DEPARTMENT OF METAL FORMING

SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

MATERIALS PROCESSING IN
AUTOMOTIVE ENGINEERING
Lecturer: Assoc.Prof.Dr. Nguyen Dac Trung
E-mail: [email protected]
 CONTENT OF COURSE

Chapter 1. Introduction and Overview of Materials Processing in Automotive Engineering

1.1 Introduction into Materials Processing
1.2 Overview of Parts in the car
1.3 Development of manufacturing technology
Chapter 2. Materials used in automotive engineering
2.1 Concept of materials
2.2 Metal and Alloy
2.3 Polymers and composite materials
2.4 Material Properties
2.5 Influence factors on material properties
Chapter 3. Materials Processing
3.1 Casting Process
3.2 Metal Forming
3.3 Machining
3.4 Welding and Joining
3.5 Pressing
3.6 Injection molding
Chapter 4. Equipments for Material Processing
4.1 Equipments for metal processing
4.2 Equipments for polymers and composite materials
4.3 Selection equipments and auxiliary devices
Chapter 5. Manufacturing and Support Systems
5.1 Automation Technologies for Manufacturing Systems
5.2 Integrated Manufacturing Systems
5.3 Process Planning and Production Control
 Overview
Chapter 3. Materials Processing
Questions about production…

Crankshaft CV Joint

Rear part of TOYOTA

 Overview
Chapter 3. Materials Processing

Manufacturing processes produce solid bodies with given geometry and given
properties.

Creation of Maintenance Destruction

Increase of Cohesion
Cohesion of Cohesion of Cohesion

Shape (Form) Modification

1. Primary 3.
2. Deforming 4. Joining
Forming Separating
5. Coating
(Form
6. Changing Material Properties
Generation)
Rearrangement Removal of Addition of
of Particles Particles Particles

Maintenance of Cohesion: Duy trì sự liên kết

 Overview
Chapter 3. Materials Processing

1. Primary Forming: Casting, Powder Metallurgy

2. Deforming: Metal Forming Processes
(Bulk and Sheet Forming)
3. Separating: Machining (with Cutting Tool
or with Abrasive Tool),
Non-Traditional Machining (Laser)
4. Joining: Welding, Joining
5. Coating: Various
6. Changing Material Properties: Heat Treatments
(temper, blank a fire)
 Chapter 3. Materials Processing

Casting of Stator made of gray iron Milling on Milling-machine with 5 axes

Drilling
Lathe
Chapter 3. Materials Processing
Jioning with rivet

Welding
Coating of TiN by method PVD

Thremal treatment
Chapter 3. Materials Processing

Drawing of car body parts Car body parts

Parts of machines Hollow parts used in conduit of oil or gas

 Overview
Chapter 3. Materials Processing
Basic Question of Manufacturing

How can we manufacture a technical product with given

specific dimensional and shape tolerances, given surface
structure and given material properties most economically?

Weld

Waste
Primary Forming: Metal Forming Separation: Joining:
Casting Turning Welding
Example Step-shaft ?
Chapter 3. Materials Processing
3.1 Casting Process

Steel making route

 Chapter 3. Materials Processing
3.1 Casting Process

Casting is a process in which molten metal flows by gravity or other force into a
mold where it solidifies in the shape of the mold cavity.
It is one of the oldest shaping processes, dating back 6000 years.
The principle of casting seems simple: melt the metal, pour it into a mold, and let it
cool and solidify.
There are many factors and variables that must be considered in order to
accomplish a successful casting operation.
 Chapter 3. Materials Processing
3.1 Casting Process

Casting includes both the casting of ingots and the casting of shapes. The term
ingot is usually associated with the primary metals industries; it describes a large
casting that is simple in shape. Shape casting involves the production of more
complex geometries that are much closer to the final desired shape of the part or
product.

Advantages
➢ Casting can be used to create complex part geometries, including both external
and internal shapes.
➢ Some casting processes are capable of producing parts to net shape. No further
manufacturing operations are required to achieve the required geometry and
dimensions of the parts. Other casting processes are near net shape, for which
some additional shape processing is required (usually machining) in order to achieve
accurate dimensions and details.
➢ Casting can be used to produce very large parts. Castings weighing more than
100 tons have been made.
➢ The casting process can be performed on any metal that can be heated to the
liquid state.
➢ Some casting methods are quite suited to mass production.
 Chapter 3. Materials Processing
3.1 Casting Process

Two forms of mold: (a) open mold, simply a container in the shape of the
desired part; and (b) closed mold, in which the mold geometry is more complex
and requires a gating system (passageway) leading into the cavity
 Chapter 3. Materials Processing
3.1 Casting Process
Cooling curve for a pure metal during casting

