objects clearly) :
Then lens is too strong and bends light too much.
The far point is nearer than infinity
Light from a distant object focuses before reaching the retina.
 Astigmatism
•Another vision problem, called astigmatism
occurs when the surface of the cornea is curved
unevenly.

•When people have astigmatism, their corneas

are more oval than round in shape.

•Astigmatism causes blurry vision at all

distances.
 Astigmatism means that the cornea OR lens is oval like a rugby ball
instead of spherical like a soccer ball.

Most astigmatic corneas have two curves – a steeper curve and a flatter curve.
This causes light to focus on more than one point in the eye, resulting in blurred
vision at distance or near.
• Accommodation
• Near point
• Far point
• Lens power
 IRIS( colored ring)- adjusts size and regulate the amount of light entering the eye through
the pupil- Adaptation

Ciliary Muscles – Control the shape and focal length of the lens
Relaxed – light from the distance is focused on the retina
Contract – lens assume round shape and reduces its focal length bringing light
from nearby object into focus
Accommodation – The ability of the lens to adjust its focal length.

Near Point:- Is the location nearest the eye at which an object can
be placed and still produced a sharp image on the retina. Normal
near point is 25cm. Varies with age and race

Far Point :- Is the location of the farthest object on which the fully
relaxed eye can focus
Normal far point is infinity ∞
 Example: Myopic eye
• The far point of a certain myopic eye is 50cm in front of
the eye. What lens should be used to see clearly distant
objects.

• s= ∞ which is the normal far point

• s’=-50cm which is the defective far point
1 1 1
 
s s' f
1 1 1
1 1 1  
  f   50cm'
f s s'
f=-50cm = -0.5m
Concave lens
Lens power =1/f=1/-0.5m=-2 diopter
 Example: Hyperopic eye
• The near point of a certain hyperopic eye is 100cm in
front of the eye. What lens should be used to see clearly
an objects 25cm in front of the eye.

• s= 25cm which is the normal near point

• s’=-100cm which is the defective near point
1 1 1
 
s s' f
1 1 1
1 1 1  
  f 25cm  100cm'
f s s'
f=33cm = 0.33m
Convex lens
Lens power =1/f= 1/0.33= +3 diopter
EYE DISEASES

Cataracts
 EYE DISEASES

Cataracts

As you grow older, proteins in your eye's

natural lens begin to clump together,
gradually making the lens cloudier and An intraocular lens (IOL) is implanted in the
less able to admit light into the back of eye in place of the patient's clouded natural lens.
the eye. Vision becomes blurry and foggy,
and eventually the lens must be removed.