Unit 3

SQL
Topics Covered
• SQL commands,
• Constraints,
• Joins,
• set operations,
• Sub queries,
• Views,
• PL – SQL,
• Triggers, and Cursors.
Basics of SQL-DDL,DML,DCL,TCL Nested Queries, Views and its Structure
Creation, alternation Types
Defining Constraints-Primary Key, Foreign Key, Transaction Control Commands
Unique, not null, check, IN operator Commit, Rollback, Savepoint

Functions-aggregation functions PL/SQL Concepts- Cursors

Built-in Functions-numeric, date, string
functions, string functions, Set operations, Stored Procedure, Functions
Triggers and Exceptional Handling
Sub Queries, correlated sub queries Query Processing
Basics of SQL
DDL is Data Definition Language statements
• Some examples

• CREATE - to create objects in the database

• ALTER - alters the structure of the database
• DROP - delete objects from the database
• TRUNCATE - remove all records from a table
• COMMENT - add comments to the data dictionary
DML is Data Manipulation Language statements
• Some examples:

• SELECT - retrieve data from the a database

• INSERT - insert data into a table
• UPDATE - updates existing data within a table
• DELETE - deletes all records from a table, the space for the
records remain
• CALL - call a PL/SQL or Java subprogram
• EXPLAIN PLAN - explain access path to data
• LOCK TABLE - control concurrency
TCL(Transaction Control Language) is a DML
• COMMIT - save work done
• SAVEPOINT - identify a point in a transaction to which you can
later roll back
• ROLLBACK - restore database to original since the last
COMMIT
• SET TRANSACTION - Change transaction options like what
rollback segment to use

DCL is Data Control Language statements

• Some examples:
• GRANT - gives user's access privileges to database
• REVOKE - withdraw access privileges given with the GRANT
command
 Data-Definition Language
• Set of definitions expressed by a special language called a data-definition language (DDL).
• The storage structure and access methods used by the database system by a set of statements in a
special type of DDL called a data storage and definition language.
• The data values stored in the database must satisfy certain consistency constraints.
• Domain Constraints: A domain of possible values must be associated with every attribute (for
example, integer types, character types, date/time types).
• Domain constraints are the most elementary form of integrity constraint.
• Referential Integrity: There are cases where we wish to ensure that a value that appears in one
relation for a given set of attributes also appears in a certain set of attributes in another relation
(referential integrity).
• Database modifications can cause violations of referential integrity.
• Assertions: An assertion is any condition that the database must always satisfy. Domain
constraints and referential-integrity constraints are special forms of assertions.
• Authorization: To differentiate among the users as far as the type of access they are permitted on
various data values in the database. These differentiations are expressed in terms of authorization.
• Read Authorization - which allows reading, but not modification of data.
• Insert Authorization - which allows insertion of new data but not modification of existing data.
• update authorization - which allows modification but not deletion of data.
• Delete Authorization - which allows deletion of data.

• The output of the DDL is placed in the data dictionary which contains metadata - that is, data about data.
• SQL provides a rich DDL that allows one to define tables, integrity constraints, assertions, etc.

create table department (dept name char (20), building char (15), budget numeric (12,2));

• Execution of the above DDL statement creates the department table with three columns: dept name,
building, and budget, each of which has a specific data type associated with it.
 CREATING DATABASE TABLE

• CREATE – creates a new table in the database

• Used to create a table by defining its structure, the data type and name of the various
columns, the relationships with columns of other tables etc.

• CREATE TABLE table_name (column_name1 data_type(size), column_name2

data_type(size),…., column_nameN data_type(size));

• E.g.:
CREATE TABLE Employee(Name varchar2(20), DOB date, Salary number(6));
ALTER - Add a new attribute or Modify the characteristics of some existing attribute.

• ALTER TABLE table_name ADD (column_name1 data_type (size), column_name2 data_type

(size),….., column_nameN data_type (size));

E.g.:
ALTER TABLE Employee ADD (Address varchar2(20));
ALTER TABLE Employee ADD (Designation varchar2(20), Dept varchar2(3));
ALTER TABLE table_name MODIFY (column_name data_type(new_size));

E.g.:

ALTER TABLE Employee MODIFY (Name varchar2(30));

ALTER - dropping a column from the table

• ALTER TABLE table_name DROP COLUMN column_name;

E.g.:

ALTER TABLE Student DROP COLUMN Age;

DROP - Deleting an entire table from the database.

DROP TABLE table_name;

E.g.:
DROP TABLE Employee

RENAME – Renaming the table

RENAME old_table_name TO new_table_name;

E.g.:
RENAME Employee TO Employee_details
• TRUNCATE – deleting all rows from a table and free the space containing the table.

TRUNCATE TABLE table_name;

E.g.:
TRUNCATE TABLE Employee_details;
 Data Manipulation Language

A DML statement is executed when you

• Add new rows to a table
• Modify existing rows in a table
• Remove existing rows from a table
Add new rows to a table by using the INSERT statement.
1. INSERT INTO table VALUES(value1, value2,..);
• Only one row is inserted at a time with this syntax.
• List values in the default order of the columns in the table
• Enclose character and date values within single quotation marks.
• Insert a new row containing values for each column.

E.g.:
• INSERT INTO Employee VALUES (‘ashok’, ‘16-mar-1998’, 30000);

2. INSERT INTO table(column1, column2,..)VALUES(value1, value2,..);

• Rows can be inserted with NULL values either
• by omitting column from the column list or
• by specifying NULL in the value field.
E.g.:
• INSERT INTO Employee (name, dob, salary) VALUES (‘ashok’, ‘16-mar-1998’, 30000);
3. INSERT INTO table_name1 SELECT column_name1,
column_name2,….,column_nameN FROM table_name2;

• INSERT INTO Employee_details SELECT name, dob FROM Exmployee;

Data-Manipulation Language (DML)

• The SQL query language is nonprocedural.

select instructor.name from instructor where instructor.dept

name = ’History’;

• Queries may involve information from more than one table.

select instructor.ID, department.dept name from instructor,

department where instructor.dept name= department.dept name
and department.budget > 95000;
Basics of SQL-DDL,DML,DCL,TCL Nested Queries, Views and its Structure
Creation, alternation Types
Defining Constraints-Primary Key, Foreign Key, Transaction Control Commands
Unique, not null, check, IN operator Commit, Rollback, Savepoint

Functions-aggregation functions PL/SQL Concepts- Cursors

Built-in Functions-numeric, date, string
functions, string functions, Set operations, Stored Procedure, Functions
Triggers and Exceptional Handling
Sub Queries, correlated sub queries Query Processing
 SQL Constraints
• Constraints are the rules that we can apply on the type of data in a
table. That is, we can specify the limit on the type of data that can be
stored in a particular column in a table using constraints.
• Constraints in SQL
✔ Not Null
✔ Unique
✔ Primary Key
✔ Foreign Key
✔ Check
✔ Default
• How to specify constraints?
• We can specify constraints at the time of creating the table using
CREATE TABLE statement. We can also specify the constraints
after creating a table using ALTER TABLE statement.
• Syntax
• CREATE TABLE sample_table(column1 data_type(size)
constraint_name, column2 data_type(size) constraint_name, column3
data_type(size) constraint_name, .... );

▪ sample_table: Name of the table to be created.