(a) Phase diagram for a copper–nickel alloy system and

(b) Associated cooling curve for a 50%Ni–50%Cu composition during casting.
 Chapter 3. Materials Processing
3.1 Casting Process

Shrinkage of a cylindrical
casting during solidification
and cooling:
(0) starting level of molten
metal immediately after
pouring;
(1) reduction in level caused
by liquid contraction during
cooling;
(2) reduction in height and
formation of shrinkage
cavity caused by
solidification shrinkage;
(3) further reduction in
height and diameter due to
thermal contraction during
cooling of the solid metal.
 Chapter 3. Materials Processing
3.1 Casting Process
Sand Casting
Sand casting, also known as sand-mold casting, consists of pouring molten metal into a sand
mold, allowing the metal to solidify, and then breaking up the mold to remove the casting.
Sand casting requires a pattern - a full-sized model of the part. Pattern and Core are used for
making of mold.

(a) Core held in place in the mold cavity by chaplets, (b) possible chaplet design, and (c)
casting with internal cavity
Chapter 3. Materials Processing
3.1 Casting Process
Sand Casting
Chapter 3. Materials Processing
3.1 Casting Process
VACUUM MOLDING Steps in vacuum molding:
(1) a thin sheet of preheated plastic is
drawn over a match-plate;
(2) a specially designed flask is
placed over the pattern plate and
filled with sand, and a sprue and
pouring cup are formed in the sand;
(3) second thin plastic sheet is placed
over the flask, and a vacuum is
drawn that causes the sand grains to
be held together, forming a rigid
mold;
(4) the vacuum on the mold pattern is
released to permit the pattern to be
stripped from the mold;
(5) this mold is assembled with its
matching half to form the cope and
drag, and with vacuum maintained on
both halves, pouring is accomplished.
The plastic sheet quickly burns away
on contacting the molten metal.
After solidification, nearly all of the
sand can be recovered for re-use.
 Chapter 3. Materials Processing
3.1 Casting Process
EXPANDED POLYSTYRENE PROCESS
The expanded polystyrene casting process uses a mold of sand packed around a polystyrene
foam pattern that vaporizes when the molten metal is poured into the mold.

(1) pattern of polystyrene is coated with refractory compound;

(2) foam pattern is placed in mold box, and sand is compacted around the pattern;
(3) molten metal is poured into the portion of the pattern that forms the pouring cup and sprue.
As the metal enters the mold, the polystyrene foam is vaporized ahead of the advancing liquid,
thus allowing the resulting mold cavity to be filled.
 Chapter 3. Materials Processing
3.1 Casting Process
DIE CASTING
Die-casting operations are carried out in special die-casting machines, which are designed to
hold and accurately close the two halves of the mold, and keep them closed while the liquid
metal is forced into the cavity.
 Chapter 3. Materials Processing
3.1 Casting Process

An aluminum engine head produced by the

expanded polystyrene casting process
A large die casting measuring
about 400 mm diagonally for a
truck cab floor
Chapter 3. Materials Processing
3.1 Casting Process
Casting Defects
Chapter 3. Materials Processing
3.2 Metal forming
 Chapter 3. Materials Processing
3.3 Machining (Metal cutting)
Classification of material removal processes

The material removal processes are a family of

shaping operations in which excess material is
removed from a starting work part so that what
remains is the desired final geometry.

Machining is a manufacturing process in which a

sharp cutting tool is used to cut away material to
leave the desired part shape.
 Chapter 3. Materials Processing
3.3 Machining (Metal cutting)

The predominant cutting action in machining involves

shear deformation of the work material to form a chip;
as the chip is removed, a new surface is exposed.
Machining is most frequently applied to shape metals.
 Chapter 3. Materials Processing
3.3 Machining (Metal cutting)

Machining is one of the most important manufacturing processes. The Industrial Revolution
and the growth of the manufacturing-based economies of the world can be traced largely to
the development of the various machining operations. Machining is important commercially
and technologically for several reasons:
• Variety of work materials
• Variety of part shapes and geometric features
• Dimensional accuracy (±0.025 mm)
• Good surface finishes: Roughness values less than 0.4 microns

On the other hand, certain disadvantages are associated with machining and other material
removal processes:
➢ Wasteful of material
➢ Time consuming: A machining operation generally takes more time to shape a
given part than alternative shaping processes such as casting or forging.

Machining is generally performed after other manufacturing processes such as

casting or bulk deformation (e.g., forging, bar drawing). The other processes create
the general shape of the starting work part, and machining provides the final
geometry, dimensions, and finish.
 Chapter 3. Materials Processing
3.3.1 Overview of Machining Technology
The most common types of machining processes: (a) turning, (b) drilling,
and two forms of milling: (c) peripheral milling, and (d) face milling.
Types of Machining Operations
 Chapter 3. Materials Processing
3.3.1 Overview of Machining Technology

The Cutting Tool A cutting tool has one or more sharp cutting edges and is
made of a material that is harder than the work material. The cutting edge
serves to separate a chip from the parent work material.

