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Chapter 6 Structuring System Requirements: Process Modeling 1

Chapter 6
Structuring System Requirements:
Process Modeling

Chapter Overview
This chapter continues the discussion of systems analysis, introducing students to
requirements structuring. Specifically, students are introduced to process modeling and
logic modeling. Although there are several methods and techniques available for
process modeling, this chapter focuses on Data-flow Diagrams (DFDs) because they
have been popular for many years, especially in the structured analysis and design
literature. Also, many CASE tools have incorporated DFDs into their sets of system
development tools and techniques.

Structured English and decision tables are the two logic models presented in this
chapter. The chapter discusses how Structured English statements are used to
represent the basic constructs in structured programming: sequence, choice, and
repetition. Decision tables are discussed in reference to how they can represent more
complicated processing logic than simple Structured English statements.

Instructional Objectives
Specific student learning objectives are included at the beginning of the chapter. From
an instructor’s point of view, the objectives of this chapter are to:

1. Show how data-flow diagrams can logically model processes.

2. Teach students data-flow diagram symbols and the mechanical rules necessary for
them to create accurate and well-structured process models.

3. Show students how to decompose data-flow diagrams into lower-level diagrams.

4. Illustrate the concept of balanced DFDs.

5. Explain and demonstrate the differences among the four types of DFDs: current
physical, current logical, new physical, and new logical.

6. Illustrate how data-flow diagrams can be used as tools to support systems analysis.

7. Show how Structured English can be used to model process logic.

8. Demonstrate how decision tables can be used to represent the logic of choice in
conditional statements.

9. Explain that process modeling for Internet-based electronic commerce applications

is no different than the process used for other applications.

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall

Chapter 6 Structuring System Requirements: Process Modeling 2

Classroom Ideas
1. Use Figures 6–2 and 6–6 to illustrate the basic DFD symbols and the correct and
incorrect ways to draw the diagrams. Use Figure 6–3 to demonstrate the problem
with trying to include sources/sinks inside the system being modeled.

2. Once you have taught the basics of drawing DFDs, have students complete
Problems and Exercises 1 through 3 and 8 as in-class exercises that you can then
go over in class.

3. Figures 6–4, 6–5, 6–7, 6–8, and 6–9 can be used in class to teach decomposition.
These can be followed with students completing Problems and Exercises 4 and 10
in-class.

4. Use Figure 6–10 to illustrate unbalanced DFDs.

5. Supplement the material in this chapter on DFD mechanics, decomposition, and

balancing with your own examples, which you can work through together in class.
A good source of such examples is written organizational procedure statements.
Modified procedure statements also make good homework problems. See
Problems and Exercises 10 and 11 for examples. It is probably best to devote at
least one complete class period to working through examples. Students can
prepare these diagrams outside of class or try for the first time in class. Many
issues arise that are best handled from examples, such as the following difficulties
that students often encounter:

• identifying when to show a direct data flow between processes and

when to decouple these with a data store (emphasize that data
stores allow different processes to work at different rates and at
different times).
• deciding what activities to encompass with each process (emphasize
the principle of cohesion and the goal of each process being of
roughly equal size and complexity).
• distinguishing processes from sinks and sources (emphasize factors
such as audience and the ability to change or control in making such
distinctions).
• logical inconsistencies or ambiguities in narrative descriptions
(emphasize that this is the power of DFDs and the typical interaction
between requirements structuring and requirements determination
necessary to resolve such ambiguities).

6. Use a CASE tool in class to demonstrate other ways to model processes other than
DFDs. Have students compare and contrast these alternative methods with DFDs.

7. Using a CASE tool that supports DFDs, show in class how the tool provides for
decomposition and balancing and how DFDs are linked to the CASE repository.
Later, when teaching Chapter 6, you can show how the repository links DFDs and
entity-relationship diagrams.

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall

Chapter 6 Structuring System Requirements: Process Modeling 3

8. Use a CASE tool in class to show how the tool checks for completeness,
consistency, and other elements of analysis as discussed in the chapter.

10. Work through both decision table examples contained in the text, using Figures 6–
14 and 6–15, then work through Figures 6–16 and 6–17.

Lecture Notes
As illustrated in Figure 6–1, requirements structuring is the second of the three primary
analysis phases. This chapter introduces students to two methods useful for structuring
requirements: process modeling and logic modeling,

Process Modeling

Process modeling graphically represents the processes that capture, manipulate, store,
and distribute data between a system and its environment and among components
within a system. The data-flow diagram (DFD) is the type of process model discussed
in Chapter 6. During requirements determination, information is collected about the
current and new systems. The project team will structure this information into
meaningful representations of the current and new systems. The requirements
structuring process results in several deliverables, including a context data-flow diagram,
DFDs of the current system, DFDs of the new system, and a thorough description of
each DFD component. The process modeling deliverables are listed in Table 6–1.
CASE tools facilitate the preparation of these diagrams.

Data-Flow Diagramming Mechanics

Four symbols are used on data-flow diagrams; these symbols represent data flows, data
stores, processes, and source/sinks. The Gane and Sarson symbol set is illustrated in
Figure 6–2 and is the symbol set used in this textbook. A data flow represents data that
are in motion and moving as a unit. A data flow is represented by an arrow on the data-
flow diagram. A database query, sales report, or order are examples of data flows. In
contrast to a data flow, a data store represents data at rest. On a data-flow diagram, a
data store is represented as a rectangle with its right vertical line missing. A notebook,
file folder, or customer database are examples of data stores. A process, represented
as a rectangle with rounded corners, represents the works or actions performed on data.
Sources/sinks are the origin and/or destination of data and are represented on the
data-flow diagram as squares or rectangles. Suppliers, customers, and a bank are
examples. As it relates to sources/sinks, we are not interested in the interactions that
occur between sinks and sources, what a source or sink does with information or how it
operates, how to control or redesign a source or sink, and how to provide sources and
sinks with direct access to stored data. Figure 6–3 contrasts an incorrectly drawn DFD
(a process is shown as a sink) with one that is correctly prepared.

The Hoosier Burger case illustrates the DFD development process. The boundary or
scope of Hoosier Burger’s food-ordering system is represented by a context diagram;
this diagram, illustrated in Figure 6–4, also shows the system’s interactions with its

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall

Chapter 6 Structuring System Requirements: Process Modeling 4

environment. The context diagram contains only one process labeled “0” and no data
stores. After the context diagram is prepared, a level-0 diagram is drawn. The food-
ordering system’s level-0 diagram is shown in Figure 6–5. The level-0 diagram
represents a system’s major processes, data flows, and data stores at a high level of
detail.

