1/7/2025

Principles of Agronomy
AGR 111
Credit hours – 2+1
FM: 75 Theory: 50 Practical: 25

Mahesh Kunwar
Assistant Professor
Department of Agronomy
Nepal Polytechnic Institute (NPI)

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Unit-1
INTRODUCTION

AGRICULTURE
➢The term ‘agriculture’ was derived from the Latin words ‘Ager’
meaning soil and ‘Cultura’ meaning cultivation.
➢Thus agriculture can be defined as cultivation and/or production of
crop and livestock products.
➢It is very broad term, which includes crop production, livestock
farming, fisheries, forestry etc.
➢Agriculture is an art, science and business of producing crops and
livestock under human supervision.

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Importance of Agriculture
- Nothing is right if agriculture goes wrong
- Without food, it is difficult to remember the god.
-We agriculturists/agronomists are proud of our heritages because we feed the
whole world.
- Other things can stop but agriculture can not. - J. Nehru
-Plants do not have holidays. Do not leave the land fallow.
-My grandfather used to say that once in your life you may need a doctor, a lawyer, a
policeman, and a preacher, but every day three times a day you need a farmer.
-Brerada Sehoepp

Role of Agriculturist
-Young scientists are not just for predicting the future but they are there for
shaping the future. -MS Swaminathan
--Plants speak to men but only in whisper, their voice can be heard only by those
who remained closed in them. -Noram E Borlaug

Branches of Agriculture
• Agriculture has three main sphere
1. Geoponic (cultivation in soil)
2. Aeroponic (cultivation in air)
3. Hydroponic (cultivation in water)
❖Crop production
❖Horticulture
❖Agricultural engineering
❖Animal husbandry
❖Plant breeding
❖Genetics
❖Plant Pathology
❖Soil science 10

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Features of Agriculture in Nepal

• Subsistence farming
• Monsoon-based agriculture
• Pre-dominance of food crops
• Traditional technology
• Low productivity

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Problems of Agriculture in Nepal

• Poor people
• Small land holding and acreage
• Lack of irrigation
• Lack of technology

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AGRONOMY
➢The term Agronomy is derived from Greek words “Agros” meaning field
and “Nomos” meaning to manage.
➢Thus, agronomy can be defined as the branch of agricultural science which
deals with principles and practices of soil, water and crop management.
➢Agronomy deals with methods which provide favorable environment to the
crop for higher productivity.
➢According to Norman (1980), agronomy is the science of manipulating crop
environment complex with the dual aim of improving productivity and
gaining a degree of understanding of process involved.
➢The meaning of word agronomy can be elaborated from each alphabet
A=Activities (on), G=ground (for), R= Raising, O=out spread use (of), N=
Nobel crops (for), O=Obtaining, M=Massive, Y=Yield

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➢Among all the branches of agriculture, agronomy occupies top most

position and regarded as the mother branch.
➢Agronomy is the combination of many other branches of agriculture

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Importance of Agronomy

• Source of food
• Source of raw materials
• Employment opportunities
• Nutritional supply
• Source of foreign trade
• Soil conservation and soil fertility
• Food security

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Subsistence agriculture
➢Type of agriculture in which producer consumes large part of final
produce
➢Subsistence agriculture also produces small amount of crops or animals
for sale
➢Agriculture in Nepal at present is more or less similar to subsistence
agriculture

Commercial agriculture
➢Agriculture system which considers agriculture as an industrial
enterprise
➢Inputs and technology are applied to gain maximum profit
➢Most of the developed countries follow commercial agriculture
➢Poultry industry of Chitwan, tea industry of Ilam
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Subsistence agriculture Commercial agriculture

• A major parts of farm produce is • A major parts of farm produce is sold
consumed in home. in the market.
• Farm size is generally smaller • Generally farm size is bigger
• Local resources like family labor, • Modern inputs like chemical
compost, and own saved seed are fertilizers, pesticides, hybrid seed ,
integrated in farming system. farm mechanization and newer
technology are used.
• Generally follow mix farming system • Generally follow monoculture
• Family demand determines the choice • The choice of crops or animal species
of crops and animal raised on farms depends on market demand.
• It is not profit oriented. • It is mainly profit oriented