(a) A single-point tool showing rake face, flank, and tool point;
(b) (b) a helical milling cutter, representative of tools with multiple cutting edges.
Chapter 3. Materials Processing
3.3.1 Overview of Machining Technology
Cutting Conditions: Relative motion is required between the tool and work to perform a
machining operation. The primary motion is accomplished at a certain cutting speed v. In
addition, the tool must be moved laterally across the work. This is a much slower motion,
called the feed f. The remaining dimension of the cut is the penetration of the cutting tool
below the original work surface, called the depth of cut d. Collectively, speed, feed, and
depth of cut are called the cutting conditions.
 Chapter 3. Materials Processing
3.3.1 Overview of Machining Technology

Machining operations usually divide into two categories, distinguished by purpose and
cutting conditions: roughing cuts and finishing cuts.

Roughing cuts are used to remove large amounts of material from the starting work part as
rapidly as possible, in order to produce a shape close to the desired form, but leaving some
material on the piece for a subsequent finishing operation.
Finishing cuts are used to complete the part and achieve the final dimensions, tolerances,
and surface finish.

Roughing operations are performed at high feeds and depths. Feeds of 0.4–1.25 mm/rev
and depths of 2.5–20 mm are typical.
Finishing operations are carried out at low feeds and depths. Feeds of 0.125–0.4 mm/rev
and depths of 0.75–2.0 mm
Cutting speeds are lower in roughing than in finishing.

A cutting fluid is often applied to the machining operation to cool and lubricate
the cutting tool. Determining whether a cutting fluid should be used, and, if so, choosing the
proper cutting fluid, is usually included within the scope of cutting conditions. Given the work
material and tooling, the selection of these conditions is very influential in determining the
success of a machining operation.
 Chapter 3. Materials Processing
3.3.1 Overview of Machining Technology

Machine Tools is used to hold the work part, position the tool relative to the work, and
provide power for the machining process at the speed, feed, and depth that have been
set. By controlling the tool, work, and cutting conditions, machine tools permit parts to be
made with great accuracy and repeatability, to tolerances of 0.025 mm (0.001 in) and
better. The term machine tool applies to any power-driven machine that performs a
machining operation, including grinding.

The traditional machine tools used to perform turning, drilling, and milling are lathes, drill
presses, and milling machines, respectively. Conventional machine tools are usually
tended by a human operator, who loads and unloads the work parts, changes cutting
tools, and sets the cutting conditions.
Many modern machine tools are designed to accomplish their operations with a form of
automation called computer numerical control.
 Chapter 3. Materials Processing
3.3.2 Machining and Part Geometry
Machined parts can be classified as rotational or nonrotational.
A rotational work part has a cylindrical or disk-like shape. The characteristic operation that
produces this geometry is one in which a cutting tool removes material from a rotating work
part. Examples include turning and boring. Drilling is closely related except that an internal
cylindrical shape is created, and the tool rotates (rather than the work) in most drilling
operations.
A nonrotational (also called prismatic) work part is block-like or plate-like.
This geometry is achieved by linear motions of the work part, combined with either rotating or
linear tool motions. Operations in this category include milling, shaping, planing, and sawing.

Machined parts are classified as (a) rotational, or (b) nonrotational, shown

here by block and flat parts.
 Chapter 3. Materials Processing
3.3.2 Machining and Part Geometry

Generating shape in machining: (a) straight turning, (b) taper turning, (c)
contour turning, (d) plain milling, and (e) profile milling
Chapter 3. Materials Processing
3.3.2 Machining and Part Geometry

Forming to create shape in machining: (a) form turning,

(b) drilling, and (c) broaching.
Chapter 3. Materials Processing
3.3.2 Machining and Part Geometry

Combination of forming and generating to create shape:

(a) thread cutting on a lathe, and (b) slot milling
 Chapter 3. Materials Processing
3.3.3 Turning and Related Operations

(a) Facing. The tool is fed radially into the rotating work on one end to create a flat surface on
the end.
(b) Taper turning. Instead of feeding the tool parallel to the axis of rotation of the work, the tool
is fed at an angle, thus creating a tapered cylinder or conical shape.
(c) Contour turning. Instead of feeding the tool along a straight line parallel to the axis of
rotation as in turning, the tool follows a contour that is other than straight, thus creating a
contoured form in the turned part.
(d) Form turning. In this operation, sometimes called forming, the tool has a shape
that is imparted to the work by plunging the tool radially into the work.
 Chapter 3. Materials Processing
3.3.3 Turning and Related Operations