▪ data_type: Type of data that can be stored in the field.
▪ constraint_name: Name of the constraint. for example- NOT NULL, UNIQUE, PRIMARY KEY etc.
 NOT NULL
• If we specify a field in a table to be NOT NULL.
• Then the field will never accept null value.
• That is, you will be not allowed to insert a new row in the table without
specifying any value to this field.

• E.g.
• CREATE TABLE Student ( ID int(6) NOT NULL, NAME varchar(10)
NOT NULL, ADDRESS varchar(20) );
 UNIQUE
• This constraint helps to uniquely identify each row in the table. i.e. for a
particular column, all the rows should have unique values. We can have
more than one UNIQUE columns in a table.

• E.g.
• CREATE TABLE Student ( ID int(6) NOT NULL UNIQUE, NAME
varchar(10), ADDRESS varchar(20) );
 PRIMARY KEY
• Primary Key is a field which uniquely identifies each row in the table.
• If a field in a table as primary key, then the field will not be able to
contain NULL values as well as all the rows should have unique values
for this field.
• In other words we can say that this is combination of NOT NULL and
UNIQUE constraints.
• A table can have only one field as primary key.

• E.g.
• CREATE TABLE Student ( ID int(6) NOT NULL UNIQUE, NAME
varchar(10), ADDRESS varchar(20), PRIMARY KEY(ID) );
 FOREIGN KEY
• Foreign Key is a field in a table which uniquely identifies each row of a
another table.
• That is, this field points to primary key of another table. This usually
creates a kind of link between the tables.
• Foreign Key is used to relate two tables. The relationship between the
two tables matches the Primary Key in one of the tables with a Foreign
Key in the second table.
• This is also called a referencing key.
• We use ALTER statement and ADD statement to specify this constraint.
• In Customer_Detail table, c_id is the primary key which is set as foreign key
in Order_Detail table.
• The value that is entered in c_id which is set as foreign key
in Order_Detail table must be present in Customer_Detail table where it is
set as primary key.
• This prevents invalid data to be inserted into c_id column
of Order_Detail table.

• FOREIGN KEY constraint at Table Level

• CREATE table Order_Detail( order_id int PRIMARY KEY, order_name
varchar(60) NOT NULL, c_id int FOREIGN KEY REFERENCES
Customer_Detail(c_id) );

• FOREIGN KEY constraint at Column Level

• ALTER table Order_Detail ADD FOREIGN KEY (c_id) REFERENCES
Customer_Detail(c_id);
 CHECK Constraint
• CHECK constraint is used to restrict the value of a column between a
range.
• It performs check on the values, before storing them into the database.
• It’s like condition checking before saving data into a column.

• Using CHECK constraint at Table Level

• CREATE table Student( s_id int NOT NULL CHECK(s_id > 0), Name
varchar(60) NOT NULL, Age int );
• Using CHECK constraint at Column Level
• ALTER table Student ADD CHECK(s_id > 0);
 DEFAULT
• This constraint is used to provide a default value for the fields.
• That is, if at the time of entering new records in the table if the user does
not specify any value for these fields then the default value will be
assigned to them.

• E.g.
• CREATE TABLE Student ( ID int(6) NOT NULL, NAME varchar(10)
NOT NULL, AGE int DEFAULT 18 );
Primary Key Vs Foreign Key
Primary Key Vs Unique Key
Basics of SQL-DDL,DML,DCL,TCL Views and its Types
Structure Creation, alternation

Defining Constraints-Primary Key, Foreign Key, Transaction Control Commands

Unique, not null, check, IN operator Commit, Rollback, Savepoint

Functions-aggregation functions PL/SQL Concepts- Cursors

Built-in Functions-numeric, date, string
functions, string functions, Set operations, Stored Procedure, Functions
Triggers and Exceptional
Handling
Sub Queries, correlated sub queries Query Processing
Nested Queries,
 Aggregate functions in SQL
• In database management an aggregate function is a function where the
values of multiple rows are grouped together as input on certain
criteria to form a single value of more significant meaning.
Various Aggregate Functions are
• Count()
• Sum()
• Avg()
• Min()
• Max()
 SELECT COUNT(salary) FROM employees;
SELECT COUNT(*) FROM table_name; Count()
SELECT COUNT(*) FROM employees WHERE department = 'HR';
SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT department) FROM employees;

• Count(*): Returns total number of records .i.e 6.

•
Count(salary): Return number of Non Null values over the column salary. i.e 5.
•

• Count(Distinct Salary): Return number of distinct Non Null values over the
column salary .i.e 4
• Sum()
• sum(salary): Sum all Non Null values of
Column salary i.e., 310 SELECT SUM(salary) FROM employees;

SELECT SUM(salary) FROM employees WHERE department = 'HR';

• sum(Distinct salary): Sum of all distinct
Non-Null values i.e., 250.
SELECT SUM(DISTINCT salary) AS total_unique_salary FROMSELECT department, SUM(salary) FROM employees GROUP BY department;
employees;

• Avg()
• Avg(salary) = Sum(salary) / count(salary) = 310/5
• Avg(Distinct salary) = sum(Distinct salary) / Count(Distinct Salary) = 250/4
SELECT AVG(DISTINCT salary) FROM employees;
SELECT AVG(column_name) FROM table_name WHERE condition;
SELECT department, AVG(salary) FROM employees GROUP BY department;
• Min(), Max()
• Min(salary): Minimum value in the salary column except NULL i.e., 40.
• Max(salary): Maximum value in the salary i.e., 80.
SELECT MIN(column_name) FROM table_name;
SELECT MAX(column_name) FROM table_name;

SELECT MIN(salary) AS lowest_salary, MAX(salary) AS highest_salary FROM employees;