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Green Revolution
➢During 1960’s many countries in the world were facing acute food shortage
➢Many people were deprived of nutritious food and hunger caused death of many
people
➢Many scientists at International Agriculture Research Centre (IARC) were working for
the solution of these problems
➢At the same time Dr. Norman E. Borlaug working at CIMMYT developed dwarf and
high yielding wheat varieties
➢These varieties were introduced to many countries and farmers were encouraged to use
fertilizers, irrigation and pesticides.
➢Improved variety coupled with production technology dramatically increased the food
production and led to food sufficiency condition in many countries
➢For this achievement Dr. Borlaug received Nobel prize
➢Meanwhile IRRI also developed high yielding, dwarf, fertilizer responsive rice
varieties
➢So the phase of transition of traditional agriculture into modern agriculture
through the use of high yielding varieties, use of fertilizers, pesticides and
irrigation is termed as Green revolution
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Dr. Norman E Borlaug

Father of Green Revolution 19

Positive impact of green revolution

➢It increased the production, to almost 2.5 times in wheat between
1960 and 2010.
➢Has saved the lives of millions of people and exponentially increase
the yield of food crops.
➢It improved the economic status and farmers standard of living

Negative impact of green revolution

➢Degradation of soil
➢Disappearance of local varieties
➢Pollution of soil, water and air
➢Outbreak of pest
➢Social and economic problems
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Assignment
1) Define agriculture. Write the importance and scope of agriculture in
Nepal.
2) What do you understand by agronomy? Explain.
3) Differentiate between subsistence agriculture and commercial
agriculture.
4) Define green revolution. Discuss the role of green revolution in food
production. Also highlight the negative aspect.

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Relationship of Agronomy to other sciences

➢Agriculture including agronomy are applied science
➢Dependent on basic principles and fundamental (Basic science) of
Botany, bio-chemistry, ecology, zoology, chemistry, physics,
mathematics etc.
Examples
➢Knowledge of botany is applied in plant breeding and genetics making different
varieties suitable in different agro-climate
➢Knowledge of Zoology is required in identifying the insects and pest which
cause damage in agriculture crops
➢Chemistry helps in understanding the plant nutrients and their status
➢Physics helps to understand the weather phenomena
➢Mathematics is useful in agriculture research and experiment
➢Economics is helpful in determining cost-benefit
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Relationship of Agronomy with other Science of Agriculture

➢Agronomy is the synthesis of several disciplines
➢The knowledge of these subjects helps to manipulate the crop environment
complex to maximize the productivity and profitability.
Soil science: It deals with the study of soil for crop production. Knowledge of
chemical, physical and biological aspects of soil is needed to manipulate the soil
environment for better productivity of crops
Botany and plant physiology: Knowledge of plant morphology and physiology
is necessary to meet the growing conditions of crops.
Plant pathology: Pathology is the study of disease. Understanding the effect of
several fungal, bacterial and viral diseases and factors affecting their development
and control is required for successful crop production.
Plant entomology: Entomology is the study of insect pests. Understanding the
effect of various crop pests, their life cycle and control measures is essential for
economic crop production.
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Genetics, plant breeding and biotechnology: Application of principles of genetics

for plant breeding for the selection and development of crops for specific agro-
climate is helpful in increasing the crop yield. Techniques of biotechnology such as
tissue culture, genetic engineering are also applied for the development of
appropriate types of crop.
Agri-Engineering: Agriculture engineering provides the knowledge of different
farm structures, machinery and appropriate implements necessary for easier crop
production.
Agricultural statistics and computer science: Research, analysis and presentation
of data are very essential in developing new ideas and technology which could help
in crop production.
Agricultural economics and marketing: It deals with financial, economic and
marketing aspects of crop production in relation to investment, which is necessary
for profitable crop production.
Agricultural extension: Innovations and technologies from scientists should reach
farmers and problems from farmers should reach scientists, which helps in the
adoption of new technologies and solving the farmers’ problems. Agricultural
extension plays an important role in doing so.

