 Petroleum - Overview

 Crude oil, and petroleum products that are made from it, are referred to as fossil fuels
because they are formed from the remains of animals and plants that lived millions of
years ago in a marine environment.

 Over time, the remains of these animals and plants were covered by layers of sand, silt,
and rock.

 Heat and pressure from these layers turned the remains into what is now called crude oil.

 However, discovering, extracting, shipping, and refining crude is a long process, and the
infrastructure needed to support this process must be in place.

 This involves thousands of miles of oil pipelines across countries, storage facilities in
major oil trading hubs, and multiple refineries.

 As a result, in aggregate the global oil industry is a multi-trillion dollar business today.

 The Origin of oil and gas – Organic matter

Petroleum was formed from organic matter. The organic mater was deposited in a marine
environment and remained buried under anoxic conditions for 100-400 millions years. Over the
years, layers of silt, sand and other sediments settled over the buried organic matter. The increase
of pressure and temperature slowly transformed the organic matter into hydrocarbons (kerogen,
oil, gas). Also, over those millions of years various plate tectonics (continents drift over the
underlying mantle) and other geological phenomena resulted in the rearrangement of oceans and
continents; thus, we encounter oil in both onshore and offshore locations.

 Geological conditions: Generation of petroleum in Source Rock

1.1. Source Rock - is the rock where petroleum formed. Source rocks are sedimentary rocks and
typically shales (fine-grained rocks 90%). The source rock was form along with deposition of the
organic matter; thus, organic matter was abundant at the early age of a source rock. A few more
conditions are required for hydrocarbons to accumulate and form a petroleum reservoir.

1.2. Maturation- is the conversion of organic matter to hydrocarbons. The first stage is the
formation of kerogen. As the pressure and temperature in the source rock is further increase,
kerogen converts to petroleum. If the temperature is raised above 130C for even a short period of
time, crude oil will convert to gas. Initially the composition of the gas will show a high content
ofC4–C10 components(wet gas and condensate), but with further increases in temperature the
mixture will convert to light hydrocarbons (C1–C3, dry gas).
 Temperature, is the first most important factor for thermal maturation and determines the
resultant hydrocarbon type. Time is the second most important factor for thermal maturation.
Petroleum geologist use maturation indicators to evaluate potential hydrocarbon accumulations.

1.3. Migration takes place after maturation. It is the movement of the hydrocarbons from the
impermeable source rock move to the porous reservoir rock. Primary migration is expulsion of
petroleum from fine-grained source rock, while secondary migration moves petroleum through a
coarse-grained carrier bed or fault to a reservoir or seep.

1.4. Reservoir Rock: is a porous rock that contains petroleum. Reservoir Rocks are typically
sandstones and carbonates. Sandstone reservoir are of higher quality because the primary
mineral, SiO2(quartz)is strong and stable (hardtoreact). Carbonate reservoir are formed from
coral, shell and other biogenic deposits.

1.5 Cap Rock: To locate and explore oil and gas prospects it is important to correctly assess the
subsurface geology. Cap rock would be the impermeable rock layer. Cap rocks form the top of
reservoirs and create a layer that is impervious to fluid flow (Figure 1). By preventing fluids
from flowing through it, the fluids are prevented from escaping the reservoir. This particularly
applies to oil and gas reservoirs. Caprock or cap rock is a more resistant rock type overlying a
less resistant rock type
To sum up, for a hydrocarbon reservoir formation it is necessary:

1. A basin were sedimentation took place.

2. Deposition of organic matter in anoxic conditions, formation of source rock.

3. Through increase of temperature and pressure source rock must have reached
maturation
4. Migration of the generated hydrocarbons into a porous type of sediment, the reservoir rock.
5. Creation of trap for the migrating hydrocarbons to accumulate.