(e) Chamfering. The cutting edge of the tool is used to cut an angle on the corner of the
cylinder, forming a “chamfer.”
(f) Cutoff. The tool is fed radially into the rotating work at some location along its length to cut
off the end of the part. This operation is sometimes referred to as parting.
(g) Threading. A pointed tool is fed linearly across the outside surface of the rotating work part
in a direction parallel to the axis of rotation at a large effective feed rate, thus creating threads
in the cylinder.
 Chapter 3. Materials Processing
3.3.3 Turning and Related Operations

(h) Boring. A single-point tool is fed linearly, parallel to the axis of rotation, on the inside
diameter of an existing hole in the part.
(i) Drilling. Drilling can be performed on a lathe by feeding the drill into the rotating work along
its axis. Reaming can be performed in a similar way.
(j) Knurling. This is not a machining operation because it does not involve cutting of material.
Instead, it is a metal forming operation used to produce a regular cross-hatched pattern in the
work surface.
Chapter 3. Materials Processing
3.3.3 Turning and Related Operations

Diagram of an engine lathe

 Chapter 3. Materials Processing
3.3.3 Turning and Related Operations

Four work-holding methods used in lathes: (a) mounting the work between
centers using a dog, (b) three-jaw chuck, (c) collet, and (d) faceplate for
noncylindrical work parts
Chapter 3. Materials Processing
3.3.3 Turning and Related Operations

A vertical boring mill

Chapter 3. Materials Processing
3.3.4 Drilling and Related Operations

Two hole types: (a) through hole and (b) blind hole
 Chapter 3. Materials Processing
3.3.4 Drilling and Related Operations

(a) Reaming. Reaming is used to slightly enlarge a hole, to provide a better tolerance on its
diameter, and to improve its surface finish. The tool is called a reamer, and it usually has
straight flutes.
(b) Tapping. This operation is performed by a tap and is used to provide internal screw
threads on an existing hole.
(c) Counterboring. Counterboring provides a stepped hole, in which a larger diameter
follows a smaller diameter partially into the hole. A counterbored hole is used to seat a bolt
head into a hole so the head does not protrude above the surface.
 Chapter 3. Materials Processing
3.3.4 Drilling and Related Operations

(d) Countersinking. This is similar to counterboring, except that the step in the hole is cone-
shaped for flat head screws and bolts.
(e) Centering. Also called center drilling, this operation drills a starting hole to accurately
establish its location for subsequent drilling. The tool is called a center drill.
(f) Spot facing. Spot facing is similar to milling. It is used to provide a flat machined surface on
the work part in a localized area.
Chapter 3. Materials Processing
3.3.4 Drilling and Related Operations

Upright drill press.

 Chapter 3. Materials Processing
3.3.4 Milling

Two basic types of

milling operations:
(a) peripheral or plain
milling and (b) face
milling

Milling is a machining operation in which a work part is fed past a rotating cylindrical tool with
multiple cutting edges.

Milling is an interrupted cutting operation; the teeth of the milling cutter enter and
exit the work during each revolution. This interrupted cutting action subjects the
teeth to a cycle of impact force and thermal shock on every rotation. The tool
material and cutter geometry must be designed to withstand these conditions.
 Chapter 3. Materials Processing
3.3.4 Milling
There are two basic types of milling operations, (a) peripheral milling and (b) face milling.

Peripheral milling:
(a) slab milling,
(b) slotting,
(c) side milling,
(d) straddle milling,
(e) form milling.

In peripheral milling, also called plain milling, the axis of the tool is parallel to the surface
being machined, and the operation is performed by cutting edges on the outside periphery
of the cutter.
Chapter 3. Materials Processing
3.3.4 Milling

Two forms of peripheral milling operation with 20-tooth cutter:

(a) up milling, and
(b) down milling.
 Chapter 3. Materials Processing
3.3.4 Milling

Face milling:
(a) Conventional face milling,
(b) Partial face milling,
(c) End milling,
(d) Profile milling,
(e) Pocket milling,
and (f) surface contouring.

In face milling, the axis of the cutter is perpendicular to the surface being milled, and
machining is performed by cutting edges on both the end and outside periphery of the
cutter.
 Chapter 3. Materials Processing
3.3.4 Milling

Two basic types of knee-and-column milling machine: (a) horizontal and

(b) vertical
Chapter 3. Materials Processing
3.3.4 Milling
Machining Centers and Turning Centers

Machining Centers Turning Centers

 Chapter 3. Materials Processing
3.3.4 Milling

A machining center is a highly automated machine tool capable of performing

multiple machining operations under computer numerical control in one setup with
minimal human attention. Workers are needed to load and unload parts, which
usually takes considerably less time than the machine cycle time, so one worker
may be able to tend more than one machine. Typical operations performed on a
machining center are milling and drilling, which use rotating cutting tools.
The typical features that distinguish a machining center from conventional
machine tools and make it so productive include:
▪ Multiple operations in one setup
▪ Automatic tool changing
▪ Automatic work part positioning

Machining centers are classified as horizontal, vertical, or universal. The

designation refers to spindle orientation.
 Chapter 3. Materials Processing
3.3.4 Milling

Success of CNC machining centers led to the development of CNC turning centers.
A modern CNC turning center can perform various turning and related operations,
contour turning, and automatic tool indexing, all under computer control.