The preparation of data-flow diagrams (DFDs) is governed by a set of rules; these rules
are summarized in Table 6–2. Two additional DFD diagramming rules are that the
inputs to a process are different from the outputs of that process and DFD objects have
unique names. Figure 6–6 shows the incorrect and correct ways to draw data-flow
diagrams. The context diagram is functionally decomposed into finer and finer detail,
resulting in the preparation of several levels of diagrams. A level-n diagram is a DFD that
is the result of n nested decompositions of a series of subprocesses from a process on a
level-0 diagram. Functional decomposition will continue until a subprocess cannot be
exploded into more detail. Primitive DFDs are the lowest level DFDs. The level-1
diagram appearing in Figure 6–7 is a decomposition of Process 1.0 on the level-0
diagram. Figure 6–8 shows a level 1 diagram. Figure 6–9 shows a level-2 diagram.

DFDs should be balanced, meaning that the inputs and outputs to a process are
conserved at the next level of decomposition. Figure 6–10 shows a set of unbalanced
DFDs. Figure 6–11 provides an example of a data-flow splitting. Table 6–3
summarizes four advanced diagramming rules. These rules address splitting composite
data flows into component data flows at the next level, the conservation principle, an
exception to balancing, and minimizing clutter on the DFD.

Using Data-Flow Diagramming in the Analysis Process

Completeness, consistency, timing considerations, the iterative nature of drawing DFDs,

and drawing primitive DFDs are five additional data-flow diagramming guidelines. DFD
completeness is the extent to which all necessary components on a data-flow diagram
have been included and fully described. CASE tools can help identify areas where the
diagrams are incomplete. It is important that each DFD element be described in the
CASE repository. DFD consistency is the extent to which information contained on one
level of a set of nested data-flow diagrams is also included on other levels. Again,
CASE tools can be used to detect inconsistencies among diagrams. DFDs do not
represent time, thus they do not reflect how often a processing activity occurs. Because
diagrams are generally not perfect on the first try, these diagrams are modified, resulting
in iterative development.

As mentioned previously, primitive DFDs are the lowest level of diagramming. The
analyst has probably reached the primitive level when she has reduced each process to
a single decision or calculation; each data store represents data about a single entity;
the system user does not care to see any more detail; every data flow does not need to
be split further to show that different data are handled in various ways; each business
form or transaction, computer online display, and report has been shown as a single
data flow; and there is a separate process for each choice on all lowest-level menu
options.

Data-flow diagrams are useful for performing gap analysis and for identifying system
inefficiencies. Gap analysis is the process of discovering discrepancies between two or

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall

Chapter 6 Structuring System Requirements: Process Modeling 5

more sets of data-flow diagrams or discrepancies within a single DFD. Gap analysis
helps identify redundant data flows, data that are captured and not used by the system,
and data that are updated identically in more than one location. CASE tools aid in this
analysis.

The IBM Credit Corporation is used as an example of how DFDs are useful during
business process reengineering. As Figures 6–12 and 6–13 illustrate, data-flow
diagrams made visualizing and analyzing the financing process much easier.

Logic Modeling

Because data-flow diagrams do not show the inner workings of processes, logic models
are useful for showing this internal logic. Decision tables are a popular method for
modeling system logic. In many instances, decision logic is quite complex, and often,
decision tables are best suited for these situations. A decision table is a matrix
representation of the logic of a decision, which specifies the possible conditions for the
decision and resulting actions. A decision table consists of three parts: condition
stubs, action stubs, and rules. A decision table can be simplified by removing
indifferent conditions. Figure 6–14 shows a complex decision table; Figure 6–15
shows the simplified version. The basic procedures for decision table construction are:
(1) name the conditions and the values each condition can assume; (2) name all
possible actions that can occur; (3) list all possible rules; (4) define the actions for each
rule; and (5) simplify the decision table. Figure 6–16 shows a decision table for the
Hoosier Burger’s inventory reordering system; Figure 6–17 shows the simplified table.

PVF WebStore: Process Modeling

The authors use Pine Valley’s WebStore to illustrate process modeling for an electronic
commerce application. This example shows that process modeling for electronic
commerce applications is the same as for more traditional application development
projects. Table 6–4 outlines the WebStore’s system structure and corresponding Level-
0 processes. Figure 6–18 is a Level-0 DFD for the WebStore.

Key Terms Checkpoint Solutions

Answers for the Key Terms Checkpoint section are provided below. The
number following each key term indicates its location in the key term
list.

1. data-flow diagram (5) 11. DFD consistency (9)

2. balancing (2) 12. level-n diagram (13)

3. condition stubs (3) 13. process (15)

4. level-0 diagram (12) 14. rules (17)

5. source/sink (18) 15. data store (6)

6. indifferent condition (11) 16. process modeling (16)

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall

Chapter 6 Structuring System Requirements: Process Modeling 6

7. context diagram (4) 17. gap analysis (10)

8. primitive DFD (14) 18. action stubs (1)

9. DFD completeness (8)

10. decision table (7)

Review Questions Solutions

1. What is a data-flow diagram? Why do systems analysts use data-flow
diagrams?
A data-flow diagram is a picture of the movement of data between external entities
and the processes and data stores within a system. Systems analysts use data-
flow diagrams to help them model the processes internal to an information system
as well as how data from the system’s environment enter the system, are used by
the system, and are returned to the environment. DFDs help analysts understand
how the organization handles information and what its information needs are or
might be. Analysts also use DFDs to study alternative information handling
procedures during the process of designing new information services.

2. Explain the rules for drawing good data-flow diagrams.

The rules for DFDs are listed in Table 6–2 and illustrated in Figure 6–6.
Processes cannot have only outputs, cannot have only inputs, and must have a
verb phrase label. Data can move to a data store from only a process, not from
another data store or an outside source. Similarly, data can be moved to only an
outside sink or to another data store by a process. Data to and from external
sources and sinks can be moved by only processes. Data flows move in one
direction only. Both branches of a forked or a joined data flow must represent the
same data. A data flow cannot return to the process from which it originated.

3. What is decomposition? What is balancing? How can you determine if

DFDs are not balanced?
Decomposition is the iterative process by which a system description is broken
down into finer and finer detail, creating a set of diagrams in which one process
on a given diagram is explained in greater detail on a lower–level diagram.
Balancing is the conservation of inputs and outputs to a data-flow diagram
process when that process is decomposed to a lower level. You can determine if
a set of DFDs are balanced or not by observing whether or not a process that
appears in a level-n diagram has the same inputs and outputs when decomposed
for a lower-level diagram.

4. Explain the convention for naming different levels of data-flow diagrams.

The highest level DFD is called a context diagram. It represents the system as a
single process, with all the related entities and the data flows in and out of the
system. The next level diagram, called a level-0, decomposes the one process
from the context diagram into between two to nine high-level processes. Each
process in a level-0 diagram can be decomposed if necessary. Each resulting
diagram is called a level-1. Should processes in a level-1 diagram be

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall

Chapter 6 Structuring System Requirements: Process Modeling 7

decomposed, each resulting diagram would be called a level-2 diagram. Each of

these processes would be decomposed on a level-3 diagram, and so on.

