Antenna and Wave Propagation

Unit-V
Sky Wave Propagation
• It is a type of radio wave propagation. The wave which propagate
through atmosphere and are reflected back by the ionosphere of earth's
atmosphere is called as sky wave propagation.

• These waves go from transmitter antenna to receiver antenna travelling

• Frequency communication range (2 / 30 MHz)

from the ionosphere. It consists of several layers of charged particles ranging

in altitude from 30- 250 miles above the surface of the earth.

• Such a travel of the wave from transmitter to the ionosphere and from there

to the receiver on Earth is known as Sky Wave Propagation. Ionosphere is

the ionized layer around the Earth’s atmosphere, which is suitable for sky

wave propagation.
• Earth’s atmosphere has several layers. These layers play an important role in the wireless communication. These are
mainly classified into three layers.

Troposphere

• This is the layer of the earth, which lies just above the ground. We, the flora and fauna live in this layer. The ground
wave propagation and LOS propagation take place here.

Stratosphere

• This is the layer of the earth, which lies above Troposphere. The birds fly in this region. The airplanes travel in this
region. Ozone layer is also present in this region. The ground wave propagation and LOS propagation takes place
here.

Ionosphere

• This is the upper layer of the Earth’s atmosphere, where ionization is appreciable. The energy radiated by the Sun,
not only heats this region, but also produces positive and negative ions. Since the Sun constantly radiates UV rays
and air pressure is low, this layer encourages ionization of particles.
Structure of Ionosphere
• The ionosphere is composed of three layers designated D, E, and F, from lowest level
to highest level as shown in figure, The F layer is further divided into two layers
designated F1 (the lower layer) and F2 (the higher layer). The presence or absence of
these layers in the ionosphere and their height above the Earth varies with the
position of the sun.

• The D layer ranges from about 50 to 90 km. Ionization in the D layer is low because
it is the lowest region of the ionosphere. This layer has the ability to refract signals of
low frequencies. High frequencies pass right through it and are attenuated. After
sunset, the D layer disappears because of the rapid recombination of ions.
• The E layer limits are from about 90 to 130km. The rate of ionic recombination in this layer is
rather rapid after sunset and the layer is almost gone by midnight. This layer has the ability to
refract signals as high as 20 megahertz. For this reason, it is valuable for communications in
ranges up to about 1500 miles.
• The F layer exists from about 140 to 400 km. During the daylight hours, the F layer separates
into two layers, the F1 and F2 layers.
✓ The ionization level in these layers is quite high and varies widely during the day. At noon,
this portion of the atmosphere is closest to the sun and the degree of ionization is maximum.
✓ Since the atmosphere is rarefied at these heights, recombination occurs slowly after sunset.
Therefore, a fairly constant ionized layer is always present. The F layers are responsible for
high-frequency, long distance transmission.
Expression for Refractive Index of Ionosphere
Mechanism of Wave Propagation
Critical Frequency
• For any given time, each ionospheric layer has a maximum frequency at which radio waves can
be transmitted vertically and refracted back to Earth. This frequency is known as the
CRITICAL FREQUENCY.

• Radio waves transmitted at frequencies higher than the critical frequency of a given layer will
pass through the layer and be lost in space; but if these same waves enter an upper layer with a
higher critical frequency, they will be refracted back to Earth.

• Radio waves of frequencies lower than the critical frequency will also be refracted back to
Earth unless they are absorbed or have been refracted from a lower layer. The lower the
frequency of a radio wave, the more rapidly the wave is refracted by a given degree of
ionization
Maximum Usable Frequency
• For a given angle of incidence and time of day, there is a maximum frequency that can
be used for communications between two given locations. This frequency is known as
the MAXIMUM USABLE FREQUENCY (MUF).
Skip Distance
Curved surface
Wave Characteristics
Antenna and Wave Propagation

Unit-V

Wave Propagation
Ground wave Propagation and Space wave Propagation
Ground wave Propagation and Space wave Propagation
 Ground wave Propagation and Space wave Propagation
• In grounded wave propagation, the waves are guided along the surface of the earth just an
electromagnetic wave is guided through a waveguide. This propagation exists when transmitting and
receiving antennas are close to the surface of the earth. They are produced by vertical antennas, i.e.,
vertically polarized antenna.
• In space wave propagation, the waves from transmitting antenna reach to the receiving antenna after
reflector (from troposphere of space) and direct. Therefore, the receiving antenna receives the two waves,
one is indirect and other is direct. Since, both these waves travel along the different paths, they have
different path lengths.
Mode of Propagation Frequency Range
Ground Wave Propagation Up to 2 MHz
Space wave Propagation UHF and Microwave above 300 MHz
Sky Wave Propagation Between 2 to 30 MHz
 Plane Earth Reflection
• The wave propagation can be obtained by means of space wave propagation when

transmitting and receiving antennas are elevated. This propagation is called as line of

sight propagation. The reason is that the two antennas are within the sight of vision.

The received resultant signal is a resultant of signal the receiver through a direct path

(space wave) and that reaching after being reflected by the ground (surface wave).

• Fig. (1) shows the direct and reflected waves between transmitter and receiver
(i) The transmitted and reflected waves will have the same amplitudes and the earth is
considered to be perfect conductor having infinite conductivity.
(ii) If the surface of the earth is smooth and has finite conductivity, then the amplitude
and phase of reflected wave will differ from that of the incident wave.
(iii) When the surface of the earth is rough, then the reflected wave will be scattered.
Their amplitude will be reduced as compared to the amplitude of a smooth surface
(ii) At low operating frequencies , very tall antennas should be used. This is because
𝛌
the antenna height should be atleast ( ).
4
(iii) High transmission power is necessary to cover the adequate range. The power
in excess of 1 MW is a common thing.
• Both the waves undergo attenuation (negligible small) as they travel through space as
spreading and rain. It is important to mention here that only high frequency waves are
attenuated by rain.
• The field strength of each wave is inversely proportional to the distance from transmitter
provided the transmitter and receiver antennas as far away from each other. Further, the
distance d should be greater than the antenna heights. Therefore, the angle of incidence for the
ground reflected wave at the surface of earth will be small. At receiving antenna, the magnitude
of two waves remains the same but the phase reverses irrespective of the type of polarization.