 Built in Functions - Numeric Functions in
SQL
• ABS(): It returns the absolute value of a number.
Syntax: SELECT ABS(-243.5);
Output: 243.5
• ACOS(): It returns the cosine of a number.
Syntax: SELECT ACOS(0.25);
Output: 1.318116071652818
• ASIN(): It returns the arc sine of a number.
Syntax: SELECT ASIN(0.25);
Output: 0.25268025514207865
• ATAN(): It returns the arc tangent of a number.
Syntax: SELECT ATAN(2.5);
Output: 1.1902899496825317
• CEIL(): It returns the smallest integer value that is greater than or equal to a number.
Syntax: SELECT CEIL(25.75);
Output: 26
• CEILING(): It returns the smallest integer value that is greater than or equal to a number.
Syntax: SELECT CEILING(25.75);
Output: 26
• COS(): It returns the cosine of a number.
Syntax: SELECT COS(30);
Output: 0.15425144988758405
 Built in Functions - Numeric Functions in SQL
• COT(): It returns the cotangent of a number.
Syntax: SELECT COT(6);
Output: -3.436353004180128
• DEGREES(): It converts a radian value into degrees.
Syntax: SELECT DEGREES(1.5);
Output: 85.94366926962348
• DIV(): It is used for integer division.
Syntax: SELECT 10 DIV 5;
Output: 2
• EXP(): It returns e raised to the power of number.
Syntax: SELECT EXP(1);
Output: 2.718281828459045
• FLOOR(): It returns the largest integer value that is less than or equal to a number.
Syntax: SELECT FLOOR(25.75);
Output: 25
• GREATEST(): It returns the greatest value in a list of expressions.
Syntax: SELECT GREATEST(30, 2, 36, 81, 125);
Output: 125
• LEAST(): It returns the smallest value in a list of expressions.
Syntax: SELECT LEAST(30, 2, 36, 81, 125);
Output: 2
• LN(): It returns the natural logarithm of a number.
Syntax: SELECT LN(2);
Output: 0.6931471805599453
• LOG10(): It returns the base-10 logarithm of a number.
Syntax: SELECT LOG(2);
Output: 0.6931471805599453
 Built in Functions - Numeric Functions in
SQL
• LOG2(): It returns the base-2 logarithm of a number.
Syntax: SELECT LOG2(6);
Output: 2.584962500721156
• MOD(): It returns the remainder of n divided by m.
Syntax: SELECT MOD(18, 4);
Output: 2
• PI(): It returns the value of PI displayed with 6 decimal places.
Syntax: SELECT PI();
Output: 3.141593
• POW(): It returns m raised to the nth power.
Syntax: SELECT POW(4, 2);
Output: 16
• RADIANS(): It converts a value in degrees to radians.
Syntax: SELECT RADIANS(180);
• RAND(): It returns a random number.
Syntax: SELECT RAND();
Output: 0.33623238684258644
• ROUND(): It returns a number rounded to a certain number of decimal places.
Syntax: SELECT ROUND(5.553);
Output: 6
• SIGN(): It returns a value indicating the sign of a number.
Syntax: SELECT SIGN(255.5);
Output: 1
• SIN(): It returns the sine of a number.
Syntax: SELECT SIN(2);
Output: 0.9092974268256817
 Built in Functions - Numeric Functions in
SQL
• SQRT(): It returns the square root of a number.
Syntax: SELECT SQRT(25);
Output: 5
• TAN(): It returns the tangent of a number.
Syntax: SELECT TAN(1.75);
Output: -5.52037992250933
• ATAN2(): It returns the arctangent of the x and y coordinates, as an angle and expressed in radians.
Syntax: SELECT ATAN2(7);
Output: 1.42889927219073
• TRUNCATE(): This doesn’t work for SQL Server. It returns 7.53635 truncated to 2 places right of
the decimal point.
Syntax: SELECT TRUNCATE(7.53635, 2);
Output: 7.53
Built in Functions - String functions in SQL
• ASCII(): This function is used to find the ASCII value of a character.
Syntax: SELECT ascii('t’);
Output: 116
• CHAR_LENGTH(): Doesn’t work for SQL Server. Use LEN() for SQL Server. This function is used to find the
length of a word. Syntax: SELECT char_length('Hello!’);
Output: 6
• CHARACTER_LENGTH(): Doesn’t work for SQL Server. Use LEN() for SQL Server. This function is used to
find the length of a line.
Syntax: SELECT CHARACTER_LENGTH('geeks for geeks’);
Output: 15
• CONCAT(): This function is used to add two words or strings.
Syntax: SELECT 'Geeks' || ' ' || 'forGeeks';
Output: ‘GeeksforGeeks’
• CONCAT_WS(): This function is used to add two words or strings with a symbol as concatenating symbol.
Syntax: SELECT CONCAT_WS('_', 'geeks', 'for', 'geeks’);
Output: geeks_for_geeks
• FIND_IN_SET(): This function is used to find a symbol from a set of symbols.
Syntax: SELECT FIND_IN_SET('b', 'a, b, c, d, e, f’);
Output: 2
• FORMAT(): This function is used to display a number in the given format.
Syntax: Format("0.981", "Percent");
Output: ‘98.10%’
Built in Functions - String functions in SQL
• INSTR(): This function is used to find the occurrence of an alphabet.
Syntax: INSTR('geeks for geeks', 'e’);
Output: 2 (the first occurrence of ‘e’)
Syntax: INSTR('geeks for geeks', 'e', 1, 2 );
Output: 3 (the second occurrence of ‘e’)
• LCASE(): This function is used to convert the given string into lower case.
Syntax: LCASE ("GeeksFor Geeks To Learn");
Output: geeksforgeeks to learn
• LEFT(): This function is used to SELECT a sub string from the left of given size or characters.
Syntax: SELECT LEFT('geeksforgeeks.org', 5);
Output: geeks
• LENGTH(): This function is used to find the length of a word.
Syntax: LENGTH('GeeksForGeeks’);
Output: 13
• LOCATE(): This function is used to find the nth position of the given word in a string.
Syntax: SELECT LOCATE('for', 'geeksforgeeks', 1);
Output: 6
• LOWER(): This function is used to convert the upper case string into lower case.
Syntax: SELECT LOWER('GEEKSFORGEEKS.ORG’);
Output: geeksforgeeks.org
• LPAD(): This function is used to make the given string of the given size by adding the given symbol.
Syntax: LPAD('geeks', 8, '0’);
Output: 000geeks
Built in Functions - String functions in SQL
• LTRIM(): This function is used to cut the given sub string from the original string.
Syntax: LTRIM('123123geeks', '123’);
Output: geeks
• MID(): This function is to find a word from the given position and of the given size.
Syntax: Mid ("geeksforgeeks", 6, 2);
Output: for
• POSITION(): This function is used to find position of the first occurrence of the given alphabet.
Syntax: SELECT POSITION('e' IN 'geeksforgeeks’);
Output: 2
• REPEAT(): This function is used to write the given string again and again till the number of times mentioned.
Syntax: SELECT REPEAT('geeks', 2);
Output: geeksgeeks
• REPLACE(): This function is used to cut the given string by removing the given sub string.
Syntax: REPLACE('123geeks123', '123’);
Output: geeks
• REVERSE(): This function is used to reverse a string.
Syntax: SELECT REVERSE('geeksforgeeks.org’);
Output: ‘gro.skeegrofskeeg’
• RIGHT(): This function is used to SELECT a sub string from the right end of the given size.
Syntax: SELECT RIGHT('geeksforgeeks.org', 4);
Output: ‘.org’
• RPAD(): This function is used to make the given string as long as the given size by adding the given symbol on the right.
Syntax: RPAD('geeks', 8, '0’);
Output: ‘geeks000’
• RTRIM(): This function is used to cut the given sub string from the original string.
Syntax: RTRIM('geeksxyxzyyy', 'xyz’);
Output: ‘geeks’
• SPACE(): This function is used to write the given number of spaces.
Syntax: SELECT SPACE(7);
Output: ‘ ‘
Built in Functions - String functions in SQL
• STRCMP(): This function is used to compare 2 strings.
•If string1 and string2 are the same, the STRCMP function will return 0.
•If string1 is smaller than string2, the STRCMP function will return -1.
•If string1 is larger than string2, the STRCMP function will return 1.
Syntax: SELECT STRCMP('google.com', 'geeksforgeeks.com’);
Output: -1
• SUBSTR(): This function is used to find a sub string from the a string from the given position.
Syntax:SUBSTR('geeksforgeeks', 1, 5);
Output: ‘geeks’
• SUBSTRING(): This function is used to find an alphabet from the mentioned size and the given string.
Syntax: SELECT SUBSTRING('GeeksForGeeks.org', 9, 1);
Output: ‘G’
• SUBSTRING_INDEX(): This function is used to find a sub string before the given symbol.
Syntax: SELECT SUBSTRING_INDEX('www.geeksforgeeks.org', '.', 1);
Output: ‘www’
• TRIM(): This function is used to cut the given symbol from the string.
Syntax: TRIM(LEADING '0' FROM '000123’);
Output: 123
• UCASE(): This function is used to make the string in upper case.
Syntax: UCASE ("GeeksForGeeks");
Output: GEEKSFORGEEKS
Built in Functions - Date functions in SQL
• NOW(): Returns the current date and time.
Example: SELECT NOW();
Output:2017-01-13 08:03:52
• CURDATE(): Returns the current date.
Example: SELECT CURDATE();
Output: 2017-01-13
• CURTIME(): Returns the current time.
Example: SELECT CURTIME();
Output: 08:05:15
• DATE(): Extracts the date part of a date or date/time expression.
• EXTRACT(): Returns a single part of a date/time.
Syntax: EXTRACT(unit FORM date);
SELECT Name, Extract(DAY FROM BirthTime) AS BirthDay FROM
Test;
Built in Functions - Date functions in SQL
• DATE_ADD() : Adds a specified time interval to a date
Syntax: DATE_ADD(date, INTERVAL expr type);
SELECT Name, DATE_ADD(BirthTime, INTERVAL 1 YEAR) AS
BirthTimeModified FROM Test;