5. How can data-flow diagrams be used as analysis tools?

DFDs can be used as analysis tools to help determine the completeness of a
system model and a model’s internal consistency, as a way to determine when
system events occur through analyzing timeliness, and, through iterative use, to
develop and check models. Analysts can study DFDs to find excessive
information handling, thus identifying areas for possible efficiencies.

6. Explain the guidelines for deciding when to stop decomposing DFDs.

You can stop decomposing a DFD when the following six conditions are satisfied:
(1) each process is a single decision or calculation or a single database operation,
such as retrieve, update, create, delete, or read; (2) each data store represents
data about a single entity, such as a customer, employee, product, or order; (3)
the system user does not care to see any more detail, or when you and other
analysts have documented sufficient detail to do subsequent systems
development tasks; (4) every data flow does not need to be split further to show
that different data are handled in different ways; (5) you believe that you have
shown each business form or transaction, computer screen, and report as a single
data flow; and (6) you believe there is a separate process for each choice on all
lowest–level menu options for the system.

7. How do you decide if a system component should be represented as a

source/sink or as a process?
Sources and sinks are always outside of the system being considered. They are
of interest to the system being considered only because they represent sources of
data coming into the system and destinations for data leaving the system. If any
data processing occurs inside a source or sink, it should be of no interest to the
system being modeled. If the processing is of interest, however, or if the identified
source/sink has several inputs and outputs to and from the rest of the system, it
may be better considered as an internal process.

8. What unique rules apply to drawing context diagrams?

Context diagrams have only one process that represents the entire system being
modeled and show only the data flows into and out of the system. The diagram
also includes sources and sinks, which represent the system’s environmental
boundaries. There are usually no data stores in a context diagram.

9. Explain what the term DFD consistency means and provide an example.
DFD consistency is the extent to which information contained on one level of a set
of nested data-flow diagrams is also included on other levels. Balancing errors
are one type of consistency violation mentioned in the textbook. For instance, a
payment data flow that appears on a level-1 diagram, but not on the level-0
diagram, is a consistency violation.

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall

Chapter 6 Structuring System Requirements: Process Modeling 8

10. Explain what the term DFD completeness means and provide an example.
DFD completeness is the extent to which all necessary components of a data-flow
diagram have been included and fully described. A data store that does not have
any data flows coming into or out of it is a completeness violation.

11. How well do DFDs illustrate timing considerations for systems? Explain
your answer.
Timing considerations are not noted on DFDs. For instance indications of whether
a process occurs hourly, daily, weekly, monthly, or yearly are not made.

12. How can data-flow diagrams be used in business process redesign?

DFDs can graphically illustrate, at varying levels of detail, how a process or
processes work. Analysts can study DFDs of the current system and identify
areas of inefficiency. Analysts can prepare DFDs for the new system, identifying
changes for the new system.

13. What is the purpose of logic modeling? What techniques are used to model
decision logic and what techniques are used to model temporal logic?
The purpose of logic modeling is to show the rules that govern the behavior of
processes represented in data-flow diagrams. Decision tables model decision
logic. State diagrams model temporal logic.

14. What are the steps in creating a decision table? How do you reduce the size
and complexity of a decision table?
The steps for creating a decision table are: (1) name the conditions and the
values each condition can assume; (2) name all possible actions that can occur;
(3) list all possible rules; (4) define the actions for each rule; and (5) simplify the
decision table. To reduce the size and complexity of a decision table, use
separate, linked decision tables, or use numbers that indicate sequence rather
than Xs where rules and action stubs intersect. Also, the analyst should identify
indifferent conditions and simplify the decision table.

15. What formula is used to calculate the number of rules a decision table must
cover?
To determine the number of rules a decision table must cover, simply determine
the number of values each condition may have and multiply the number of values
for each condition by the number of values for every other condition.

Problems and Exercises Solutions

1. Using the example of a retail clothing store in a mall, list relevant data flows,
data stores, processes, and sources/sinks. Observe several sales
transactions. Draw a context diagram and a level-0 diagram that represent
the selling system at the store. Explain why you chose certain elements as
processes versus sources/sinks.
A suggested context diagram and level-0 diagram are provided below.

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall

Chapter 6 Structuring System Requirements: Process Modeling 9

Problem and Exercise 1

Context
Context Diagram
Diagram

Payment 0
Customer Point of Sale Store Manager
Management Report
Receipt System

Level-0 Diagram
Problem and Exercise 1
Level-0 Diagram

Receipt 1
Customer Transform
Customer Sales Data
Payment Purchase

Goods Sold
Inventory Data

2 3 4
Update Goods Update Update Sales
Sold File Inventory File Total File

Formatted Goods Sold Amount Formatted Inventory Amount Formatted Sales Total Amount

Goods Sold File Inventory File Sales Total File

Inventory
Amounts

Sales Totals

5
Goods Sold Amounts Produce Management Report
Management
Reports Store Manager

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall

 Chapter 6 Structuring System Requirements: Process Modeling 10

2. Choose a transaction that you are likely to encounter, perhaps ordering a

cap and gown for graduation, and develop a high-level DFD, or context
diagram. Decompose this to a level-0 diagram.
A suggested context diagram and a level-0 diagram are provided below.

Problem and Exercise 2

Context
Context Diagram
Diagram

Receipt
0
Cap & Gown
Student Cap & Gown Purchase Request Order Entry Cap and Gown Order
Company
System

Problem and Exercise 2

Level-0
Level-0 Diagram
Diagram

Receipt
Cap and Gown Order Cap & Gown
Student
Company

Cap & Gown Purchase Request

3
1 Valid Order Information 2 Inventory Data Update
Validate Order Finalize Order
Inventory File

Inventory Status

Inventory File Formatted Inventory Data

3. Evaluate your level-0 DFD from Problem and Exercise 2 using the rules for
drawing DFDs in this chapter. Edit your DFD so that it does not break any of
these rules.
Students should go through the rules discussed in this chapter (and presented in
Table 6–2 and Figure 6–6) one at a time and check each of their data-flow
diagrams. Alternatively, if the students are using a CASE tool to create their data-
flow diagrams, the CASE tool may be used to automatically check for errors in the
diagrams. There are no rule violations in the example DFDs, but we cannot verify
that there are no logical problems until we decompose the diagrams to a primitive

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 Chapter 6 Structuring System Requirements: Process Modeling 11

level. One obvious missing system capability is how to handle invalid orders;
typically, processes to handle abnormal conditions, like invalid orders, are shown
on primitive or at least low-level diagrams.