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FOOD SECURITY? FIGHT AGAINST HUNGER

Food security exists when all people at all times, have physical and
economic access to sufficient, safe and nutritious food to
meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active
and healthy life (WFS, 1996).
Four Pillars of Food Security:
➢Food availability (sufficient supply of food)
➢Food accessibility (food must be within the reach of people)
➢Food affordability (people must be able to afford the food)
➢Food sustainability (sustainability in above mention sectors)

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• According to (FAO 1996), "Food security exists when all people at all times have
both physical and economic access to sufficient food to meet their dietary needs for a
productive and healthy life”
Dimension/ components/element of food security
❖Availability of food: The food should be available in sufficient quantity in the locality
❖Accessibility of food: Such available foods should be accessible to the people physically
❖Affordability of food: Food items should be affordable for the people of a particular
area of the globe.
Food situation in Nepal
• Nepal has been changing from a food-exporting country to an importing one
since 2005 A.D.
Nepal is importing rice, maize, vegetables, fruits (apple, banana, mango etc), flowers,
meat items etc these days.
• As domestic food production is insufficient to meet per capita caloric needs, Nepal has
become a net importer of food nowadays. 26

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• Nepal is experiencing a food insecurity situation mainly in western mountain regions like Humla,
Dolpa, Mugu, Bajang, Bajura etc due to poor agricultural growth, declining national
agricultural priority, global climate change, and political instability.

Major reasons for food insecurity in Nepal

▪ Physical topography which hinders the distribution of food crops produced in one place to
another place. In our context, rice produced in the Terai area is hardly transported to Humla,
Mugu due to complex land topography.

▪ Food habit also results in to food insecurity.

Eating rice is our culture and people feel superior to eating rice rather than millet
and other minor cereal crops.
▪ Climate change and its consequences (global warming, drought, flood etc) lead to a
negative impact on the growth and development of the crop resulting in low yield.

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A hungry man can't see right or wrong. He only sees food.

Reasons for food insecurity

➢Increase in population
➢Yield stagnation
➢Conversion of agricultural land to other purpose
➢Utilization of staple food crops in increasing livestock industries
➢Low income and lack of purchasing power

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Major Problems of Nepalese Agriculture leading to food problems

1. Land fragmentation
➢Small pieces of scattered at different place, difficult to apply modern technology
2. Poor infrastructure development
➢Lack of irrigation, rural roads, electricity, cold storage, market, agro based
industries
3. Lower investment in farming
➢Poor farmer and difficult to get credit for poor farmers
4. Declining farm profitability
➢High input cost, labor cost, labor migration to other countries, lower price to
farmer production
5. Environmental degradation
➢Decline soil fertility, soil erosion, flood and other natural calamities
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➢Out of 16 high hill districts such as

o Taplegunj
o Sankhuwasabha
o Solukhumbu
o Dolkha
o Sindhupalchowk
o Rasuwa
o Manang
o Mustang
o Dolpa
o Mugu
o Humla
o Jumla
o Kalikot
o Bajura
o Bajhang
o Darchula
➢12 districts, except Sankhuwasabha, Solukhumbu, Dolkha, and Sindhupalchowk
have a food deficit situation . 30

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Role of agronomist in solving the food problem

Agronomist–Scientist who studies the principle and practice of crop production.
The food problem can be reduced by increasing agricultural land
a. Horizontal expansion
➢utilization of unutilized land for agricultural purposes
➢Currently in Nepal, about 10,30,000 ha of cultivable land is left fallow
b. Vertical expansion
➢Maximum utilization of cultivated land
➢Intensive cultivation
➢Use of hybrids, fertilizers, pesticides and modern techniques
Apart from this agronomists can carry out several activities to solve food
problems.
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Role of agronomist in solving the food problem