In addition, the most sophisticated turning centers can accomplish (1) work part
gaging (checking key dimensions after machining), (2) tool monitoring (sensors to
indicate when the tools are worn), (3) automatic tool changing when tools become
worn, and even (4) automatic work part changing at the completion of the work
cycle.

Further progress in machine tool technology has taken the mill-turn center one step
further by integrating additional capabilities into a single machine.

The additional capabilities include combining milling, drilling, and turning with
grinding, welding, and inspection operations, all in one machine tool; using multiple
spindles simultaneously, either on a single workpiece or two different workpieces;
and automating the part handling function by adding industrial robots to the
machine.
 Chapter 3. Materials Processing
3.3.4 Milling

Operation of a mill-turn center:

(a) example part with turned, milled, and drilled surfaces;
(b) sequence of operations on a mill-turn center: (1) turn second diameter, (2)
mill flat with part in programmed angular position, (3) drill hole with part
in same programmed position, and (4) cutoff.
 Chapter 3. Materials Processing
3.3.5 Shaping

Shaping: the using of a single-point cutting tool moved linearly relative to the work part.

Shaping is performed on a machine tool called a shaper. The components of the shaper
include a ram, which moves relative to a column to provide the cutting motion, and a worktable
that holds the part and accomplishes the feed motion. The motion of the ram consists of a
forward stroke to achieve the cut, and a return stroke during which the tool is lifted slightly to
clear the work and then reset for the next pass. On completion of each return stroke, the
worktable is advanced laterally relative to the ram trajectory to feed the part.
 Chapter 3. Materials Processing
3.3.6 Machining Operations for Special Geometries
One of the reasons for the technological importance of machining is its capability to produce
unique geometric features such as screw threads and gear teeth.

Thread milling using a

form-milling cutter Form milling of gear teeth
Chapter 3. Materials Processing
3.3.6 Machining Operations for Special Geometries

Gear shaping
Gear hobbing
 Chapter 3. Materials Processing
3.3.7 High-Speed Machining

One persistent trend throughout the history of metal machining has been the use of higher and
higher cutting speeds. In recent years, there has been renewed interest in this area due to its
potential for faster production rates, shorter lead times, reduced costs, and improved part
quality.
In its simplest definition, high-speed machining (HSM) means using cutting speeds that are
significantly higher than those used in conventional machining operations.
 Chapter 3. Materials Processing
3.3.8 Cutting tool
Machining operations are accomplished using cutting tools. The high forces and temperatures
during machining create a very harsh environment for the tool.
If cutting force becomes too high, the tool fractures. If cutting temperature becomes too high,
the tool material softens and fails. If neither of these conditions causes the tool to fail,
continual wear of the cutting edge ultimately leads to failure.

Tool Life
As suggested by the opening paragraph, there are three possible modes by which a cutting
tool can fail in machining:
1. Fracture failure. This mode of failure occurs when the cutting force at the tool point
becomes excessive, causing it to fail suddenly by brittle fracture.
2. Temperature failure. This failure occurs when the cutting temperature is too high for the tool
material, causing the material at the tool point to soften,
which leads to plastic deformation and loss of the sharp edge.
3. Gradual wear. Gradual wearing of the cutting edge causes loss of tool shape, reduction in
cutting efficiency, an acceleration of wearing as the tool becomes heavily worn, and finally tool
failure in a manner similar to a temperature failure.
 Chapter 3. Materials Processing
3.3.8 Cutting tool
Tool Materials
The three modes of tool failure allow us to identify three important properties
required in a tool material:

➢ Toughness. To avoid fracture failure, the tool material must possess high
toughness. Toughness is the capacity of a material to absorb energy without
failing. It is usually characterized by a combination of strength and ductility in the
material.
➢ Hot hardness. Hot hardness is the ability of a material to retain its hardness at
high temperatures. This is required because of the high-temperature environment
in which the tool operates.
➢ Wear resistance. Hardness is the single most important property needed to
resist abrasive wear. All cutting-tool materials must be hard. However, wear
resistance in metal cutting depends on more than just tool hardness, because
of the other tool-wear mechanisms. Other characteristics affecting wear
resistance include surface finish on the tool (a smoother surface means a lower
coefficient of friction), chemistry of tool and work materials, and whether a
cutting fluid is used.
 Chapter 3. Materials Processing
3.3.8 Cutting tool

Typical hardness values (at room temperature) and transverse rupture

strengths for various tool materials
 Chapter 3. Materials Processing
3.3.9 Grinding
Grinding is a material removal process accomplished by abrasive particles that are contained
in a bonded grinding wheel rotating at very high surface speeds. The grinding wheel is usually
disk shaped and is precisely balanced for high rotational speeds.