4. Choose an example like that in Problem and Exercise 2, and draw a context
diagram. Decompose this diagram until it doesn’t make sense to continue.
Be sure that your diagrams are balanced, as discussed in this chapter.
Students may choose a variety of situations to use for the nth level data-flow
diagrams for this answer. Basically, students should continue the process of
decomposition until they have reached the point where no subprocess can
logically be broken down further (i.e., each process meets the definition of a
primitive process). See the level-1 data-flow diagram for this exercise, which
shows a sample decomposition of the process titled Finalize Order from the level-
0 data-flow diagram provided for Problem and Exercise 3. The (italicized) labels
for processes and sources/sinks without borders represent the origin or
destination of flows that pass between this subsystem and other system
components. Note that the Goods Sold File is a potential black hole or should
possibly be treated as a sink.
Problem and Exercise #4
Level-1 Diagram
Level-1 Diagram

Cap & Gown

Validate Order
Company

Cap and Gown Order

2.3
2.1 2.2
Receipt Receipt Generate
Generate Log Goods Sold
Information For
Receipt Data
Shipping

Goods Sold Data Inventory Data

Valid Order Information

Goods Sold File Update Inventory File

Validate Order

5. Refer to Figure 6-19 A and B, which contains drafts of a context and a level-
0 DFD for a university class registration system. Identify and explain
potential violations of rules and guidelines on these diagrams.
Some errors and peculiarities in these diagrams include:

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall

Chapter 6 Structuring System Requirements: Process Modeling 12

• In the level–0 diagram, the data store, Class Roster, does not have
the data flow, Scheduled Classes, flowing into it, rather this data flow
connects processes 2 and 3; thus, these DFDs are not balanced.
• Process 1 appears to accomplish nothing since its inflow and outflow
are identical; such processes are uninteresting and probably
unnecessary; it is possible that this process will become interesting
when it is decomposed, where validation and error handling
processes might appear.
• Process 2 does not appear to need Course Request as input in order
to perform its function, as implied by its name.
• Some students may also wonder if process 3 has input sufficient to
produce its output; for example, where are prior class registrations
kept so that process 3 can determine when a course is full?

6. Why should you develop both logical and physical DFDs for systems? What
advantage is there for drawing a logical DFD before a physical DFD for a
new information system?
Physical data-flow diagrams help you better understand the people and/or
computer systems that are used in the overall system’s processing. Logical data-
flow diagrams help you better understand the essence of the system, the data and
the processes that transform them, regardless of actual physical form. Further,
the new logical data-flow diagrams can then show any additional functionality
necessary in the new system, to indicate which, if any, obsolete components have
been eliminated, and any changes in the logical flow of data between system
components, including different data stores. The data-flow diagrams for the new
physical system can then be constructed with the data-flow diagrams for the new
logical system as a guide.

7. This chapter has shown you how to model, or structure, just one aspect, or
view, of an information system, namely the process view. Why do you think
analysts have different types of diagrams and other documentation to
depict different views (e.g. process, logic, and data) of an information
system?
The various views (e.g., process, logic, data) of an information system each have
their own unique characteristics and provide the most relevant information to
different information system specialists. This variety is best understood,
expressed, and managed by using diagrams and documentation that are
specifically tailored for each view of the system. For example, data-flow diagrams
are useful for capturing the flow of data through business processes, but they are
not useful for describing the forms and relationships among data. As information
systems become larger and more complex, it becomes even more important to
use the right tool and technique to develop each component of an information
system. One technique that captured all aspects of an information system model
on one diagram or in one notation would likely be too complex for systems
professionals to handle.

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall

Chapter 6 Structuring System Requirements: Process Modeling 13

8. Consider the DFD in Figure 6–20. List three errors (rule violations) on this
DFD.
Three major errors in Figure 6–20 are:

• Process 1.0 (P2) has only inputs, making it a “black hole.”

• Data flow DF5 should not move directly from source E1 to data store
DS1 without first going through a process.
• Data flow DF1 should not move directly from source E1 to sink E2
without first going through a process.
• Other peculiarities (such as Process 1.0 has label P2 and the data
store has only a label, not a number) are only that, not errors.

9. Consider the three DFDs in Figure 6–21. List three errors (rule violations)
on these DFDs.
These diagrams show the decomposition of process P1 on the level-0 diagram.
Three particular logical errors in Figure 6–21 are:

• The data store DS1, not DS2, should be represented on the level-1
diagram.
• Data flow DF3 should be an outflow on the level-1 diagram, and data
flow DF6 should not be on the level-1 diagram.
• Process P1.4.2 has no inputs and is thus a “miracle.”

10. Starting with a context diagram, draw as many nested DFDs as you consider
necessary to represent all the details of the employee hiring system
described in the following narrative. You must draw at least a context
diagram and a level-0 diagram. In drawing these diagrams, if you discover
that the narrative is incomplete, make up reasonable explanations to
complete the story. Supply these extra explanations along with the
diagrams. (The Projects, Inc. narrative is provided in the textbook.)
A suggested context diagram and level-0 diagram are provided below.

Context-Level Diagram
Context-Level Diagram

Interview Schedule
Engineering
Applicant
Manager

Qualified Applicant’s Application

Blank NonDisclosure Form

Completed NonDisclosure Form Interview Evaluation

0
Hiring System
Completed Application Job Description

Hiring Decision Letter

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall

Chapter 6 Structuring System Requirements: Process Modeling 14

Level-0 Diagram
Level-0 Diagram

Blank Non-Disclosure Form

Completed Non-Disclosure Form

1 5
Completed Receive Purge Year-Old
Application Application Purge Notice Applications
Applicant
Valid Application

Year-Old Applications

Applications

Applications Related to Job Descriptions

Applications for Interview

6
3
Interview Schedule Create
Choose for

New Employee
Employee
Interview
Record

Data
Hiring Decision
Qualified Applicant’s Application

Job
Descriptions
Employees

Approved Job Description

2 Relevant Job Description 4
Receive Job Evaluate and Hiring Decision Letter
Description Hire

Job Description
Interview Evaluation
Engineering Applicant
Manager

11. a. Starting with a context diagram, draw as many nested DFDs as you
consider necessary to represent all the details of the system described
in the following narrative. In drawing these diagrams, if you discover
that the narrative is incomplete, make up reasonable explanations to
complete the story. Supply these extra explanations along with the
diagrams. (The Maximum Software narrative is provided in the
textbook.)
b. Analyze the DFDs you created in Part a. What recommendations for
improvements in the help desk system at Maximum can you make based
upon this analysis? Draw new logical DFDs that represent the
requirements you would suggest for an improved help desk system.
Remember, these are to be logical DFDs, so consider improvements
independent of technology that can be used to support the help desk.
The sample context and level-0 data-flow diagrams represent one possible way to
model the help desk process described in this question. In our solution, we have
chosen to include the processes performed by the consultants and operators as
subsystems within the system rather than as sources/sinks; this adds detail, but
allows bottlenecks in these processes to be corrected. Note that the data stores
are repeated in the level-0 diagram, to avoid excessive crossing of data flow lines.
Several processes could be exploded further, but the student would probably
have to make many assumptions to do so.