 Physical and Chemical Characteristics of Crude Oil

Introduction: Crude oil, often referred to as petroleum, is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons and
other organic compounds found in geological formations beneath the Earth's surface.
Understanding its physical and chemical characteristics is crucial for various processes in the
petrochemical industry, from extraction and refining to the production of various petroleum
products. In this tutorial, we'll explore the key physical and chemical properties of crude oil.

Physical Characteristics:

1. Density:
o Crude oil density varies depending on its composition and can range from light to
heavy.
o Density is typically measured in kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m³) or specific
gravity units.
o It affects transportation, storage, and refining processes. Lighter oils are easier to
transport and process compared to heavier oils.
2. Color and Transparency:
o Crude oil comes in various colors ranging from light yellow to black.
o Transparency varies from opaque to translucent.
o These properties are influenced by the presence of impurities such as sulfur,
nitrogen, and metals.
3. Viscosity:
 o Viscosity refers to the resistance of crude oil to flow.
o It is measured in units like centipoise (cP) or Saybolt Universal Seconds (SUS).
o Viscosity impacts pumping, transportation, and refining operations. Lower
viscosity oils flow more easily than higher viscosity oils.
4. API Gravity:
o API gravity is a measure of crude oil's density relative to that of water.
o It is expressed in degrees on the API gravity scale.
o Higher API gravity indicates lighter and less dense crude oils, while lower API
gravity indicates heavier and denser crude oils.

o Heavy: 10–20° API gravity

o Medium: 20–25° API gravity

o Light: above 25° API gravity

5. Total acid number (TAN)

o Measure of the acidity of a crude oil. It is based on the number of milligrams

(mg) of potassium hydroxide (KOH) required to neutralize one gram of crude

o Acid crude oil means that the acid number is greater than 0.5mg KOH/g, and high
TAN crude typically refers to an acid number higher than 1.0mg KOH/g.

o Highly-acidic crudes can cause handling difficulties and corrosion issues for
refiners, which can alter their value in a negative sense.Total acid number (TAN)
Chemical Characteristics:

1. Composition:
o Crude oil is primarily composed of hydrocarbons, which are organic compounds
containing hydrogen and carbon.
o It also contains impurities such as sulfur, nitrogen, oxygen, and metals like nickel and
vanadium.
o The composition varies depending on the source and geological conditions.
2. Sulfur Content:
o Sulfur content in crude oil can range from trace amounts to several percent.
o High sulfur content contributes to environmental pollution and corrosion in refining
equipment.
o Regulations often require sulfur removal during refining processes to produce cleaner
fuels.
3. Hydrocarbon Types:
o Crude oil consists of various hydrocarbon types, including alkanes, cycloalkanes,
aromatics, and heterocyclic compounds.
o The distribution of these hydrocarbons affects the properties and uses of refined
petroleum products.
4. Distillation Characteristics:
o Crude oil can be separated into fractions through distillation based on differences in
boiling points.
o Lighter fractions like gasoline and diesel have lower boiling points, while heavier
fractions like bitumen and fuel oil have higher boiling points.
o Distillation is a fundamental process in refining crude oil into useful products.

 Migration:
  Source Rock, Maturation, Migration of Oil
Mechanism, Reservoir Rock, and Cap Rocks
Introduction: In the exploration and production of petroleum, understanding the geological
processes involved in the formation and migration of oil is crucial. This tutorial will delve into
the concepts of source rock, maturation, migration of oil mechanism, reservoir rock, and cap
rocks, providing a comprehensive overview for students studying Instrumentation and Control
for Petrochemical Industries.

1. Source Rock and Maturation:

Source Rock:

 Source rock is the organic-rich sedimentary rock where petroleum originates.

 It is typically composed of organic matter, such as kerogen, which can generate
hydrocarbons under the right conditions.
 Common types of source rocks include shale, marl, and limestone.