➢Study the problem and develop better ways of producing crops
➢Develop the suitable agronomic package for prime agriculture land
➢Develop the suitable package for marginal and degraded land
➢Develop the suitable resource conserving agronomic practices to best
utilize the scarce resources
➢Develop the low cost production technology to reduce the cost of
production
➢Study the alternative crop/varieties in different environments to meet
increasing food demand
➢Select better weed and irrigation management practices
➢Make the plan of what type of crop to be grown throughout the year
➢Develop or use the best method of harvesting, best time of harvesting
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Assignment
• Define food security.
• List out the major reason of food insecurity in Nepal.
• Discuss the roles of agronomist in solving food problems in Nepal.

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Classification of Agronomical Crops

1. Classification Based on growing season
1. Kharif /Rainy/Monsoon crops: The crops grown in the rainy season
i.e. June/July to Sept/Oct and require hot and humid weather at major
periods of crop growth. E.g. Rice, maize, millet
2. Rabi/winter/cold seasons crops: The crops grown during the winter
season i.e. Sept/Oct to Feb/March. Crops grow well in cold and dry
weather. E.g. Wheat, barley, maize, gram
3. Summer/Zaid crops/spring season crops: Crops grown in summer
months from Feb/March to June/July. Require warm dry weather for
major growth periods. E.g. Maize, Cowpea

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2. Agronomic classification/ classification based on

usable parts
1. Cereal crop: Crop that are grown for edible grain and belongs to the Poaceae
family are cereal crops. E.g. rice, wheat, maize
2. Pseudocereal crop: Crops that are grown for edible grains and do not belong to
the Poaceae family are pseudocereals. E.g.
➢Amaranthus (Amaranthus spp.)- Amaranthaceae
➢Buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum)- Polygonaceae
➢Chenopodium (Chenopodium pallidicaule, C. berlandieri, C. quinoa)-
Chenopodiaceae
3. Grain legumes: Crops that are grown for edible grain and belong to the
Fabaceae family are grain legumes. They are rich in protein content, seeds are
enclosed within the pod. E.g. lentil, chickpea, pigeon pea etc.
4. Oil seed crops: Crops of different families, grown for seeds rich in oil and used
for extraction of oil are oil seed crops. E.g. Sunflower, rapeseed, linseed, etc.
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5. Fiber crops: Crops grown for extraction of fiber. E.g. Cotton and jute
6. Sugar crops: Crops grown for extracting sugar. E.g. Sugarcane and sugarbeet
7. Narcotic crops: Crops grown to extract the parts that are used for stimulating the
nervous system. E.g. Tobacco
8. Tuber crops: Crops that are grown for their edible tuber. E.g. potato, yam etc.
9. Beverage crops: crop grown for preparation of alcoholic and non-alcoholic
beverages. E.g. Tea, coffee, barley
10. Spices and condiments: crop used to provide good flavor to foods. E.g. garlic,
turmeric

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3. Special purpose classification

1. Cash crop: Crops grown for sale to earn hard cash are cash crop. These are crop
that are not generally used for home consumption in large quantities. Most of the
industrial crops are cash crop. E.g. Sugarcane, jute, cotton, tobacco
2. Cover crop: Crops that are grown to protect the soil from erosion. These crops
generally have large foliage, spreading type and extensive root system which can
cover the soil surface and protect from soil erosion. E.g. Cow pea and other
legumes.
3. Catch crop: These are the crops that are grown in between the small period of
two main crops. If the main crop fails for some reason a short-duration crop is
taken to utilize the gap before the main crop. E.g. Moongbean is grown between
wheat and rice.
4. Green manuring crops: These are the crop grown for improvement of soil
fertility. These crops are incorporated into the soil before flowering when they are
still green and succulent. Their decomposition provide organic matter to the soil
which acts as nutrient source to plants. E.g. Sun hemp and Dhaincha

