CEE 4361 Fluid Mechanics

Fluid Dynamics

Courtesy of
Mohammad Zunaied-Bin-Harun
Fluid Dynamics:
Fluid kinematics deals with the motion of fluid particles without considering the
forces which caused the motion.

Fluid dynamics deals with the motion of fluid particles also with the forces which
caused the motion.

To describe the motion of fluid a set of equations should be available which can be
solved analytically or numerically by applying initial and boundary conditions. The
three basic equations are:-
1. The equation of continuity based on the principle of conservation of mass.
2. The equation of energy based on the principle of conservation of energy.
3. The equation of momentum based on the principle of conservation of
momentum.
1. Equation of Continuity:
Mass flow rate:
Mass of fluid which passes through the system per unit time. Its unit is kg/sec,
slug/sec or pound/sec. (1 slug = 32.2lb or 14.6kg )
Volume flow rate (Q):
The volume of water passing per unit time across a section of a conduit (a pipe or
channel) is known as discharge or volume flow rate. (Unit m3/sec.)

Let, Cross sectional are of a pipe = A

Cross sectional mean velocity = V

Discharge is given by Q = A x V
Cross sectional mean velocity:
For pipes and channel flows, it is more convenient to use the cross sectional mean or
average velocity than the point velocity.
When the velocity varies over the cross-section of a conduit, the mean velocity is
obtained as follow.
Let,
v be the velocity of a liquid over the elementary area dA
V be the mean or average velocity over the entire cross-section having an area A.
dA, v

A, V

Figure: Determination mean velocity

Equation of Continuity for 1-D steady flow:
The concept of conservation of mass is
“In the non-nuclear process matter can neither be created
nor destroyed.”
So, the mass of fluid per unit time entering the upstream
section of a conduit must be equal to the mass of fluid per
unit time at the downstream section leaving the conduit
for a steady flow.
Let,
Mass flow rate at upstream (M1) = Mass flow at down
stream (M2)
ρ1Q1 = ρ2Q2
Q1 = Q2 [For an incompressible flow ρ1= ρ2]
A1V1 = A2V2
Which is the general equation of continuity for one
dimensional steady flow. It is the first and fundamental
equation of flow. Figure: 1-D steady flow through a pipe
Limitations of Continuity Equation:
1. The flow must be steady, which is usually the case for most of the
problem of fluid mechanics.
2. The fluid must be incompressible i.e. the densities must be
constant. This is the case for most problems of hydraulics where
compressibility effect is negligible.
3. The flow must be one-dimensional. Because of simplicity and
practical purpose all pipe and channel flow problems are solved by
this assumption.
Velocity profile:
• The velocity of fluid in a pipe is not constant across the cross section.
• The velocity is zero at the walls increasing to a maximum value at the
center then again decreasing symmetrically to the to the other wall.
• The variation of velocity across the section is known as the velocity
profile or velocity distribution.

Figure : Velocity Profile

Problem:
Water is flowing through a pipe 10cm in diameter with an average
velocity 10 m/s. Compute the discharge in liters/sec. Also, determine
the velocity at the end of the pipe if the diameter of the pipe is
gradually changed to 20cm.
2. Energy equation:
• Energy is defined as the capacity to do work.
• It manifests in various forms, and it can change from one form to another.
• There are three forms of energy present in a fluid flow. They are:
1. Potential energy.
2. Pressure energy.
3. Kinetic energy.
Potential energy: This energy in a fluid exerts by virtue of its position or elevation
with respect to a horizontal datum. (Elevation head , z)
Pressure energy: It is the energy possessed by a fluid by the virtue of it’s existing
pressure. (Pressure head, p/ϒ)
Kinetic energy: It is the energy possessed by a fluid particle by the virtue of its
velocity. (Velocity head, v2/2g)
Total energy or head of a fluid particle in motion:

The total energy or head of a fluid particle in motion is the sum of potential
energy/head, pressure energy/head and kinetic energy/head. Mathematically,

Total energy/head, H = z + (p/ϒ) + (v2/2g)

Frictional loss of head: Since every real fluid has some viscosity and turbulence,
some fraction of energy is usually lost as heat/thermal energy. It is called the
frictional loss of head (hf).

Problem:
Water is flowing through a pipe 7 cm in diameter under a gauge pressure of 3.5
kg/cm2 and with a mean velocity of 1.5 m/s. Neglecting friction, determine the total
head. If the pipe is 7m above datum line.
Bernoulli’s equation:
The equation states that “In a steady, irrotational flow of frictionless,
incompressible fluid the total energy remains constant”. Mathematically,

z + (p/ϒ) + (v2/2g) = constant

A similar but more general statement of Bernoulli’s equation derived from general
energy equation is “ In a steady, irrotational flow of frictionless, incompressible
fluid the sum of potential, pressure and velocity head remains constant at every
section, provided energy is neither added nor taken out by external sources.
Problem:
The diameter of a pipe changes from 20 cm at a section 5m above the datum to
5cm at a section 3m above the datum. The pressure of water at first section is
5kg/cm2. If the velocity of flow at the first section is 1 m/s. Determine the intensity
of pressure at the second section. Neglect losses.