Maturation:

 Maturation refers to the process by which organic matter in source rocks is transformed
into hydrocarbons due to heat and pressure over geological time.
 As source rocks undergo burial, temperature, and pressure increase, causing organic
matter to undergo thermal decomposition.
 The degree of maturation determines the type and amount of hydrocarbons generated,
ranging from light gases to heavy oils.
2. Migration of Oil Mechanism:

Migration:

 After formation, hydrocarbons migrate from source rocks to reservoir rocks through
porous and permeable pathways in the subsurface.
  Migration occurs due to buoyancy forces, pressure differentials, and geological structures
like faults and fractures.
 Hydrocarbons migrate upwards towards areas of lower pressure, eventually accumulating
in reservoir rocks where they form oil and gas fields.

Mechanism:

 The migration of oil is facilitated by the presence of capillary pressure, which drives
hydrocarbons through interconnected pore spaces in reservoir rocks.
 Migration pathways can be influenced by geological factors such as lithology,
stratigraphy, and structural features.
 Reservoir traps, such as anticlines and fault traps, can hinder or enhance migration by
providing barriers or conduits for hydrocarbons.
3. Reservoir Rock and Cap Rocks:

Reservoir Rock:

 Reservoir rocks are porous and permeable formations capable of storing and transmitting
hydrocarbons.
 Common reservoir rocks include sandstone, limestone, and dolomite, characterized by
their high porosity and permeability.
 Porosity refers to the volume of pore space within a rock, while permeability refers to the
ability of fluids to flow through the rock.

Cap Rocks:

 Cap rocks, also known as seal or impermeable rocks, act as barriers that prevent the
escape of hydrocarbons from reservoirs.
 Common cap rocks include shale, mudstone, and salt formations, which have low
porosity and permeability.
 Cap rocks are essential for trapping hydrocarbons in reservoirs, creating the conditions
for the formation of oil and gas fields.
Application of Remote Sensing in Petroleum Resource Development

Introduction: Remote sensing technology plays a crucial role in the exploration, development,
and management of petroleum resources. This tutorial will provide a comprehensive overview of
how remote sensing techniques are applied in the petroleum industry, particularly focusing on
exploration and resource development. It is designed for students studying Instrumentation and
Control for Petrochemical Industries.

1. Introduction to Remote Sensing in Petroleum Industry:

 Remote sensing involves the collection and interpretation of data about the Earth's
surface and atmosphere from a distance, typically using satellite or aircraft-based sensors.
 In the petroleum industry, remote sensing techniques are utilized to gather information
about geological features, hydrocarbon reservoirs, surface manifestations, and
environmental factors affecting exploration and production activities.
2. Exploration and Prospecting:
 Remote sensing plays a crucial role in identifying potential areas for petroleum
exploration by analyzing geological structures, surface topography, and vegetation
patterns.
 Satellite imagery and aerial photography are used to detect surface features associated
with petroleum accumulations, such as anticlines, faults, and salt domes.
 Remote sensing data can be integrated with geological and geophysical datasets to
generate prospect maps and prioritize drilling locations.
3. Geological Mapping and Analysis:
 Remote sensing enables detailed geological mapping by providing high-resolution
imagery of surface geology, rock formations, and structural features.
 Spectral analysis techniques, such as multispectral and hyperspectral imaging, help
identify mineralogy, lithology, and hydrocarbon indicators based on the unique spectral
signatures of different materials.
 Thermal infrared imaging can detect subtle temperature variations associated with
hydrocarbon seepage and fluid flow in subsurface reservoirs.
4. Environmental Monitoring and Management:
  Remote sensing is used for environmental monitoring and management in petroleum
operations, including detecting oil spills, monitoring vegetation health, and assessing land
use changes.
 Satellite-based sensors can quickly identify and track oil spills in offshore and onshore
environments, facilitating rapid response and mitigation efforts.
 Vegetation indices derived from remote sensing data help assess habitat degradation, soil
erosion, and the impact of petroleum activities on ecosystems.
5. Infrastructure Planning and Development:
 Remote sensing aids in planning and developing petroleum infrastructure, such as
pipelines, refineries, and drilling facilities.
 Satellite imagery provides valuable information on terrain characteristics, land cover, and
land use suitability for siting infrastructure projects.
 Geographic Information System (GIS) tools integrate remote sensing data with geospatial
datasets to optimize route selection, minimize environmental impact, and ensure
compliance with regulatory requirements.