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5. Brake crop: When the same crop is grown for several years, there is a build-up of
pests and diseases. Crops that are grown to break the cycle of continuous cropping are
known as brake crops. When rice and wheat are grown for several years continuously,
there is a decline in yield because of pests and diseases. Crops like oilseeds and legumes
can be grown to break the cycle known as brake crops.
6. Silage crop: These crops are grown for the preparation of silage. These crops are cut in
green and succulent stages to preserve in a silo pit for natural fermentation. E.g. maize
and cowpea.
7. Soiling crop: These crops are grown to harvest and feed the cattle directly when they
are still green. E.g. berseem, oat, etc.
8. Trap crop: Crops grown to attract insects and pests to protect the main crop. E.g. carrot
is grown to protect the potato from red ants.
9. Mulch crops: Crops used to conserve soil moisture, protect soil from erosion and
improve soil fertility. E.g. velvet bean, cowpea.
10. Relay crop: Crops that are grown prior to harvest of the previous crop are termed as
relay crops. E.g lentil in rice field. Here lentil is broadcasted before the harvest of rice and
some portions of their life cycle overlap with each other.
11. Restorative crop: Crop that provides good harvest along with enrichment of the soil.
E.g legumes fix nitrogen and shed leaves which increases organic matter in the soil.

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Unit-2
Weather and Climate

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Weather
➢Weather refers to the state of the atmosphere in the short term (hourly, daily or
weekly) within a local area (village, city or even district), in terms of variations in
temperature, humidity, precipitation, solar radiation, etc.
➢Weather is what is presented on daily Tv or radio broadcast like sunny days, rainy
days, amount of rainfall, maximum and minimum temperature, humidity, etc.
➢Weather is highly variable and changes constantly, some times hour to hour
➢Example: The temperature of Chitwan on 2022-12-31 at 6 Am is 130C
Climate
➢Climate is a generalized weather or summation of weather condition over a given
region during a comparatively longer period (Season, year or decade)
➢Climate is a weather conditions related to larger areas like zone, state, country, or
part of continent and for longer period like month season or year.
➢Example: Tropical climate, subtropical climate, temperate climate etc.
➢Nepal is subtropical country
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a) Macro-climate
▪ It refers to the climate of relatively large part of the earth surface, which is
observed and recorded by a network of meteorological stations and forms
the basis for the characterization of zonal and regional climates.
b) Micro-climate
▪ The climate of extremely small area is called microclimate.
▪ It is the weather condition of plant stand or around plant canopy or from the
ground surface of the plant stand to the deepest root zone in the soil.

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Meteorology
➢Meteorology is the study of atmospheric phenomena
➢It is concerned with the study of the characteristics and behavior of the earth.
➢Branch of physics dealing with physical processes in the atmosphere that
produces the weather
Agricultural meteorology
➢Branch of meteorology which deals with response of crop to the physical
condition of environment
➢Science that deals with meteorology in relation to agricultural activities

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Significance of study of agricultural meteorology

➢Planning cropping patterns
➢Selection of sowing dates for optimum crop yields
➢Reducing loss of applied chemicals and fertilizers
➢For cost effective ploughing, harrowing, weeding etc.
➢Judicious irrigation in crops
➢ Efficient harvesting of crops
➢Reducing the risk of outbreak of pest and diseases

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Elements of climate and their effect on crop growth

Factors affecting crop growth

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Climate and its elements affecting crop growth

➢Climate is an important environmental factor for plant growth and development
➢Climate sets the limit for the distribution and survival of plants
➢ The climate of a region is influenced by
➢Latitude (near or far from the equator receives different amounts of solar radiation)
➢Altitude (10C decrease in temperature with 100 m increase in altitude)
➢Large body of water (moderates the temperature of the region)
The major elements of climate are
1. Solar radiation
2. Temperature
3. Precipitation
4. Relative humidity
5. Wind