• DATE_SUB(): Subtracts a specified time interval from a date. Syntax for

DATE_SUB is same as DATE_ADD just the difference is that DATE_SUB is
used to subtract a given interval of date.

• DATEDIFF(): Returns the number of days between two dates.

Syntax: DATEDIFF(date1, date2); date1 & date2- date/time expression
SELECT DATEDIFF('2017-01-13','2017-01-03') AS DateDiff;
Output:10
Built in Functions - Date functions in SQL
• DATE_FORMAT(): Displays date/time data in different formats.
• Syntax: DATE_FORMAT(date,format);
 Set Operation functions in SQL
• The SQL Set operation is used to combine the two or more SQL
SELECT statements.
• Types of Set Operation
 UNION Operation
• UNION is used to combine the results of two or
more SELECT statements.
• However it will eliminate duplicate rows from its resultset.
• In case of union, number of columns and datatype must be same in both
the tables, on which UNION operation is being applied.
 Union All
• Union All operation is equal to the Union operation. It returns the set
without removing duplication and sorting the data.
 Intersect
• It is used to combine two SELECT statements. The Intersect operation returns the common rows from both the SELECT statements.
• In the Intersect operation, the number of datatype and columns must be the same.
• It has no duplicates and it arranges the data in ascending order by default.
 Minus
• It combines the result of two SELECT statements. Minus operator is used to display the rows which are present in the first
query but absent in the second query.
• It has no duplicates and data arranged in ascending order by default.
Basics of SQL-DDL,DML,DCL,TCL Views and its Types
Structure Creation, alternation

Defining Constraints-Primary Key, Foreign Key, Transaction Control Commands

Unique, not null, check, IN operator Commit, Rollback, Savepoint

Functions-aggregation functions PL/SQL Concepts- Cursors

Built-in Functions-numeric, date, string
functions, string functions, Set operations, Stored Procedure, Functions
Triggers and Exceptional Handling
Sub Queries, correlated sub queries Query Processing
Nested Queries,
 Subquery
• Subquery can be simply defined as a query within another query. In other words we can say that a Subquery is a query that is
embedded in WHERE clause of another SQL query.
• Important rules for Subqueries
• You can place the Subquery in a number of SQL clauses: WHERE clause, HAVING clause, FROM clause.
Subqueries can be used with SELECT, UPDATE, INSERT, DELETE statements along with expression operator. It could be
equality operator or comparison operator such as =, >, =, <= and Like operator.
• A subquery is a query within another query. The outer query is called as main query and inner query is called as subquery.
• The subquery generally executes first, and its output is used to complete the query condition for the main or outer query.
• Subquery must be enclosed in parentheses.
• Subqueries are on the right side of the comparison operator.
• ORDER BY command cannot be used in a Subquery. GROUPBY command can be used to perform same function as ORDER BY
command.
• Use single-row operators with singlerow Subqueries. Use multiple-row operators with multiple-row Subqueries.
 • Subqueries with SELECT statement
• Syntax
• SELECT column_name FROM table_name WHERE column_name expression operator ( SELECT
COLUMN_NAME from TABLE_NAME WHERE ... );

• Select NAME, LOCATION, PHONE_NUMBER from DATABASE WHERE ROLL_NO IN (SELECT

ROLL_NO from STUDENT where SECTION=’A’);
 • Subqueries with the INSERT Statement

• Subqueries also can be used with INSERT statements.

• The INSERT statement uses the data returned from the subquery to insert
into another table.
• The selected data in the subquery can be modified with any of the
character, date or number functions.

• INSERT INTO Student1 SELECT * FROM Student2;

 • Subqueries with the UPDATE Statement
• The subquery can be used in conjunction with the UPDATE statement. Either single or multiple columns in a table can be
updated when using a subquery with the UPDATE statement.

• To update name of the students to geeks in Student2 table whose location is same as Raju,Ravi in Student1 table

• UPDATE Student2 SET NAME=’geeks’ WHERE LOCATION IN ( SELECT LOCATION FROM Student1 WHERE NAME IN
(‘Raju’,’Ravi’));
 Subqueries with the DELETE Statement
• The subquery can be used in conjunction with the DELETE statement like with any other statements mentioned above.
• To delete students from Student2 table whose rollno is same as that in Student1 table and having location as Chennai.