Problem:
A certain oil of specific gravity .90 is flowing through a tapered pipe of 225mm
diameter at section (1) and 450 mm diameter at section (2). The flow rate through
the pipe is .25m3/sec and pressure at (1) and (2) are 100 kPa and 50 kPa
respectively. Find the headloss in the direction of flow. The difference of height
between two points is 4.5m; with the elevation of (2) being higher than (1).
Hydraulic and energy gradelines:
Hydraulic gradelines:
The line joining the piezometric heads at every section of a conduit is known
as the hydraulic grade line.
If the pressure head is denoted by p1/ϒ at section (1) and the elevation head
is z1 the piezometric head is p1/ϒ + z1

Energy gradeline:
The line joining all the total energy heads of every section is know as the
energy grade line.
Total energy head = piezometric head + velocity head.
The total head is indicated by a pitot tube i.e. the line joining the readings of
pitot tubes at every section is known as the energy grade line.
Hydraulic and energy gradelines:

Figure: Definition sketch for the energy equation and grade lines.
Kinetic energy co-efficient:
- In deriving the Bernoulli’s equation, the velocity has been assumed to be uniform over the
entire cross-section and the mean or average velocity for the cross-section is used to
compute the velocity of kinetic energy head.
- So, cross-sectional mean velocity is always less then the actual velocity through a pipe, so
the kinetic energy measured using cross sectional mean velocity is generally less then
actual energy.
- So, to get the actual kinetic energy of the flow the mean kinetic energy is multiplied by
a coefficient α which is known as the kinetic energy co-efficient or the Coriolis co-efficient.

For turbulent flow α = 1.0

For laminar flow α = 2.0
- So, the Bernoulli’s equation after incorporating α and hf :
From the laws of conservation H1 = H2 + hf ; hf = headloss between section (1) and (2)
2 2
z1 + (p1/ϒ) + α1(v1 /2g) = z2 + (p2/ϒ) + α2(v2 /2g)+hf [Energy equation for 1-D flow]
Head and power:
Each term of Bernoulli’s or energy equation is called a head and
represents energy per unit weight having unit as m-kg/kg or N-m/m or
simply m. Power is defined as the rate of doing work . It is designated
by P and obtained by multiplying head H by the weight of liquid per
second. i.e.
P = W x HP,or,T = γ Q HP,or,T (unit: m-N/s or W)
Another unit of power is Horsepower, HP. So, if there is a pump or a
turbine, the energy equation thus stands:-

z1 + (p1/ϒ) + α1(v1 2/2g) ± HP,or,T= z2 + (p2/ϒ) + α2(v22/2g)+hf

Problem:
3. Moment equation:
The fundamental principle of dynamics is the Newton’s 2nd law of motion
which states that“ The time rate change of momentum is proportional to the
applied force and takes place in the direction of force”.
Let,
The change in velocity of a fluid of mass m in time dT be dV
Then, F = m (dV/dT)
F dT = m dV
The left-hand side of the above equation is known as the impulse of applied
force. The right-hand side is the resulting change in the momentum. The
equation is known as the impulse-momentum equation which states that the
impulse is equal to the resulting change in the momentum of a body.
Moment equation:
Fx = Change of momentum in x-direction x
change of velocity in x- direction. Thus,
ρQ(Vx1-Vx2) = Fx
ρQ(Vy1-Vy2) = Fy
ρQ(Vz1-Vz2) = Fz

Since, ρQ=ρ1Q1=ρ2Q2
The resultant force acting the body
F = √ (Fx2 + Fy2 + Fz2)

For two-dimensional flow, Fz = 0 and,

tanθ = (𝐹𝑦 )
𝐹𝑥
Figure: Determination of Momentum Equa.
Momentum co-efficient:
In deriving the momentum equation, the velocity has been assumed to be uniform over
the entire cross-section and the mean or average velocity for the cross-section is used to
compute the velocity of momentum.
But in reality the cross sectional mean velocity is always less then the actual velocity
through a pipe so the momentum measured using cross sectional mean velocity is
generally less then actual momentum.
So to get the actual momentum of the flow the mean velocity is multiplied by a coefficient
β which is known as the momentum co-efficient or the Boussinesq co-efficient.

For turbulent flow β = 1.04

4
For laminar flow β =
3
When the momentum coefficient β is incorporated, the momentum of the impulse
momentum eqaution should be modified and written as
Fx = ρQ(β Vx1- β Vx2)