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall

Chapter 6 Structuring System Requirements: Process Modeling 15

There are a number of ways that the students could choose to improve this
system. For example, with the current system a customer may have to explain his
problem and/or question over and over to multiple people: an operator and
possibly several consultants. The customer may begin to believe that he is
getting the “run-around” characteristic of a large bureaucracy. One way to avoid
this potential problem is to let the initial operator have access to the customer
problem database so that when the caller is handed off to a consultant the
customer’s already opened problem file will go along with him. In addition, the
operator could have sufficient information and the option to direct the call to the
proper consultant. Alternatively, clients could call the assigned consultant directly
on follow-up calls to an initial call for help.

Ask your students for characteristics of a DFD that imply areas for improvement.
Possible answers are: processes that simply collect and pass on information
rather than transforming data, collecting the same information into several
processes, placing untransformed data into data stores thus causing unknown
delays in processing this data, or cycles or loops that have no apparent
termination.

A suggested context diagram and level-0 diagram are provided below.

Context Diagram
Context-Level Diagram

Inquiry on Nature of Call

Call

Client Nature of Call Other Unit

0
Call Report Number or Other Data Help Desk Non-Help Desk Call
New Problem Data System

Interim Problem Status

Final Call Resolution

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Prentice Hall

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find written in the annals of Korea.
 THE GRAY WITCH
n a city of which you all know the name lives a little girl who
formerly was very naughty but now behaves much better
than she did. This little girl was very beautiful, which made
it seem all the more sad that she ever was naughty.
One day she was particularly bad and would do nothing to please
anybody. She wanted to be petted, waited upon, and humored all
the time. She fretted and whined so much, that when evening came,
her mother was no longer able to endure her behavior, and sent her
to bed immediately after supper.
As she lay dozing in her little cot, she remembered that she had
not said her prayers. She would not get out of bed to say them, but
muttered in a peevish voice: "I wish that God would punish all the
wicked people I know! But there's no use praying anyway!"
No sooner had little Polly uttered these words, than a light flashed
upon her astonished eyes. She sat up in bed and gazed in horror.
Coming toward her was an old, stooped, wild-eyed woman, dressed
in gray and carrying a big stick.
Polly tried to scream, but her voice seemed no louder than the
squeak of a mouse. Then she tried to get out of bed and run to her
mother, but could not move a foot, nor even a finger. Meanwhile the
hag came nearer, and as she approached she grew more ugly.
Polly was already nearly dead with terror; yet what did the old
woman do but reach her heavy hand and lift the child by her hair
right out of bed! Then the frightful hag let her fall upon the floor,
gave her a hideous look, and sharply commanded: "Follow me,
pouter!"
 In vain did Polly try to resist. Clad only in her nightdress, she
followed her unwelcome guide out of the house. The night was cold,
and the streets were muddy. After they had tramped about for a
while, the witch stooped lower than ever and made Polly bestride
her back; then she flew with her little rider to the Mountains. Here
the hag stopped, and placing the child on the ground, commanded
her to wish.
Poor Polly was afraid to speak.
"Ask! Ask!" the witch kept repeating, as she stood over Polly,
shaking her long bony hand at her. "I give you five minutes to
decide! Going—going—gone!"
At the last word the old woman clapped her hands together,
making sparks fly.
Polly screamed with terror: "I only want to be good! Please!"
Then, for a long time, Polly remembered no more. Everything
became dark, and she thought she was getting smaller and smaller,
until suddenly she became a pin-point and pricked herself, as if she
had been somebody else!
"Oh!" she exclaimed as she came to herself again. She looked
about, and saw beautiful mountains all around. The valley in which
she lay was green with grass and glowing with beautiful wild
flowers. Not far off she could see a clear, sparkling river. She was
clad in a new and lovely pink frock with stockings and shoes to
match. What did it all mean?
The sun was already high in midheaven. As far as Polly's eyes
could see, the scenery was entrancing. Birds sang in the branches,
and squirrels ran to Polly and begged for nuts.
Then she heard the shout of little children, and saw twenty or
more youngsters frolicking in a near meadow.
When the children saw her they ran to meet her and made her
very welcome. Soon she became quite at home among them.
Finally a little boy named Harry pointed with his finger; "See, it is
dinner-time!" he said.
 Polly looked where the boy pointed and was astonished to see a
tall, stately clock-tower, rising high above all the mountains. The
hands of the clock pointed to twelve.
"Oh! Oh!" exclaimed Polly. "Isn't it grand? Why didn't I notice it
before?"
"Because," said Harry, "you were playing and not thinking about
time."
At that instant the clock struck twelve. Then it chimed forth a
sweet chant, more beautiful than anything that Polly ever had heard.
It made her feel as though she were in heaven. But being still a child
of earth, she clapped her hands and scampered off with the other
children to the tower.
"How often, Harry, does that clock chime?" asked Polly.
"It plays music every quarter of an hour."
"How is it, then, that I did not hear the music before?"
"Do you really mean that you have not heard the clock chime all
the morning? It has been playing right along. You must have seen
that we children stopped playing for a few seconds now and then. At
those times we were listening to the music."
The other children gathered about Polly, and when Harry told them
about her failure to hear the chimes, they all began to laugh.
Polly could not bear to be laughed at so she cried bitterly;
whereupon the other children scampered off.
Harry, however, tried to comfort the weeping child. "Polly," he
pleaded, "never mind those children; they do not know any better."
Polly suddenly drew away from him. "I guess you told them things
about me! Go away from me! You are a tattle-tale!"
She stamped her foot, and her eyes flashed. Harry turned and
walked away sadly.
Suddenly to Polly all nature became very still and lonesome. She
was sorry that all the children had gone, and she did not know
where to find them. The great clock-tower too had disappeared. She
began to be afraid once more. Sitting down on a stone she almost
wished herself dead. No one loved her. The sun began to move
toward the West and Polly was beginning to feel hungry as well as
sad.
But now occurred something that made her forget all about
hunger: She saw the witch approaching her, looking more horrid
than ever. When Polly tried to run, she found herself so badly
frightened that she could not move from the spot.
"Oh, please, please, good woman," pleaded Polly, falling on her
knees, "don't take me away from these fields. I know I was naughty,
but I will try to do better in the future. Please—don't take me away!"
Instead of scolding and threatening, as Polly feared, the hag gently
patted her on the head, saying: "So you want to stay here. My child,
no one can stay here who wishes evil and is stubborn."
"I'll be good—I'll be good," pleaded Polly.
"Then, child, you shall have your wish," replied the old woman,
disappearing from the scene.
As soon as the witch was gone, Polly rose from her knees and
wished for Harry, but wishing did not bring him. Feeling tired after so