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Solar Radiation
➢The radiant energy that comes from the sun on the earth’s surface is called solar
radiation.
➢The biosphere receives solar radiation at wavelengths ranging from 290 nm to about
105nm.
➢The factors affecting the amount of solar radiation at particular locations are the
latitude, season and time of the day
➢From germination to harvest and even post-harvest crops are affected by solar
radiation.
➢Biomass production by photosynthetic processes requires light.
➢Solar radiation controls temperature and thereby distribution of crops in a region
➢The effect of solar radiation on plant growth can be divided into four distinct groups
A. Photosynthetic effect
B. Photoperiodic effect
C. Thermal effect
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D. Other effects

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A. Photosynthetic effect

➢The solar radiation reaching the plant communities in the range of

wavelength 400 nm –700 nm is most efficiently used in photosynthesis.
➢This range of solar radiation is called photosynthetically active radiation
(PAR).
➢The light is measured in photon flux density.
➢The photon flux density within the range of PAR is photosynthetic photon
flux density (PPFD) and its unit is μmol m−2 s−1.
➢The response of photosynthesis to light intensity is termed as light response
curve.

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➢Photosynthesis increases with increasing light intensity up to light saturation

point (LSP), thereafter it becomes constant
➢The quantity of light (light intensity) where net photosynthesis is zero is called
light compensation point (LCP)
➢The light intensity where net photosynthesis is maximum and additional light
intensity does not increase photosynthesis is called as light saturation point
(LSP)
➢Crop species differ in their response to light.
➢Most C4 (maize, sugarcane) crops can increase the photosynthesis even higher
light level than C3 (rice, wheat) crops.

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Depending upon light requirements, plants have been divided into

1. Heliophytes (sun-loving plants): They are able to grow well in high light
environments (1000-1500 μmol m−2s−1)
2. Sciophytes (Shade loving plant): They are able to grow in low light
environments (100-200 μmol m−2s−1 )
➢Furthermore activity of enzymes involved in photosynthesis is affected by
light intensity.
➢The activity and amount of Rubisco and PEP carboxylase is increased with
an increase in light intensity
➢ Besides this the essentials for photosynthesis (chlorophyll, leaf area) are
affected by light intensity.

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B. Photoperiodic effect
➢The time period during which any plants are exposed to sunlight is
known as photoperiod.
➢The response of plant to photoperiod is known as photoperiodism
➢Plant shows flowering response to photoperiod
Plants are classified into 3 groups based on the photoperiod requirement
for flowering. They are
1. Long day – They require > 12 hours day length for flowering. E.g.
wheat, oat, barley, lentil, chickpea etc.
2. Short day – They require <12 hours day length for flowering. E.g. rice,
sunflower etc.
3. Day neutral – There is no or less influence on day length on flowering.
E.g. Buckwheat, sunflower, cotton, tobacco and maize.
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C. Thermal effect

➢More than 70% of solar radiation absorbed by the plants is converted

into heat.
➢Only the photons falling in the Zone of PAR is used in photosynthesis
however all other radiation play an important role in heat generation
➢The heat energy thus generated is utilized for transpiration and heat
exchange with surrounding.
➢These exchanges determine the temperature of leaves and other plant
parts.

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D. Other effects
1. Assimilation of nutrients
➢Utilization of nitrogen by plants is higher in light than in dark
➢Accumulation of phosphorus in maize is higher in light than in dark.
2. Seed dormancy and germination
➢Seeds of lettuce and tobacco (photoblastic plants) do not germinate in the absence of light
➢Seeds of onion and amaranthus (non-photoblastic) will remain dormant when exposed to
light
3. Stomatal movement
➢In many plants stomata open under normal light conditions but in CAM plants, stomata
open during night.
➢Stomatal opening determines gas exchange and transpiration
4. Etiolation and bareness
➢Etiolation is a process in flowering plants grown in partial or complete absence of light.
It is characterized by long, weak stems; smaller leaves due to longer internodes; and a
pale- yellow color.
➢Plant growing in low light intensity have more bareness because of low grain filling.
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Temperature
➢Temperature is the degree of hotness or coldness of a body and is measured
in Celsius scale (⁰C)
➢The temperature of a place is largely determined by its distance from the
equator (latitude), altitude and distance from larger water bodies.
➢The range of temperature for maximum growth of most of the agriculture
crop ranges from 15-40 0C.
Cardinal temperature
➢For all plant species, there is a minimum (Tmin) and maximum (Tmax)
temperature at which growth is negligible and the temperature which is
favourable for plant growth is (Topt).
➢Tmax, Tmin and Topt are collectively called cardinal temperature.