Typical structure of a grinding wheel.

Chapter 3. Materials Processing
3.3.9 Grinding
Chapter 3. Materials Processing
3.3.9 Grinding
Chapter 3. Materials Processing
3.3.9 Grinding

Standard grinding wheel

 Chapter 3. Materials Processing
3.3.9 Grinding

Four types of surface

grinding:
(a) horizontal spindle
with reciprocating
worktable,
(b) Horizontal spindle with
rotating worktable,
(c) Vertical spindle with
reciprocating worktable,
(d) Vertical spindle with
rotating worktable.
 Chapter 3. Materials Processing
3.3.9 Grinding

Surface grinder with

horizontal spindle and
reciprocating worktable.

Two types of cylindrical

grinding: (a) external,
(b) internal.
 Chapter 3. Materials Processing
3.3.10 Nontraditional Machining and Thermal Cutting Processes

The term nontraditional machining refers to this group that removes excess material
by various techniques involving mechanical, thermal, electrical, or chemical energy
(or combinations of these energies). They do not use a sharp cutting tool in the
conventional sense.

The nontraditional processes have been developed in response to new and unusual
machining requirements that could not be satisfied by conventional methods. These
requirements, and the
resulting commercial and technological importance of the nontraditional processes,
include:
➢ The need to machine newly developed metals and nonmetals. These new
materials often have special properties (e.g., high strength, high hardness, high
toughness) that make them difficult or impossible to machine by conventional
methods.
➢ The need for unusual and/or complex part geometries that cannot easily be
accomplished and in some cases are impossible to achieve by conventional
machining.
➢ The need to avoid surface damage that often accompanies the stresses created
by conventional machining.
Chapter 3. Materials Processing
3.3.10 Nontraditional Machining and Thermal Cutting Processes
Chapter 3. Materials Processing
3.3.10 Nontraditional Machining and Thermal Cutting Processes
Mechanical Energy Processes

Ultrasonic machining
Water jet cutting
Chapter 3. Materials Processing
3.3.10 Nontraditional Machining and Thermal Cutting Processes
Mechanical Energy Processes

Abrasive jet machining

Chapter 3. Materials Processing
3.3.10 Nontraditional Machining and Thermal Cutting Processes
Electrochemical Machining Processes

Electrochemical machining (ECM)

 Chapter 3. Materials Processing
3.3.10 Nontraditional Machining and Thermal Cutting Processes
Thermal Energy Processes

Material removal processes based on thermal energy are characterized by very high
local temperatures—hot enough to remove material by fusion or vaporization.
Because of the high temperatures, these processes cause physical and metallurgical
damage to the new work surface. In some cases, the resulting finish is so poor that
subsequent processing is required to smooth the surface.

This section examines several thermal energy processes that are commercially
important:
(1) electric discharge machining and electric discharge wire cutting,
(2) electron beam machining,
(3) laser beam machining,
(4) arc cutting processes,
(5) oxyfuel cutting processes.
 Chapter 3. Materials Processing
3.3.10 Nontraditional Machining and Thermal Cutting Processes
Electric discharge processes

Electric discharge machining (EDM): (a) overall setup, and (b) close-up view of
gap, showing discharge and metal removal.
Chapter 3. Materials Processing
3.3.10 Nontraditional Machining and Thermal Cutting Processes
Electric Discharge Wire Cutting
Chapter 3. Materials Processing
3.3.10 Nontraditional Machining and Thermal Cutting Processes
Electron beam machining (EBM)
Chapter 3. Materials Processing
3.3.10 Nontraditional Machining and Thermal Cutting Processes
Laser beam machining (LBM)
Chapter 3. Materials Processing
3.3.10 Nontraditional Machining and Thermal Cutting Processes
Plasma Arc Cutting
 Chapter 3. Materials Processing
3.4 Welding and Joining
The term joining is generally used for welding, brazing, soldering, and
adhesive bonding, which form a permanent joint between the parts—a joint
that cannot easily be separated.
The term assembly usually refers to mechanical methods of fastening parts
together.
Welding is a materials joining process in which two or more parts are
coalesced/combined at their contacting surfaces by a suitable application of
heat and/or pressure.

Many welding processes are accomplished by heat alone, with no pressure

applied; others by a combination of heat and pressure; and still others by
pressure alone, with no external heat supplied.