• DELETE FROM Student2 WHERE ROLL_NO IN ( SELECT ROLL_NO FROM Student1 WHERE LOCATION = ’chennai’);
 SQL Correlated Subqueries
• Correlated subqueries are used for row-by-row processing. Each subquery
is executed once for every row of the outer query.
• A correlated subquery is evaluated once for each row processed by the
parent statement. The parent statement can be a SELECT, UPDATE,
or DELETE statement.
• A correlated subquery is one way of reading every row in a table and
comparing values in each row against related data.
• It is used whenever a subquery must return a different result or set of
results for each candidate row considered by the main query.
 Nested Subqueries Versus Correlated Subqueries
• With a normal nested subquery, the inner SELECT query runs first and
executes once, returning values to be used by the main query.

• A correlated subquery, however, executes once for each candidate row

considered by the outer query. In other words, the inner query is driven by
the outer query.

• NOTE : You can also use the ANY and ALL operator in a correlated
subquery.
 Correlated Subqueries with Select Statement
• Find all the employees who earn more than the average salary in their department.
 Using the Exists Operator
• The EXISTS operator tests for existence of rows in the results set of the
subquery.

• If a subquery row value is found the condition is flagged TRUE and the
search does not continue in the inner query, and if it is not found then the
condition is flagged FALSE and the search continues in the inner query.
• Find the employees who have at least one person reporting to them.
 Using the Not Exists Operator
• Find all the departments that do not have any employees
 CORRELATED UPDATE & DELETE
• CORRELATED UPDATE
• UPDATE table1 alias1 SET column = (SELECT expression FROM table2 alias2 WHERE alias1.column = alias2.column);
• Use a correlated subquery to update rows in one table based on rows from another table.

• CORRELATED DELETE

• DELETE FROM table1 alias1 WHERE column1 operator (SELECT expression FROM table2 alias2 WHERE alias1.column =
alias2.column);
• Use a correlated subquery to delete rows in one table based on the rows from another table.
 Processing a correlated subquery Using the
Exists Operator - E.g.

Note: Only the orders that

involve products with
Natural Ash will be included
in the final results.
Basics of SQL-DDL,DML,DCL,TCL Views and its Types
Structure Creation, alternation
Defining Constraints-Primary Key, Foreign Key, Transaction Control Commands
Unique, not null, check, IN operator Commit, Rollback, Savepoint

Functions-aggregation functions PL/SQL Concepts- Cursors

Built-in Functions-numeric, date, string
functions, string functions, Set operations, Stored Procedure, Functions
Triggers and Exceptional Handling
Sub Queries, correlated sub queries Query Processing
Nested Queries,
 SQL Views
• Views in SQL are kind of virtual tables.
• A view also has rows and columns as they are in a real table in the
database.

• We can create a view by selecting fields from one or more tables present
in the Student
database.
Details Student Marks

• A View can either have all the rows of a table or specific rows based on
certain condition.
 Creating a View
View can be created using CREATE VIEW statement. A View can be created from a
single table or multiple tables.

Syntax
CREATE VIEW view_name AS SELECT column1, column2..... FROM table_name
Student Details
WHERE condition;

view_name: Name for the View

table_name: Name of the table
condition: Condition to select rows
• Creating View from a single table
• CREATE VIEW DetailsView AS SELECT NAME, ADDRESS FROM StudentDetails
Output
WHERE S_ID < 5;

To see the data in the View, we can query the view in the same manner as we query a
table.
SELECT * FROM DetailsView;
 • Creating View from multiple tables
• In this example we will create a View named MarksView from two tables
Student Details StudentDetails and StudentMarks.
• To create a View from multiple tables we can simply include multiple tables in
the SELECT statement.
• CREATE VIEW MarksView AS SELECT StudentDetails.NAME,
StudentDetails.ADDRESS, StudentMarks.MARKS FROM StudentDetails,
StudentMarks WHERE StudentDetails.NAME = StudentMarks.NAME;

Student Marks
• To display data of View MarksView:
• SELECT * FROM MarksView;

Output
 DELETING VIEWS
• SQL allows us to delete an existing View. We can delete or drop a View using the DROP statement.

Syntax

DROP VIEW view_name;

view_name: Name of the View which we want to delete.

For example, if we want to delete the View MarksView.

DROP VIEW MarksView;
 UPDATING VIEWS
• There are certain conditions needed to be satisfied to update a view. If any
one of these conditions is not met, then we will not be allowed to update
the view.

1. The SELECT statement which is used to create the view should not
include GROUP BY clause or ORDER BY clause.
2. The SELECT statement should not have the DISTINCT keyword.
3. The View should have all NOT NULL values.
4. The view should not be created using nested queries or complex queries.
5. The view should be created from a single table. If the view is created
using multiple tables then we will not be allowed to update the view.
 CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW

We can use the CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW statement to add or remove fields from a view.

Syntax
CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW view_name AS SELECT column1,coulmn2,.. FROM table_name WHERE condition;

For example, if we want to update the view MarksView and add the field AGE to this View
from StudentMarks Table, we can do this as:

CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW MarksView AS SELECT StudentDetails.NAME, StudentDetails.ADDRESS,

StudentMarks.MARKS, StudentMarks.AGE FROM StudentDetails, StudentMarks WHERE StudentDetails.NAME =
StudentMarks.NAME;

If we fetch all the data from MarksView now as:

SELECT * FROM MarksView;
Output
 Inserting a row in a view
We can insert a row in a View in a same way as we do in a table. We can use the INSERT INTO statement of SQL to insert a row
in a View.

Syntax:
INSERT INTO view_name(column1, column2 , column3,..) VALUES(value1, value2, value3..); view_name: Name of the View

Example:
In the below example we will insert a new row in the View DetailsView which we have created above in the example of “creating
views from a single table”.

INSERT INTO DetailsView(NAME, ADDRESS) VALUES("Suresh","Gurgaon");

If we fetch all the data from DetailsView now as,

SELECT * FROM DetailsView;

Output
 Deleting a row from a View
• Deleting rows from a view is also as simple as deleting rows from a table.
• We can use the DELETE statement of SQL to delete rows from a view.