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Cardinal temperature for some crops

Maximum temperature: It refers to maximum

temperature limit over which the growth and
development of plant ceases out.
Minimum temperature: It is the minimum threshold
temperature below which the plant growth and
development ceases
Optimum temperature: The favorable temperature
range in which growth and development of plant is best
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The effect of temperature on plant growth can be divided into 6 distinct

groups.
1. Effect on biochemical reaction
2. Effect on photosynthesis and respiration
3. Effect on transpiration
4. Effect on growth substances
5. Effect on crop development
6. Effect on growth duration

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1. Effect of Temperature on Biochemical Reaction

➢ The rate of biochemical reaction increases with an increase in temperature
from minimum to optimum and rapidly decreases after the optimum
temperature
➢ An increase in temperature from minimum to optimum increases the
activity of the enzyme which increases the rate of reaction.
➢ As the temperature increases from optimum, the structure of enzymes gets
damaged and the rate of reaction decreases
➢ The effect of temperature on biochemical reaction can be represented by
Quotient 10 (Q10)
➢ Quotient 10 is defined as the rate of biochemical reaction for every 100C
raise in temperature.

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Figure: Showing relationship between temperature and biochemical process

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2. Effect of Temperature on Photosynthesis and Respiration

➢ The rate of photosynthesis and respiration increases with an increase in

temperature.
➢ The rate of respiration is low at lower temperatures but increases rapidly
after the optimum temperature
➢ Net photosynthesis is high at optimum temperature and lower at both
ends
➢ Temperature has influence on chlorophyll synthesis and leaf area
development.
➢ Temperature enhances the production of chloroplast
➢ At lower temperatures, leaves become yellow due to the degradation of
chloroplast
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3. Effect of Temperature on Transpiration

➢ The rate of transpiration varies with temperature

➢ Lower temperature favours low transpiration but with increase in
temperature transpiration increases to maintain the temperature within
plant
➢ Extreme high temperature leads to higher transpiration leading to wilting

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4. Effect of Temperature on Growth Substances

➢ At optimum temperature, the activity of growth promoters (auxin,

gibberellins, cytokinins) is high and the activity of growth regulators
(abscisic acid) is low resulting in a higher plant growth rate
➢ At low and high temperatures the balance of growth substances changes
and growth is affected.

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5. Effect of Temperature on Crop Development

➢ Temperature has greater influences on the development of plants such as

rate of germination, leaf initiation, tillering, flowering, spikelet initiation
and grain filling
➢ All these development processes proceed at a faster rate at high
temperatures.

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6. Effect of Temperature on Growth Duration

➢The most noticeable effect of temperature is observed in the growing duration of crops
➢Growth duration of crop determines dry matter production and yield
➢The heat unit or growing degree days (GDD) was developed to explain a direct and linear
relationship between growth duration and temperature
➢A degree day is the summation of mean temperatures minus base temperature
Where T max = maximum temperature
T min = Minimum temperature
T base = Base temperature

➢Base temperature of rice, wheat and maize is 10, 4.5 and 10oC, respectively.
➢A particular amount of GDD is required for a specific growth stage.
➢If such requirement is fulfilled then the plant will enter in the growth stage
➢Thus, the plant growing with high mean temperature will have shorter growth period
➢The shorter growth period will have lower net photosynthesis and yield.