In some welding processes a filler material is added to facilitate

coalescence/combination.

The assemblage of parts that are joined by welding is called a weldment.

Welding is most associated with metal parts, but the process is also used for
joining plastics.
Chapter 3. Materials Processing
3.4 Welding and Joining

Technological importance / advantages

➢ Welding provides a permanent joint. The welded parts become a single

entity.
➢ The welded joint can be stronger than the parent materials if a filler metal
is used that has strength properties superior to those of the parents, and
if proper welding techniques are used.
➢ Welding is usually the most economical way to join components in terms
of material usage and fabrication costs. Alternative mechanical methods
of assembly require more complex shape alterations (e.g., drilling of
holes) and addition of fasteners (e.g., rivets or bolts). The resulting
mechanical assembly is usually heavier than a corresponding weldment.
➢ Welding is not restricted to the factory environment.
 Chapter 3. Materials Processing
3.4 Welding and Joining

Limitations and drawbacks

➢ Most welding operations are performed manually and are expensive in

terms of labor cost. Many welding operations are considered “skilled
trades,” and the labor to perform these operations may be scarce.
➢ Most welding processes are inherently dangerous because they involve the
use of high energy.
➢ Because welding accomplishes a permanent bond between the
components, it does not allow for convenient disassembly. If the product
must occasionally be disassembled (e.g., for repair or maintenance), then
welding should not be used as the assembly method.
➢ The welded joint can suffer from certain quality defects that are difficult to
detect. The defects can reduce the strength of the joint.
Chapter 3. Materials Processing
3.4 Welding and Joining
 3.4 Welding and Joining
TYPES OF WELDING PROCESSES

The welding processes can be divided into two major groups:

(1) fusion welding and (2) solid-state welding.
Fusion-welding processes use heat to melt the base metals. In many fusion
welding operations, a filler metal is added to the molten pool to facilitate the
process and provide bulk and strength to the welded joint. A fusion-welding
operation in which no filler metal is added is referred to as an autogenous weld.

Basics of arc welding: (1) before the weld; (2) during the weld (the base metal is
melted, and filler metal is added to the molten pool); and (3) the completed
weldment.
 3.4 Welding and Joining
TYPES OF WELDING PROCESSES

Solid-state welding refers to joining processes in which coalescence results from

application of pressure alone or a combination of heat and pressure. If heat is used,
the temperature in the process is below the melting point of the metals being
welded. No filler metal is utilized.

Fusion-welding: Arc welding, Resistance welding, Oxyfuel gas welding, electron beam
welding and laser beam welding

Solid-state welding: Diffusion welding, Friction welding, Ultrasonic welding

Manual welding

Automation in Welding

Machine welding

Robotic welding
 3.4 Welding and Joining
TYPES OF JOINTS

Five basic types of joints: (a) butt, (b) corner, (c) lap, (d) tee, and (e) edge
 3.4 Welding and Joining
TYPES OF WELDS

Various forms of fillet welds: (a) inside single fillet corner joint; (b) outside
single fillet corner joint; (c) double fillet lap joint; and (d) double fillet tee
joint. Dashed lines show the original part edges.
3.4 Welding and Joining
TYPES OF WELDS
3.4 Welding and Joining

Melting temperatures on the absolute temperature scale for selected

metals.
3.4 Welding and Joining

Cross section of a typical fusion-welded joint: (a) principal zones in the

joint and (b) typical grain structure
3.4 Welding and Joining

Welding Processes

Arc Welding
3.4 Welding and Joining

Welding Processes

Resistance Welding
3.4 Welding and Joining
Steps in a resistance spot-welding
3.4 Welding and Joining
3.4 Welding and Joining
3.4 Welding and Joining

Oxyfuel Gas Welding

3.4 Welding and Joining
Brazing / Soldering
 Chapter 3. Materials Processing
3.5 Pressing and 3.6 Injection Molding

Processes for Plastics

To shape a thermoplastic polymer it must be heated so that it softens to the consistency of a
liquid. In this form, it is called a polymer melt.

Properties and characteristics

Viscosity is important in polymer
processing because most of the
shaping methods involve flow of the
polymer melt through small channels or
die openings. The flow rates are often
large, thus leading to high rates of
shear; and the shear stresses increase
with shear rate, so that significant
pressures are required to accomplish
the processes.
 Chapter 3. Materials Processing
Processes for Plastics
Viscoelasticity of melt polymer for example: die swell in extrusion, in which the hot plastic
expands when exiting the die opening. The phenomenon can be explained by noting that the
polymer was contained in a much larger cross section before entering the narrow die channel.
In effect, the extruded material “remembers” its former shape and attempts to return to it after
leaving the die orifice. More technically, the compressive stresses acting on the material as it
enters the small die opening do not relax immediately. When the material subsequently exits
the orifice and the restriction is removed, the unrelaxed stresses cause the cross section to
expand.
Chapter 3. Materials Processing
Processes for Plastics
Extrusion
Chapter 3. Materials Processing
Processes for Plastics
Injection Molding
Chapter 3. Materials Processing
Processes for Plastics
Injection Molding