• Also deleting a row from a view first delete the row from the actual table and the change is then reflected in the view.
• Syntax
• DELETE FROM view_name WHERE condition;
• view_name:Name of view from where we want to delete rows
• condition: Condition to select rows
In this example we will delete the last row from the view DetailsView which we just added in the above example of inserting rows.
DELETE FROM DetailsView WHERE NAME="Suresh";
If we fetch all the data from DetailsView now as,
SELECT * FROM DetailsView;

Output
 Uses of a View
1. Restricting data access
Views provide an additional level of table security by restricting access to a
predetermined set of rows and columns of a table.
2. Hiding data complexity
A view can hide the complexity that exists in a multiple table join.
3. Simplify commands for the user
Views allows the user to select information from multiple tables without requiring
the users to actually know how to perform a join.
4. Store complex queries
Views can be used to store complex queries.
5. Rename Columns
Views can also be used to rename the columns without affecting the base tables
provided the number of columns in view must match the number of columns
specified in select statement. Thus, renaming helps to to hide the names of the
columns of the base tables.
6. Multiple view facility
Different views can be created on the same table for different users.
Basics of SQL-DDL,DML,DCL,TCL Nested Queries, Views and its Structure
Creation, alternation Types
Defining Constraints-Primary Key, Foreign Key, Transaction Control Commands Unique,
not null, check, IN operator Commit, Rollback, Savepoint

Functions-aggregation functions PL/SQL Concepts- Cursors

Built-in Functions-numeric, date, string
functions, string functions, Set operations, Stored Procedure, Functions
Triggers and Exceptional Handling
Sub Queries, correlated sub queries Query Processing
TRANSACTION
• A transaction is a unit of work that is performed against a database.
Transactions are units or sequences of work accomplished in a
logical order, whether in a manual fashion by a user or automatically
by some sort of a database program.
• A transaction is the propagation of one or more changes to the
database. For example, if you are creating a record or updating a
record or deleting a record from the table, then you are performing a
transaction on that table. It is important to control these transactions
to ensure the data integrity and to handle database errors.
• Practically, you will club many SQL queries into a group and you will
execute all of them together as a part of a transaction.
• Transaction Control language is a language that manages transactions within the database. It is
used to execute the changes made by the DML statements.

TCL Commands
Transaction Control Language (TCL) Commands are:
Commit − It is used to save the transactions in the database.

Rollback − It is used to restore the database to that state which was last committed.

Savepoint − The changes done till savpoint will be unchanged and all the
transactions after savepoint will be rolled back.
Example
• Given below is an example of the usage of the TCL commands
in the database management system (DBMS)
Difference between Commit, rollback and
savepoint of TCL commands
Properties of Transactions

• Transactions have the following four standard properties, usually

referred to by the acronym ACID.

Atomicity − ensures that all operations within the work unit are
completed successfully. Otherwise, the transaction is aborted at the
point of failure and all the previous operations are rolled back to their
former state.
Consistency − ensures that the database properly changes
states upon a successfully committed transaction.
Isolation − enables transactions to operate independently of and
transparent to each other.
Durability − ensures that the result or effect of a committed
transaction persists in case of a system failure.
Transaction Control

The following commands are used to control transactions.

COMMIT − to save the changes.

ROLLBACK − to roll back the changes.
SAVEPOINT − creates points within the groups of
transactions in which to ROLLBACK.
COMMIT
Transactional control commands are only used with the DML
Commands such as - INSERT, UPDATE and DELETE only.

They cannot be used while creating tables or dropping them

because these operations are automatically committed in the
database

The COMMIT command is the transactional command used to

save changes invoked by a transaction to the database.
Example
Consider the CUSTOMERS table having the
following records
Following is an example which would delete those records from
the table which have age = 25 and then COMMIT the changes in
the database.

Thus, two rows from the table would be deleted and the SELECT statement would
produce the following result.
ROLLBACK Command

The ROLLBACK command is the transactional command used to undo

transactions that have not already been saved to the database.
This command can only be used to undo transactions since the last
COMMIT or ROLLBACK command was issued.
The syntax for a ROLLBACK command is as follows :
Example
Consider the CUSTOMERS table having the following records

Following is an example, which would delete those records from the table which
have the age = 25 and then ROLLBACK the changes in the database.
Thus, the delete operation would not impact the table and the
SELECT statement would produce the following result.
select * from customers;
SAVEPOINT
• A SAVEPOINT is a point in a transaction when you can roll the
transaction back to a certain point without rolling back the entire
transaction.
The syntax for a SAVEPOINT command is as shown below.

• This command serves only in the creation of a SAVEPOINT

among all the transactional statements. The ROLLBACK
command is used to undo a group of transactions.
The syntax for rolling back to a SAVEPOINT is as shown below.
Following is an example where you plan to delete the three
different records from the CUSTOMERS table. You want to
create a SAVEPOINT before each delete, so that you can
ROLLBACK to any SAVEPOINT at any time to return the
appropriate data to its original state.
• Example
Consider the CUSTOMERS table having the following records.
The following code block contains the series of operations.

Now that the three deletions have taken place, let us assume that you have changed
your mind and decided to ROLLBACK to the SAVEPOINT that you identified as SP2.
Because SP2 was created after the first deletion, the last two deletions are undone −
Notice that only the first deletion took place since you rolled back
to SP2.
RELEASE SAVEPOINT Command:
The RELEASE SAVEPOINT command is used to remove a SAVEPOINT
that you have created.
The syntax for a RELEASE SAVEPOINT command is as follows:

Once a SAVEPOINT has been released, you can no longer use the
ROLLBACK command to undo transactions performed since the last
SAVEPOINT.
Basics of SQL-DDL,DML,DCL,TCL Nested Queries, Views and its Structure
Creation, alternation Types
Defining Constraints-Primary Key, Foreign Key, Transaction Control Commands
Unique, not null, check, IN operator Commit, Rollback, Savepoint

Functions-aggregation functions PL/SQL Concepts- Cursors

Built-in Functions-numeric, date, string
functions, string functions, Set operations, Stored Procedure, Functions
Triggers and Exceptional Handling
Sub Queries, correlated sub queries Query Processing
 Introduction to PL/SQL

• Procedural Language extension for SQL

• Oracle Proprietary
• 3GL Capabilities
• Integration of SQL
• Portable within Oracle data bases
• Callable from any client
 Structure of PL/SQL

• PL/SQL is Block Structured

A block is the basic unit from which all PL/SQL programs are built. A
block can be named (functions and procedures) or anonymous
• Sections of block
1- Header Section
2- Declaration Section
3- Executable Section
4- Exception Section
Structure of PL/SQL
HEADER
Type and Name of block
DECLARE
Variables; Constants; Cursors;
BEGIN
PL/SQL and SQL Statements
EXCEPTION
Exception handlers
END;
Structure of PL/SQL
DECLARE
a number;
text1 varchar2(20);
text2 varchar2(20) := “HI”;
BEGIN
---------- ---------- ----------
END;
Important Data Types in PL/SQL include
NUMBER, INTEGER, CHAR, VARCHAR2, DATE
etc
to_date(‘02-05-2007','dd-mm-yyyy') { Converts
String to Date}
Structure of PL/SQL
• Data Types for specific columns

Variable_name Table_name.Column_name%type;

This syntax defines a variable of the type of the referenced column on the
referenced table
PL/SQL Control Structure
• PL/SQL has a number of control structures which includes:
• Conditional controls
• Iterative or loop controls.
• Exception or error controls

• These control structure, can be used singly or together, that allow the
PL/SQL developer to direct the flow of execution through the
program.
PL/SQL Control Structure
• Conditional Controls
IF....THEN....END IF;
IF....THEN...ELSE....END IF;
IF....THEN...ELSIF....THEN....ELSE....END IF;
PL/SQL Control Structure
• LOOP
...SQL Statements...
EXIT;
END LOOP;