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➢ A particular amount of GDD is required for a specific growth stage. If such a

requirement is fulfilled, then plants enter into another growth stage.
➢ For example, about 1000 ᵒC day, 1500 ᵒC day and 2500 - 2800 ᵒC days are required to
attain the panicle initiation, flowering and maturity stage of the rice crop respectively.
➢ The fulfilment of this value of GDD is meeting earlier for the crop grown in warmer
areas (high daily mean temperature) as compared to cooler areas (low daily mean
temperature).
➢ GDD is useful for predicting harvesting dates and secondly, they are useful for
selecting the optimum date of planting.

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Precipitation
➢Precipitation is the deposition of atmospheric moisture on the
ground
➢Precipitation may occur in forms such as rainfall, snow, hail, fog
and dew
➢Rainfall greatly affects the distribution and cultivation of native
as well as cultivated plants
➢Total amount of rainfall, its distribution and intensity determines
the crop production and productivity of the location

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➢Water is essential for maintaining cell turgidity necessary for

most of the physiological function
➢Photosynthesis and transpiration
➢Solvent and medium for chemical reaction
➢Uptake of nutrients and translocation of photosynthate in
different parts
➢Water deficit at any growth stage reduces crop yield

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• Equally distribution of rainfall in a particular area throughout

the year helps to maintain optimum soil moisture.
• Drizzle rain helps in pollination of crops.
• Whereas high rainfall during flowering of crops affects
pollination (by washing pollen grains and reducing receptivity of
stigma).
• Excess soil moisture delays crop maturity and harvesting
• If the rainfall is greater than the rate of infiltration in the soil,
the surface runoff may cause flooding and soil erosion.

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Based on amount of rainfall in a year agriculture land can be divided as

1. Arid region
➢Average rainfall is less than 500 mm
➢The crop production is dependent on supplemental water supply through irrigation.
2. Semi-arid region
➢Average rainfall is 500-750 mm
➢crop production in this area requires either farming practice that conserve water
➢or needs additional irrigation during required period
3. Sub humid region
➢Average rainfall 750-1000 mm
➢Crop production in this area is not generally limited by natural rainfall
4. Humid region
➢Average rainfall is more than 1000 mm
➢Many types of crops can be grown in this area as there is no limitation of water

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Relative Humidity
➢Relative humidity (RH) is a measure of the amount of moisture or water
vapour present in the air, compared to the maximum amount of moisture that
the air could hold at a particular temperature.
➢Rate of evapo-transpiration is strongly related to relative humidity
➢Lower relative humidity – water deficit in plants
➢Higher relative humidity – reduces transpiration and gas exchange
➢Incidence of insect pests and disease is higher at high relative humidity e.g.
late blight in potatoes.
➢70-80 % relative humidity is considered ideal for crop production
• Under less R.H. (< 70 % ), transpiration in plants increases, which is
detrimental to the crop if water is limited.
• Under high R.H. (> 80 %), transpiration in plants decreases, affecting
the gaseous exchange process through the stomata of leaves which negatively
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Wind

• Wind is indirectly responsible for causing rainfall and changing

the humidity of certain places.
• Directly, the gentle wind is responsible for promoting
photosynthesis by supplying CO2 in the deeper leaf layer of
the plant canopy.
• Gentle wind helps to pollinate the crop plants, water uptake
and regulates the temperature of plant canopy.

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Harmful effect of wind

• Hot dry wind is harmful for crop plants because such wind
accelerates the transpiration and evaporation from the soil
causing desiccation of plants.
• Affects the photosynthesis by the closing of stomata.
• High wind velocity causes lodging of crops, breakage of plant
parts, shattering of grains, flower drops and uprooting of
whole plant.
• In desert and light soil-containing fields, the high wind
velocity causes more soil erosion.

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Assignment
• Highlight the effect of precipitation and wind in crop growth. 2+2
• Explain the photosynthetic and photoperiodic effect of solar radiation
on the growth of crops. 2+2
• What do you mean by microclimate? Discuss the role of precipitation
relative humidity on crop growth and development. 1+ 1.5+1.5

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