Two-plate mold

Three-plate mold
Chapter 3. Materials Processing
Processes for Plastics
Compression
Chapter 3. Materials Processing
Processes for Plastics
Transfer molding
Chapter 3. Materials Processing
Processes for Plastics
Blow molding
Chapter 3. Materials Processing
Processes for Plastics
Thermoforming
 Chapter 3. Materials Processing
Processing of Polymer Matrix Composites

A polymer matrix composite (PMC) is a

composite material consisting of a polymer
embedded with a reinforcing phase such as
fibers or powders.
The technological and commercial
importance of PMC processes derives from
the growing use of this class of material,
especially fiber reinforced polymers (FRPs).
In popular usage, PMC generally refers to
fiber-reinforced polymers. FRP composites
can be designed with very high strength to-
weight and stiffness-to-weight ratios. These
features make them attractive in aircraft,
cars, trucks, boats, and sports equipment.

Classification of manufacturing processes for

Fiber Reinforced Polymer composites
 Chapter 3. Materials Processing
Processing of Polymer Matrix Composites
Process for producing sheet molding compound (SMC)

➢Sheet molding compound (SMC) is a combination of polymer resin, fillers and other
additives, and chopped glass fibers (randomly oriented) all rolled into a sheet of typical
thickness 6.5 mm.
➢The most common resin is unsaturated polyester; fillers are usually mineral powders such
as silica, limestone; and the glass fibers are typically 12 to 75 mm long and account for
about 30% of the SMC by volume.
➢SMCs are very convenient for handling and cutting to proper size as molding charges.
Sheet molding compounds are generally produced between thin layers of polyethylene to
limit evaporation of volatiles from the thermosetting resin.
➢The protective coating also improves surface finish on subsequent molded parts.
 Chapter 3. Materials Processing
Processing of Polymer Matrix Composites

Open Mold Processes

Hand lay-up procedure:
(1) mold is cleaned and treated
with a mold release agent;
(2) a thin gel coat (resin,
possibly pigmented to color) is
applied, which will become the
outside surface of the molding;
(3) when the gel coat has
partially set, successive layers
of resin and fiber are applied,
the fiber being in the form of
mat or cloth; each layer is
rolled to fully impregnate the
fiber with resin and remove air
bubbles;
(4) the part is cured;
(5) the fully hardened part is
removed from the mold.
Chapter 3. Materials Processing
Processing of Polymer Matrix Composites

Open Mold Processes

Spray-up method.
Chapter 3. Materials Processing
Processing of Polymer Matrix Composites

Closed Mold Processes COMPRESSION MOLDING PROCESSES

Elastic reservoir molding:

(1) foam is placed into mold between two fiber layers;
(2) mold is closed, releasing resin from foam into fiber layers.
Chapter 3. Materials Processing
Processing of Polymer Matrix Composites

Filament winding
 Chapter 3. Materials Processing
Processing of Polymer Matrix Composites

Pultrusion process

(1) filament feeding, in which the fibers are unreeled from a creel (shelves with skewers
that hold filament bobbins);
(2) resin impregnation, in which the fibers are dipped in the uncured liquid resin;
(3) pre-die forming - the collection of filaments is gradually shaped into the approximate
cross section desired;
(4) shaping and curing, in which the impregnated fibers are pulled through the heated die
whose length is 1–1.5 m and whose inside surfaces are highly polished;
(5) pulling and cutting—pullers are used to draw the cured length through the die, after
which it is cut by a cut-off wheel with SiC or diamond grits.
 Chapter 3. Materials Processing
Powder Metallurgy
Powder metallurgy (PM) is a metal processing technology in which parts are produced from
metallic powders.
The powders are compressed into the desired shape and then heated to cause bonding of the
particles into a hard, rigid mass.
Compression, called pressing, is accomplished in a press-type machine using tools designed
specifically for the part to be manufactured. The
Heating treatment, called sintering, is performed at a temperature below the melting point of
the metal.

Iron powders Finished parts

 Chapter 3. Materials Processing
Powder producing

Several atomization
methods for producing
metallic powders:
(a) and (b) two gas
atomization methods;
(c) water atomization;
(d) centrifugal
atomization by the
rotating disk method.
 Chapter 3. Materials Processing
Pressing and Sintering

The conventional
powder metallurgy
production sequence:
(1) blending,
(2) compacting,
(3) sintering;
Chapter 3. Materials Processing
Pressing and Sintering