• WHILE loops
WHILE condition LOOP
...SQL Statements...
END LOOP;

• FOR loops
FOR <variable(numeric)> IN [REVERSE]
<lowerbound>..<upperbound> LOOP .... ..... END LOOP;
Cursor
• A cursor is a pointer to this context area. PL/SQL
controls the context area through a cursor. A cursor
holds the rows (one or more) returned by a SQL
statement. The set of rows the cursor holds is
referred to as the active set.
• There are two types of cursors −
Implicit cursors
Explicit cursors
Implicit Cursors
• Implicit cursors are automatically created by Oracle
whenever an SQL statement is executed, when
there is no explicit cursor for the statement.
• Programmers cannot control the implicit cursors
and the information in it.
• In PL/SQL, the most recent implicit cursor is the SQL
cursor, which has the following attributes.
 Implicit Cursors
S.No Attribute & Description
%FOUND
Returns TRUE if an INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE statement affected one or more rows
1 or a SELECT INTO statement returned one or more rows. Otherwise, it returns FALSE.

%NOTFOUND
The logical opposite of %FOUND. It returns TRUE if an INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE
statement affected no rows, or a SELECT INTO statement returned no rows. Otherwise, it
2 returns FALSE.

%ISOPEN
Always returns FALSE for implicit cursors, because Oracle closes the SQL cursor
3 automatically after executing its associated SQL statement.

%ROWCOUNT
Returns the number of rows affected by an INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE statement, or
4 returned by a SELECT INTO statement.
 Example
The following program will update the employee table and increase the salary of each customer by 500
and use the SQL%ROWCOUNT attribute to determine the number of rows affected −
DECLARE
total_rows number(2);
BEGIN
UPDATE customers
SET salary = salary + 500;
IF sql%notfound THEN
dbms_output.put_line('no customers selected');
ELSIF sql%found THEN
total_rows := sql%rowcount;
dbms_output.put_line( total_rows || ' customers selected ');
END IF;
END;
Output:
6 customers selected
 Explicit Cursors
Explicit cursors are programmer-defined cursors for gaining more control over the
context area. An explicit cursor should be defined in the declaration section of the PL/SQL
Block. It is created on a SELECT Statement which returns more than one row.

The syntax for creating an explicit cursor is −

CURSOR cursor_name IS select_statement;

Working with an explicit cursor includes the following steps −

• Declaring the cursor for initializing the memory
• Opening the cursor for allocating the memory
• Fetching the cursor for retrieving the data
• Closing the cursor to release the allocated memory
 Cursor-Declaration
• Declaring the Cursor
Declaring the cursor defines the cursor with a name and the associated SELECT statement.
For example −
CURSOR c_customers IS SELECT id, name, address FROM customers;
• Opening the Cursor
Opening the cursor allocates the memory for the cursor and makes it ready for fetching the rows returned by
the SQL statement into it. For example, we will open the above defined cursor as follows −
OPEN c_customers;
• Fetching the Cursor
Fetching the cursor involves accessing one row at a time. For example, we will fetch rows from the
above-opened cursor as follows −
FETCH c_customers INTO c_id, c_name, c_addr;
• Closing the Cursor
Closing the cursor means releasing the allocated memory. For example, we will close the above-opened cursor
as follows −
CLOSE c_customers;
 Example
DECLARE
c_id customers.id%type;
c_name customer.name%type;
c_addr customers.address%type;
CURSOR c_customers is
SELECT id, name, address FROM customers;
BEGIN
OPEN c_customers;
LOOP
FETCH c_customers into c_id, c_name, c_addr;
EXIT WHEN c_customers%notfound;
dbms_output.put_line(c_id || ' ' || c_name || ' ' || c_addr);
END LOOP;
CLOSE c_customers;
END;
/
Basics of SQL-DDL,DML,DCL,TCL Views and its Types
Structure Creation, alternation

Defining Constraints-Primary Key, Foreign Key, Transaction Control Commands

Unique, not null, check, IN operator Commit, Rollback, Savepoint

Functions-aggregation functions PL/SQL Concepts- Cursors

Built-in Functions-numeric, date, string
functions, string functions, Set operations, Stored Procedure, Functions
Triggers and Exceptional
Handling
Sub Queries, correlated sub queries Query Processing
Nested Queries,
 Stored Procedure

•A stored procedure in SQL is a group of SQL statements that are

stored together in a database.
•Based on the statements in the procedure and the parameters
you pass, it can perform one or multiple DML operations on the
database, and return value, if any.
•Stored Procedure is a function in a shared library accessible to
the database server
•can also write stored procedures using languages such as C or
Java
•: Reduced network traffic
•The more SQL statements that are grouped together for
execution, the larger the savings in network traffic
Advantages of stored procedure
• Reusable: As mentioned, multiple users and applications can
easily use and reuse stored procedures by merely calling it.
• Easy to modify: You can quickly change the statements in a
stored procedure as and when you want to, with the help of
the ALTER TABLE command.
• Security: Stored procedures allow you to enhance the security
of an application or a database by restricting the users from
direct access to the table.
• Low network traffic: The server only passes the procedure
name instead of the whole query, reducing network traffic.
• Increases performance: Upon the first use, a plan for the
stored procedure is created and stored in the buffer pool for
quick execution for the next time.
Normal Database
Applications using stored procedures
Writing Stored Procedures

• CREATE or REPLACE PROCEDURE name(parameters)

• AS
• variables;
• BEGIN;
• //statements;
• END;

Three types of parameters are:

• IN: It is the default parameter that will receive input value from the program
• OUT: It will send output value to the program
• IN OUT: It is the combination of both IN and OUT. Thus, it receives from, as
well as sends a value to the program
 EXAMPLE:
CREATE PROCEDURE UPDATE_SALARY_1 (1)
(IN EMPLOYEE_NUMBER CHAR(6), (2)
IN RATE INTEGER) (2)
LANGUAGE SQL (3)
BEGIN
UPDATE EMPLOYEE (4)
SET SALARY = SALARY * (1.0 * RATE / 100.0 )
WHERE SSN = EMPLOYEE_NUMBER;
END

LANGUAGE value of SQL and the BEGIN...END block, which forms the procedure body, are particular to an SQL
procedure
1)The stored procedure name is UPDATE_SALARY_1.
2)The two parameters have data types of CHAR(6) and INTEGER. Both are input parameters.
3)LANGUAGE SQL indicates that this is an SQL procedure, so a procedure body follows the other
parameters.
4)The procedure body consists of a single SQL UPDATE statement, which updates rows in the
employee table.
 Some Valid SQL Procedure Body Statements

∙ CASE statement
∙ FOR statement
∙ GOTO statement
∙ IF statement
∙ ITERATE statement
∙ RETURN statement
∙ WHILE statement
• Invoking Procedures
Can invoke Stored procedure stored at the location of the database by using the
SQL CALL statement

• Nested SQL Procedures:

To call a target SQL procedure from within a caller SQL procedure, simply include a
CALL statement with the appropriate number and types of parameters in your
caller.