much excitement, she lay down and peacefully drifted into
dreamland.
She was aroused by Harry's voice.
"Polly! Polly!" he was gently calling until she opened her large blue
eyes. "It is past dinner-time," he said, "and if you do not hurry there
will be no good things to eat."
"Oh, Harry, Harry!" she cried. "I have been very, very naughty!"
Happily they walked toward the great clock tower, which had
become visible again to Polly. She afterward learned that her vision
changed with her mood. In this land, if she was cranky and irritable
she saw snakes and toads and worms and other creeping things,
while if she was good she saw only singing birds and laughing
waters and other beautiful objects.
When the two entered the hall, most of the other children were
leaving. Polly followed her friend to a seat and began to enjoy the
good things on the table.
After they had eaten, Harry led her about the building and showed
her its many wonders. They were about to leave when Polly
discovered a picture that startled her. It appeared to be a large
painting of two children, walking together, and an old hag dragging
after.
"Oh, Harry!" exclaimed Polly, starting back, "it is the picture of the
gray witch! Come, let us run!"
She turned to flee but Harry caught her. "Yes, Polly," he said in
surprise, "it is the witch, but she is not ugly but beautiful. If you
knew her you would like her. She loves all of us very dearly. It is she
who gave you that fine dinner!"
"I do not believe it! She is horrid—I hate her!" shouted Polly. "She
is always scolding me."
"You must be mistaken, Polly. She is the kindest woman in all the
world!"
Polly turned to look at the picture again. It had changed. The girl
was a saucy little minx, but the boy was full of grace and beauty.
The witch was smiling.
"Why," whispered Polly, "that boy looks like you! But how wild the
little girl looks! The witch is smiling. I never saw the old thing look
like that before."
"It is not a painted picture at all," said Harry, "but only a mirror."
"Oh," screamed Polly, turning round to find the witch. But the old
woman was gone. Polly glanced at the mirror again, and there stood
the two children alone.
"I hope the witch did not hear what I said about her," she
exclaimed.
They left the building and wandered along a pretty green carpeted
road. A fat goose with her brood of goslings waddled after them,
gabbling something that sounded like this: "Wait for us! We want to
go too. My little children cannot walk so fast. Hold on! Hold on
there!"
 Polly stopped and beckoned to the old thing. Immediately the
mother with her group of children came to her. She said that her
goslings were the finest children in all the land. "Why," she said,
"they walked as soon as they were born! Not like humans, who have
to be nursed and cradled for years before they know anything. My
children began to do for themselves when they were an hour old.
Now humans are stupid till they are taught a trade with which to
earn a living. There are no idle children among my youngsters."
"I have always heard people say 'as foolish as a goose,'" replied
Polly. "I am never going to say that again, for I see that I was
mistaken. I should have said 'as stupid as human children!'"
When all were rested they started off to the half-mile creek to see
the big bullfrogs.
"Now watch, Polly," said Harry, when they reached the banks, "and
you will see the great prince of the frogs. He comes out about this
time of the day to review his subjects. There is the band coming
already. Like other monarchs, he likes to be preceded by a great
swell of music. The people of Frogdom must be impressed."
Sure enough, there swam into view a company of frogs, big and
little. They swam to a little island and leaped up the bank. The
leader, who was a little larger than the others, faced them and
waved a small twig. Immediately the frog band struck up.
It was a strange band indeed. They had all the parts, from the
bass up to a high treble. The water trombones sat breast deep in the
water so that they produced a very delightful music. Others stood on
their toes and rubbed themselves against the tall grass to produce a
violin effect. The big frogs played bass; the little fellows shrilled like
piccolos.
The children clapped their hands and sang to the accompaniment
of the frog band. The old goose swung her head from side to side,
keeping time with the music, while the goslings sang all of the tunes
they knew. When the band played a familiar cake-walk, they
waddled about the bridge as gracefully as goslings could, with their
necks joined together.
 Suddenly the band ceased, and the children beheld a very large
bullfrog sitting on a pond lily drawn by eight little frogs. Dreamily the
car of state floated toward the little island.
"It is the king," whispered Harry.
The big lazy frog landed at the island, followed by a great host of
froggies. Then he stood up and his subjects bowed low. When the
band struck up the national anthem of Frogdom, all the frogs
cheered and waved their hands. Then they had games and contests
to please his majesty. Some turned somersaults, some in swimming
races made wonderful time, while others strutted on their hind legs
to see who could do it longest.
The old goose was very much annoyed at the haughty ways of the
frog king, and she muttered something about people making too
much of themselves. "I would like to teach that fat fellow that he is
better able to draw those little frogs than they are to draw him!" she
declared as she jumped into the water and swam to the island.
As soon as she reached shore, she waddled up to the king, who
was addressing his subjects. Nobody noticed her approach and their
astonishment knew no bounds when she appeared among them
hissing loudly. The king was so startled that he broke down in his
speech, and his subjects lost no time in diving deep into the water.
The ruler was left alone and defenseless. The goose seized him by
his fat sides, and swallowed his majesty. The king was no more. His
bereaved subjects wailed, and the band played a mournful tune, as
they saw their monarch disappearing, inch by inch, down the long
neck of the goose.
Mrs. Goose turned upon the crowd. "You simpering loons!" she
hissed, "what are you mourning over? A lost king? No, but over your
own stupidity. Now you are free and I advise you to set up no more
monarchs; if you do, I shall turn my goslings loose upon you." So
saying she swam back again and waddled about on the bridge.
After this exciting incident the children took off their shoes and
paddled in the cool stream. Polly was delighted to feel the little
fishes nibbling at her toes. When this enjoyment was at its height,
they were surprised to see a little man gliding toward them in a little
boat. He came paddling against the stream, singing as he dipped the
blade into the water. He was a handsome fellow and sat bravely in
his wee cockleshell.
"Get in my children," he said. "I have been sent to bring you to the
great palace."
"But," protested Polly, "the boat is no longer than my own body."
"Nothing can be accomplished without trying," said the little
boatman, so they stepped in and instead of sinking, the boat rose
just a little out of the water. It was certainly a magic boat. And when
the boatman plied his paddle the little vessel skimmed like a swallow
along the surface. Upstream they glided, passing under many
bridges. It was the most delightful trip that Polly had ever taken.
Just below the landing was a bend in the stream and as they
rounded it a magnificent landscape suddenly popped into view. A
splendid building stood close to the landing. It was known as the
River Castle. As the children sprang out, a merry group of
youngsters came running to meet them. An acquaintance began at
once, and soon Polly and Harry were playing with the other children
as if they had known one another for years.
By and by there was a lull in the play, and Polly's eyes wandered to
the great tall building. She had not carefully observed the high eight-