 Surface Feature Analysis

Remote sensing facilitates detailed surface feature analysis, offering a comprehensive

understanding of the terrain. Satellite imagery and aerial surveys provide high-resolution data,
aiding in the identification of potential drilling sites, access routes, and infrastructure
placement. This data-driven approach minimizes the risk associated with site selection, ensuring
optimal utilization of resources while preserving delicate ecosystems.

 Mapping and Monitoring Pipeline Infrastructure

Efficient transportation of extracted resources relies on a well-maintained pipeline network.

Remote sensing enables real-time mapping and monitoring of pipeline infrastructure,
detecting potential leaks, corrosion, or encroachments. Continuous surveillance enhances
maintenance accuracy, mitigating the risk of accidents and ensuring seamless operations.
  Identifying Oil Spills

Oil spills pose significant environmental and economic threats. Remote sensing, with its ability
to swiftly detect and assess spills, aids in rapid response and containment efforts. By analyzing
spectral signatures, infrared imagery, and radar data, the technology assists in estimating spill
extent, minimizing ecological harm.

 Seismic Interpretation

Accurate seismic data interpretation is paramount in locating subsurface oil and gas reserves.
Remote sensing, when integrated with seismic surveys, enhances the precision of identifying
potential reservoirs. By analyzing reflected signals, this approach provides insights into
subsurface structures, enabling informed decision-making.

 Evaluating Geological Structures

Remote sensing complements traditional geological studies by offering a macroscopic view of

the Earth’s surface. This aids geologists in identifying geological structures that could potentially
harbor hydrocarbons. Integration of multispectral and hyperspectral data
refines lithological and mineralogical mapping, improving resource assessment.

 Temperature and Pressure Monitoring

Maintaining optimal temperature and pressure conditions is crucial in oil and gas extraction and
processing. Remote sensing systems equipped with thermal sensors enable continuous
monitoring of equipment, ensuring operational efficiency and preventing costly breakdowns.

 Groundwater Studies

Oil and gas operations can impact groundwater quality. Remote sensing aids in monitoring
groundwater levels and detecting contamination through spectral analysis. This information
supports sustainable practices and prevents adverse environmental effects.
  Environmental Impact Assessment

The remote sensing technology assists in conducting comprehensive environmental impact

assessments. By comparing pre- and post-exploration imagery, it facilitates the evaluation of
ecological changes, aiding in compliance with regulations and minimizing ecological
disruptions.

 Hazard Analysis

Oil and gas exploration zones often intersect with areas prone to natural hazards. Remote sensing
identifies potential risks, including landslides, subsidence, and seismic activity. This information
enhances operational safety and reduces vulnerability.

Exploration of New Reservoirs

Identifying untapped reservoirs is a perpetual challenge. Remote sensing offers a cost-effective

solution by providing insights into subtle surface variations indicative of subsurface
hydrocarbons. This expedites exploration and minimizes resource wastage.

 Asset Management

Effective asset management is essential for sustained operations. Remote sensing aids in
monitoring asset conditions, predicting equipment failures, and optimizing maintenance
schedules. This proactive approach enhances operational efficiency and cost-effectiveness.