CREATE PROCEDURE NEST_SALES(OUT budget DECIMAL(11,2))

LANGUAGE SQL
BEGIN
DECLARE total INTEGER DEFAULT 0;
SET total = 6;
CALL SALES_TARGET(total);
SET budget = total * 10000;
END
 CONDITIONAL STATEMENTS:

IF <condition> THEN
<statement(s)>
ELSE
<statement(s)>
END IF;

Loops
LOOP
……
EXIT WHEN <condition>
……
END LOOP;
 EXAMPLE :
CREATE PROCEDURE UPDATE_SALARY_IF
(IN employee_number CHAR(6), IN rating SMALLINT)
LANGUAGE SQL
BEGIN
SET counter = 10;
WHILE (counter > 0) DO
IF (rating = 1)
THEN UPDATE employee
SET salary = salary * 1.10, bonus = 1000
WHERE empno = employee_number;
ELSEIF (rating = 2)
THEN UPDATE employee
SET salary = salary * 1.05, bonus = 500
WHERE empno = employee_number;
ELSE UPDATE employee
SET salary = salary * 1.03, bonus = 0
WHERE empno = employee_number;
END IF;
SET counter = counter – 1;
END WHILE;
END
@
 Triggers
• A trigger is a stored procedure in database which automatically invokes whenever a
special event in the database occurs. For example, a trigger can be invoked when a row is
inserted into a specified table or when certain table columns are being updated.

• Triggers are composed to be executed in light of any of the accompanying occasions.

∙ A database control (DML) statement (DELETE, INSERT, or UPDATE).

∙ A database definition (DDL) statement (CREATE, ALTER, or DROP).

∙ A database operation (SERVERERROR, LOGON, LOGOFF, STARTUP, or SHUTDOWN).

The syntax of Triggers in SQL–
CREATE [OR REPLACE ] TRIGGER trigger_name
{BEFORE | AFTER | INSTEAD OF }
{INSERT [OR] | UPDATE [OR] | DELETE}
[OF col_name]
ON table_name
[REFERENCING OLD AS o NEW AS n]
[FOR EACH ROW]
WHEN (condition)
DECLARE
Declaration-statements
BEGIN
Executable-statements
EXCEPTION
Exception-handling-statements
END;

Create [OR REPLACE] TRIGGER trigger_name: It makes or replaces a current trigger with the
EXAMPLE
CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER display_salary_changes
BEFORE DELETE OR INSERT OR UPDATE ON customers
FOR EACH ROW
WHEN (NEW.ID > 0)
DECLARE
sal_diff number;
BEGIN
sal_diff := :NEW.salary - :OLD.salary;
dbms_output.put_line('Old salary: ' || :OLD.salary);
dbms_output.put_line('New salary: ' || :NEW.salary);
dbms_output.put_line('Salary difference: ' || sal_diff);
END;
 After creating a Trigger, use it in the PL/SQL code for putting it in to action.

DECLARE

total_rows number(2);

BEGIN

UPDATE customers

SET salary = salary + 5000;

IF sql%notfound THEN

dbms_output.put_line('no customers updated');

ELSIF sql%found THEN

total_rows := sql%rowcount;

dbms_output.put_line( total_rows || ' customers updated ');

END IF;

END;

/
Advantages of Triggers

•Triggers can be written for the following purposes −

•Generating some derived column values automatically

•Enforcing referential integrity

•Event logging and storing information on table access

•Auditing

•Synchronous replication of tables

•Imposing security authorizations

•Preventing invalid transactions

Basics of SQL-DDL,DML,DCL,TCL Views and its Types
Structure Creation, alternation

Defining Constraints-Primary Key, Foreign Key, Transaction Control Commands

Unique, not null, check, IN operator Commit, Rollback, Savepoint

Functions-aggregation functions PL/SQL Concepts- Cursors

Built-in Functions-numeric, date, string
functions, string functions, Set operations, Stored Procedure, Functions
Triggers and Exceptional Handling
Sub Queries, correlated sub queries Query Processing
Nested Queries,
Query Processing
1.Parsing and translation
2.Optimization
3.Evaluation
Query Processing (Cont.)
• Alternative ways of evaluating a given query
• Equivalent expressions
• Different algorithms for each operation
• Cost difference between a good and a bad way of evaluating a query can be enormous
• Need to estimate the cost of operations
• Depends critically on statistical information about relations which the database must
maintain
• Need to estimate statistics for intermediate results to compute cost of complex
expressions
Transaction Management
• What if the system fails?
• What if more than one user is concurrently updating the same data?
• A transaction is a collection of operations that performs a single logical function in a database
application
• Transaction-management component ensures that the database remains in a consistent
(correct) state despite system failures (e.g., power failures and operating system crashes) and
transaction failures.
• Concurrency-control manager controls the interaction among the concurrent transactions, to
ensure the consistency of the database.
 Query Processing
• Query Processing includes translations on high level Queries into low level expressions that can be used at physical level of file
system, query optimization and actual execution of query to get the actual result.

• Block Diagram of Query Processing Detailed DiagramQuery Processing

 • Step-1
• Parser: During parse call, the database performs the following checks-
Syntax check, Semantic check and Shared pool check, after converting
the query into relational algebra.
• Parser performs the following
• Syntax check – concludes SQL syntactic validity.
• SELECT * FROM employee;
1. Semantic check – determines whether the statement is meaningful or
not. Example: query contains a tablename which does not exist is
checked by this check.
2. Shared Pool check – Every query possess a hash code during its
execution. So, this check determines existence of written hash code in
shared pool if code exists in shared pool then database will not take
additional steps for optimization and execution.
• Hard Parse and Soft Parse
• If there is a fresh query and its hash code does not exist in shared pool then that query has to pass through from the additional
steps known as hard parsing
• If hash code exists then query does not passes through additional steps. It just passes directly to execution engine. This is known
as soft parsing.

• Step-2
Optimizer
• During optimization stage, database must perform a hard parse at least for one unique DML statement and perform optimization
during this parse. This database never optimizes DDL unless it includes a DML component such as subquery that require
optimization.

• It is a process in which multiple query execution plan for satisfying a query are examined and most efficient query plan is satisfied
for execution.
•
Database catalog stores the execution plans and then optimizer passes the lowest cost plan for execution.
• Row Source Generation
• The Row Source Generation is a software that receives a optimal execution
plan from the optimizer and produces an iterative execution plan that is
usable by the rest of the database.
• The iterative plan is the binary program that when executes by the sql
engine produces the result set.
• Step-3
Execution Engine
• Finally runs the query and display the required result.