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The document discusses variation in species, distinguishing between continuous and discontinuous variation, their causes, and methods for investigation. It also covers adaptive features that enhance survival, the processes of natural and artificial selection, and the implications of these processes in genetics and evolution. Key concepts include genetic mutation, sources of genetic variation, and examples of adaptive traits in plants and animals.

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3 views

? 18

The document discusses variation in species, distinguishing between continuous and discontinuous variation, their causes, and methods for investigation. It also covers adaptive features that enhance survival, the processes of natural and artificial selection, and the implications of these processes in genetics and evolution. Key concepts include genetic mutation, sources of genetic variation, and examples of adaptive traits in plants and animals.

Uploaded by

Hania
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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🌱 18.

1 Variation
1. Variation
 Variation = differences between individuals of the same species.

 Example: Eye colour, height, fingerprints.

2. Continuous Variation
 Results in a range of phenotypes between two extremes.

 Traits can be measured.

 Examples:

o Body length

o Body mass

 Graph: Usually shows a bell-shaped curve (normal distribution).

3. Discontinuous Variation
 Results in distinct categories.

 No intermediates between traits.

 Examples:

o ABO blood groups (A, B, AB, O)


o Seed shape in peas (round or wrinkled)

o Seed colour in peas (yellow or green)

4. Causes of Variation
 Discontinuous: Usually caused by genes only.

 Continuous: Caused by both genes and environment (e.g., nutrition affects height).

5. Investigating Variation
 Continuous: Measure traits like height and weight using ruler/scales.

 Discontinuous: Use surveys/questionnaires or observation to record traits like blood


type or earlobe shape.

 Data can be plotted in bar charts (discontinuous) or histograms (continuous).

6. Mutation
 Mutation = genetic change.

 It can lead to new traits.

7. Formation of New Alleles


 Mutations form new alleles, creating genetic diversity.

8. Causes of Mutation
 Increased by:
o Ionising radiation (e.g., X-rays, UV)

o Mutagenic chemicals (e.g., tobacco smoke)

🔬 Supplement

9. Gene Mutation
 Random change in the base sequence of DNA.

 Can lead to changes in proteins, affecting phenotype.

10. Sources of Genetic Variation


 Mutation

 Meiosis (independent assortment, crossing over)

 Random mating

 Random fertilisation

🌿 18.2 Adaptive Features


1. Definition
 Adaptive feature = An inherited feature that helps an organism survive and reproduce
in its environment.

2. Interpreting Adaptive Features


 Use images or information to explain how features help survival.
 Example: Thick fur in polar bears for insulation.

🔬 Supplement

3. Adaptations of Plants
🌊 Hydrophytes (Water plants)

 Thin/waxy cuticle

 Stomata on upper surface

 Large air spaces for buoyancy

🌵 Xerophytes (Dry environment plants)

 Thick cuticle

 Small, rolled leaves

 Stomata in pits

 Deep roots

🧬 18.3 Selection
1. Natural Selection
Process by which organisms with favorable traits survive and reproduce more successfully:

(a) Genetic variation in population


(b) More offspring produced than can survive
(c) Struggle for survival (limited resources)
(d) Individuals better adapted survive
(e) These survivors pass on their alleles

2. Selective Breeding (Artificial Selection)


Humans select organisms with desirable features to breed.

(a) Select individuals with desirable traits


(b) Cross them
(c) Choose best offspring and repeat

3. Uses of Selective Breeding


 Improve crop yield, disease resistance, size.

 Improve animals for milk, meat, wool, or temperament.

 Done over many generations.

🔬 Supplement

4. Adaptation
 Long-term process where populations become better suited to the environment due to
natural selection over generations.

5. Antibiotic Resistance in Bacteria


 Bacteria with mutations survive antibiotics.

 They reproduce and pass on resistant genes.

 Example of natural selection in action.

6. Natural vs. Artificial Selection


Feature Natural Selection Artificial Selection

Who Nature Humans


selects?

Purpose Survival Desired traits

Time Over many generations Often faster with controlled breeding


Example Antibiotic resistance High-yield wheat

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