sided tower, whose top was lost to view in the clouds. Its sides were
set with bell-shaped disks, made of different metals—some of gold,
some of silver, and others of copper. As the light of the setting sun
shone upon them, the scene was beyond description.
"What is that?" whispered Polly grasping an arm of her friend, and
pointing toward the castle.
"That is the great reflector. Every sound that has ever been made
is repeated here," explained Harry. "Even the growing corn may be
heard singing as it grows."
They were interrupted by the striking of the old town-clock. They
counted the strokes—one, two, three, four, five. They seemed many
miles away.
 "It is the old clock in the tower," whispered Polly.
The disks took up the sweet notes and magnified them till they
sang a thousand times more sweetly. Then the chimes struck up
their beautiful music. The children stood with bowed heads as they
heard the grand harmonies of heaven.
When the music had ended, the boy and the girl sat silent for
many minutes. Then Polly looked up and saw the witch standing
before them, and all her old fears returned.
"Well Polly," said the old woman, "are you still afraid of me?"
Then a magic spell was wrought. Polly looked in astonishment. The
hag had changed from an old withered thing to a very beautiful
young woman.
"You thought that I was ugly, little girl. Now that you are feeling
better and happier I appear to you as wonderful as your own
thoughts. People always have the things they desire—that is, if they
truly desire them. We are what we make ourselves. No matter how
crippled or distorted we may be, still we may be happy and beautiful
if we so desire. Happiness is within and is not to be chased like a
butterfly and bagged."
Now Polly was not so sure that she liked the witch after all; in fact,
she wished that she would go away and leave them alone. In a
moment the woman changed to an ugly creature again. Polly started
to run away but the witch caught her up in her arms and hugged her
close, and when she was through the witch again became the lovely
creature that she had been a few moments ago.
"Now you must not think wicked thoughts," said she; "if you do, I
shall have to remain ugly. If you only knew how it hurts to be ugly I
believe you would try to be good, if only for my sake."
"Please, mother," pleaded the child, "if you forgive me this time I
shall always be good because I want to, both for your sake and
because I wish to be good. I am very much ashamed of myself."
 Polly threw her arms around the good mother and hugged her.
From that hour, they became friends. And sitting down on the grass
the good woman explained the working of the tower.
"That spire," she said, "reaches to heaven and has millions and
millions of disks on its sides. These instruments are the sound-
receivers of the whole world. Every sound is magnified and made
sweeter by the condensers. Every prayer, every song, and every
musical note is caught here and made clearer and stronger. Every
good deed done is praised and every kind word reechoed."
 "Did you say," inquired the girl, "that every angry word or wicked
prayer is retold on these bells? That would be terrible!" Polly was
thinking of her own naughty thoughts.
"Yes, my dear," answered the woman, "everything is heard here.
But the strange thing about the bells is that a wicked thing is a
thousand times reduced. These disks repeat everything good that is
said and throw it back to the poor old world to brighten the speaker
and the world itself. Good thoughts, too, are reflected and sent to
earth again to gladden human beings. Wicked things are detected
and examined, but only good things are sent to earth again."
Then the woman led the children a short distance from the tower
and asked them to listen.
"Oh! Oh!" screamed Polly, "I heard a bad word."
"Yes," explained the woman, "you heard that word before it
reached the bells; but if you were to listen, it would be so changed
that you would not recognize it. But let us go and see other things
about the great steeple."
She led them to the base of the building and showed them a
queer-looking register that worked like a modern adding machine. A
ribbon continually ran out of one end and was rolled on a big spool.
"This," explained the guide, "records every deed done by
everybody in the world. It is connected with the disks and never
gets out of tune."
They examined the machine, and saw millions and millions of
spools slowly rolling as the minutes passed. There was a spool for
each individual that ever lived on earth. At every one's death his
spool was laid away in the great tower above.
"Isn't it wonderful?" exclaimed Polly. "I should like to see my spool,
dear mother."
The woman took the girl to the back of the machine and showed
her her own life-spool. The ribbon was very small, but the guide
detached it and gave it to the child to read. As she unwound it, she
read: "I wish that God would punish all the wicked people I know!"
Polly dropped the spool and hid her face: these were her own words.
 "Do not feel badly, dear Polly," whispered the mother, "and do not
look now for any more bad records of yourself; but fill the rest of the
spool with good words and good deeds, and in the end your record
will be rewritten, made bright and clear." She then picked the girl up
and held her to her breast, kissing her tenderly.
At this moment Polly heard the disks ring out: "Polly!" and she
cried, "Goodie! Goodie!"
It was her mother calling her for breakfast. Polly sat up and rubbed
her eyes. "Oh, mamma—where is the mother witch? Where is
Harry?"
Her mother looked puzzled at first, but she quickly realized that her
little daughter had been dreaming. "I'll be the mother witch, my
dear," she said, "and we will find Harry some day soon."
 MR. ROOSTER
n a certain back yard lives a colony of most interesting
chickens. You could not imagine that feathered things would
perform such capers as they do.
One fine morning, after Mrs. Black Hen had spent a restless night
on the roost, she addressed Mrs. Brown Hen with these words:
"Do you know, Brownie, my husband snores, and I did not sleep a
wink last night!"
"Just to think of that! A snoring husband is a dreadful thing,"
Brownie returned.
Brownie cackled all day from group to group about the snoring
husband. The gossip grew as the day advanced till all the hens were
cackling and exchanging winks and the rooster, thinking that the
hens were laying an unusual number of eggs, crowed with great
zest. This amused the hens very much, for, without knowing it, the
rooster was making fun of himself. He would have been extremely
angry had he known the truth. The poor hens cackled themselves
into fits over the thing. It was so funny!
The cook of the house to which the back yard belonged at once
thought that the poor creatures had "the gapes." Now the gapes is
nearly always fatal, but sometimes death may be averted by an
application of red pepper. No wonder the cook was mistaken, for by
this time the hens were rolling, kicking and cackling. The rooster
was sitting on the fence almost shouting his head off.
But when the cook ran out of the house and dosed every hen with
Cayenne pepper, the surprised chickens sprang to their feet and
rushed about madly. All the fun was gone. Some of them leaned
against the coop and gasped for breath, while others rushed for the
watering trough.
During the performance, the rooster flew to the highest place
possible and screamed with delight, for he had at last gotten
through his thick head that the joke had been on him, but was now
on his wives.
Oh, but the hens were mad! That evening they crept to bed with
tears in their little red eyes and vengeance in their small hearts. It
had been agreed to watch the old fellow and see if it was true that
he was a snorer. Not a hen slept that night.
All went as usual till about eleven o'clock, when suddenly the
rooster opened his mouth and screamed, "Cock-a-doodle-doooo!"
This was not really snoring, as you easily see, but a natural burst