 Climate Impact Analysis

Oil and gas activities can influence local climates. Remote sensing enables monitoring of
greenhouse gas emissions and thermal anomalies. Such analysis facilitates compliance with
environmental norms and encourages sustainable practices.
  Petroleum traps

Oil and gas traps, sometimes referred to as petroleum traps are below ground traps where
a permeable reservoir rock is covered by some low permeability cap rock. There are two major
categories of traps, and are classified based on how the petroleum accumulates. The two main
groups are structural traps and stratigraphic traps.

a) Anticline Traps
These types of traps are formed by a folding of rock. Specifically, a sandstone bed covered with
low permeability shale is folded into a trap that contains petroleum products. Hydrocarbons are
trapped in the peak of this fold.[ An anticline trap is shown in the upper-left of Figure 1. Most
anticline traps are created as a result of sideways pressure, folding the layers of rock, but can also
occur from sediments being compacted.
 b) Fault Traps
These types of traps are formed when reservoir rock is split along a fault line. Between the walls
of the split reservoir, clay traps oil and prevents it from leaving the trap. Other times there exists
a pressure differential across the two sides of the fault that prevents the fluids from migrating.
Generally speaking, faulting creates some other type of structure that creates the main trap.

c) Salt Domes
Salt dome traps are formed as a result of below ground salt - which is less dense than the rock
above it - moving upwards slowly. This upward migration of the salt can deform and break up
rock along the way. The process of this salt deforming rock is known as salt tectonics, and take
place over hundreds of millions of years. Oil and gas that flows through the reservoir rock will
come to rest when it reaches the salt dome and is then trapped.

d) Stratigraphic Traps

These traps are formed as a result of the deposition in sedimentary rocks. When the sediment that
creates the reservoir rock is deposited in a discontinuous layer, the seals are created beside and
on top of the reservoir. In some cases, these seals are made of impermeable or low permeability
shale deposited around the reservoir, blocking the oil and gas inside. The seals themselves may
also be source rocks.

 How crude oil is refined into petroleum products

Petroleum refineries convert (refine) crude oil into petroleum products for use as fuels for
transportation, heating, paving roads, and generating electricity and as feedstocks for making
chemicals.

Refining breaks crude oil down into its various components, which are then selectively
reconfigured into new products. Petroleum refineries are complex and expensive industrial
facilities. All refineries have three basic steps:
 Separation
 Conversion
 Treatment
1. Separation
Modern separation involves piping crude oil through hot furnaces. The resulting liquids
and vapors are discharged into distillation units. All refineries have atmospheric distillation units,
but more complex refineries may have vacuum distillation units.

Inside the distillation units, the liquids and vapors separate into petroleum components,
called fractions, according to their boiling points. Heavy fractions are on the bottom and light
fractions are on the top.

The lightest fractions, including gasoline and liquefied refinery gases, vaporize and rise to the
top of the distillation tower, where they condense back to liquids. Medium weight liquids,
including kerosene and distillates, stay in the middle of the distillation tower. Heavier liquids,
called gas oils, separate lower down in the distillation tower, and the heaviest fractions with the
highest boiling points settle at the bottom of the tower.

2. Conversion
After distillation, heavy, lower-value distillation fractions can be processed further into
lighter, higher-value products such as gasoline. At this point in the process, fractions from the
distillation units are transformed into streams (intermediate components) that eventually become
finished products.
The most widely used conversion method is called cracking because it uses heat, pressure,
catalysts, and sometimes hydrogen to crack heavy hydrocarbon molecules into lighter ones. A
cracking unit consists of one or more tall, thick-walled, rocket-shaped reactors and a network of
furnaces, heat exchangers, and other vessels. Complex refineries may have one or more types of
crackers, including fluid catalytic cracking units and hydrocracking/hydrocracker units.

3. Treatment
The finishing touches occur during the final treatment. To make gasoline, refinery
technicians carefully combine a variety of streams from the processing units. Octane level, vapor
pressure ratings, and other special considerations determine the gasoline blend.

4. Storage
Both incoming crude oil and the outgoing final products are stored temporarily in large
tanks on a tank farm near the refinery. Pipelines, trains, and trucks carry the final products from
the storage tanks to locations across the country.

 Petroleum products
i. Gases
ii. Gasoline
 iii. Octane rating
iv. Kerosene
v. Diesel oils
vi. Fuel oils
vii. Lubricating oils
viii. Gear oils and greases