of pride, praise and warning to keep the bogies away. Nevertheless,
the hens in their bad temper were no judges of any matter, let alone
snoring in the middle of the night. They nudged each other very
wisely. They had caught him at last and there were twenty
witnesses. One o'clock came and he repeated the same words. The
hens were delighted, for they would have their innings in the
morning.
When morning came, the hens openly twitted the rooster about his
snoring. At first he paid little attention to their taunts, but as the day
wore on he became very much exasperated. The hens kept their
own quarters and refused to have anything to do with him, and he,
manlike, was determined to be near them. Whenever he came into
their "midst," as they chatted, they just left him there twiddling his
fine wings. He was much enraged and gave chase to many of them.
Sometimes he almost caught one; but when that was about to
happen, the others pitched in and drove him off very much
crestfallen. The hens were wise enough that day to stand together.
 When all had retired as usual, the hens waited for the rooster to
enter their coop. But he did not come. Some suggested that they
should go in a body and compel his majesty to come home. He had
never before remained out all night, as some husbands do! They had
a hard time sleeping that night, for they greatly missed the rooster.
But the rooster sat all the while on the back fence vowing
vengeance.
About three o'clock in the morning, when all was still, one of the
hens felt a sharp pain in her breast. She wakened and scrambled to
her feet, but was instantly dragged to the floor by a weasel. She
screamed and struggled to escape. The other hens joined in the
clatter. It was with the greatest difficulty that she escaped with her
life.
The weasel fled when the noise became pronounced, for he was
afraid of a human. The poor hen was terribly wounded. Not a wink
of sleep had the hens the remainder of that night, and they were
glad when the sun rose. They sought the rooster and told the hard-
hearted fellow the awful story of the night raid, but he just opened
his mouth and crowed with pleasure. They were indignant and
walked off and left him to his laughs.
In the afternoon, when all was the quietest in Chickenville, the
rooster joined his wives and talked very seriously about what had
occurred. "Now," said he in conclusion, "this trouble has been
brought about through gossip. You have had your fun and I have
had mine. The best thing to do is to let bygones be bygones and all
of us turn over a new leaf."
The hens unwillingly consented, for the sun was setting and they
feared the night.
Since then Mr. Rooster has enjoyed great comfort, and whenever
the hens begin to gossip he opens his red mouth and screeches
"RED PEPPER!"
 THE MID-EARTH PEOPLE
ncle Rupert, the children's friend, had just returned from a
wonderful trip through the Orient and therefore had many
startling things to tell to his nephews and nieces. He was
such a famous story-teller that when he described anything
the children actually thought they saw it happening.
On the sunny afternoon of Easter day, the children begged their
uncle to take them to a park and tell them all about his trip. Uncle
Rupert was quite willing, and fifteen minutes later a dozen boys and
girls, accompanied by a big man, started on a street car to the park.
"I am not going to tell you anything now about my trip abroad,"
began Uncle Rupert when they reached their destination, "for this is
Eastertide and I wish to talk about Easter!"
"Oh! Oh!" cried the whole crowd, "Please don't! Tell us something
more interesting! We have had one sermon today, and it was—pretty
dry."
Uncle Rupert smiled and, raising his head, began again: "I will let
you be the judges as to the dullness of so-called 'moral' stories after
we are through. If you are not satisfied, then I shall jump off this
cliff!"
With this assurance, twelve eager bodies sat in silence waiting for
him to begin.
"Are you all ready?" asked Uncle Rupert. "Then place your hands
on your knees. Now, Tom, do not crowd Madge. That is the right
way; heads up and eyes to the front. One, two, three and we are
off."
"Here he is! See the little man? He is just coming out from a hole
in the ground, opposite you."
 The children looked and, to their amazement, saw a midget
crawling from the earth. He was dressed in tight-fitting breeches of
blue with stockings to match. Red shoes, with golden buckles, were
on his feet, and hanging over his shoulders was a rich crimson cape,
fastened about his throat with a pearl clasp. At his belt dangled a
highly polished sword, and in his hand he carried a black plumed
hat. Not a sign of a beard was on his face, and his hair hung in curls
on his back. He looked as though he had stepped out of an old
fashion plate.
The youngsters were too surprised to move or speak; they hardly
dared to breathe, for fear that he would vanish. The stranger walked
toward Uncle Rupert and bowed to him.
"Well, sir, who are you?" demanded the big uncle, "and what
brings you here?"
"I am an exile just banished from my own country," said the little
man. "King Vitius and his selfish wife drove me away because I have
always said that there is a better country above us."
"Oh!" exclaimed Madge, "what stupid people they must be not to
know of this beautiful America."
The man sobered, and Uncle Rupert asked him: "Where is this dull
world, and what is your name?"
"My name is Pietas, and our people live in the center of the earth,"
replied the dwarf.
Uncle Rupert smiled as he watched the children staring with wide-
open mouths.
"We shall all go with you," began the wily story-teller, looking out
of the corner of his eye to see how his scheme was taking, "and help
you to regain your place in your own land."
"I cannot go back, because they would kill me; and besides, if I
told them what I have seen today, they would laugh me to scorn."
"We shall go and force them to take you back!" exclaimed Tom.
"But I do not want to go back," answered the little man. "This is a
glorious country. Our sun does not shine so brightly as yours. If my
people only knew the truth, they would never think of their country
as the greatest and best one. It is a poor gloomy world."
"But!" pleaded Madge, "you can return with us when we have
fulfilled our mission of proving what you told the king."
Pietas agreed, on these terms, and turning on his heels, beckoned
them to follow. All started after him, and when they got to the hole
that the midget had come out of, he sprang lightly down a small
embankment and disappeared through the opening into a cave
below.
"Come!" said Tom, jumping in after him, "let us hurry."
They all followed without hesitation. Uncle Rupert was the last to
go down.
When they had gone about a quarter of a mile through the
underground passage, it became so dark that they lost their way.
"I wonder where Pietas is?" shouted Uncle Rupert. "The rascal has
deserted us. Come, boys, let us call his name."
The children screamed, "Pietas!" three or four times, and then the
little fellow appeared with a lantern.
"What do you mean by deserting us, Pietas?" asked Uncle Rupert.
"I was hoping you would not follow me," answered the dwarf; "and
I was wishing that you would get tired and give up the venture. It
may mean death to us all."
Fear now showed itself in the company, and some wanted to turn
back, but others begged Uncle Rupert to go on, and after much talk
it was decided to proceed. Tom was chosen leader, Pietas and Uncle
Rupert were the guides, and in double column they began their
journey.
Suddenly as they strode along at a brisk pace, the earth slid from
beneath them, and they fell feet first, down, down—they did not
know where. Filled with terror, they could only think of what might
happen when they struck something.
At last, with a great jolt, they landed and went sprawling in all
directions. When they scrambled to their feet they were glad to be
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