First Notebook

EXCRETION

Excretory Mechanisms in Animals

Animals excrete ammonia, urea, uric acid, and other metabolic wastes such as:
• CO₂,Water,Ions (Na⁺, K⁺, Cl⁻, phosphate, sulfate)
These processes occur through different mechanisms based on adaptations and environments.

Nitrogenous Waste Excretion

1.Ammonotelism:

• Excretion of ammonia, the most toxic nitrogenous waste.

• Requires large amounts of water for elimination.
Examples:
◦ Bony fishes
◦ Aquatic amphibians
◦ Aquatic insects
Excretion methods:

• Diffusion across body surfaces.

• Gill surfaces in fishes (as ammonium ions).
Role of kidneys: Insignificant in these animals.
2.Ureotelism:

• Excretion of urea, a less toxic form of nitrogenous waste.

• Requires moderate water for excretion.
Examples:
◦ Mammals
◦ Terrestrial amphibians
◦ Marine fishes
Urea Formation:
• Ammonia is converted to urea in the liver.
• Urea is then filtered and excreted by the kidneys.
• Some animals retain urea in their kidneys to maintain osmolarity.
3.Uricotelism:
• Excretion of uric acid, the least toxic nitrogenous waste.
• Requires minimal water, making it suitable for water conservation.
 Examples:
• Reptiles
• Birds
• Land snails
• Insects
Uric acid is excreted as a pellet or paste.
Excretory Structures in Animals

1. Protonephridia (Flame Cells):

• Found in:
Platyhelminthes (e.g., Planaria)
Rotifers
Some annelids
Amphioxus
• Functions:
Osmoregulation (fluid and ionic balance).
Removal of wastes.
1. Nephridia:
• Found in annelids (e.g., earthworms).
• Functions:
Excretion of nitrogenous wastes.
Maintenance of fluid and ionic balance.
2. Malpighian Tubules:
• Found in insects (e.g., cockroaches).
• Functions:
Removal of nitrogenous wastes.
Osmoregulation.
3. Antennal Glands (Green Glands):
• Found in crustaceans (e.g., prawns).
• Function: Excretion of metabolic wastes.
Summary

• Ammonotelic, ureotelic, and uricotelic excretion are adaptations to specific environments,

balancing toxicity and water conservation.
• Excretory structures vary from simple (e.g., flame cells) to complex (e.g., kidneys) across the
animal kingdom.

Human Excretory System

The human excretory system consists of:

• Kidneys
 • Ureters
• Urinary bladder
• Urethra
1. Structure of Kidneys

• Location: Reddish-brown, bean-shaped organs located between the last thoracic and third
lumbar vertebrae along the dorsal abdominal wall.

Dimensions:
• Length: 10-12 cm
• Width: 5-7 cm
• Thickness: 2-3 cm
• Weight: 120-170 g
Key Features:
• Hilum: A notch on the inner concave surface where the ureter, blood vessels, and nerves
enter.
• Renal Pelvis: Funnel-shaped space inside the hilum with extensions called calyces.
• Zones:
◦ Outer Cortex: Contains renal corpuscles and parts of nephrons.
◦ Inner Medulla: Divided into medullary pyramids projecting into calyces.
◦ Columns of Bertini: Cortex extensions between medullary pyramids.
2. Nephrons
• Functional units of the kidney (~1 million per kidney).
Components:

1. Glomerulus:
• A tuft of capillaries formed by the afferent arteriole (branch of renal artery).

• Blood exits through the efferent arteriole.

2. Renal Tubule:

• Begins with the Bowman’s capsule, enclosing the glomerulus. Together, they form the
malpighian body or renal corpuscle.

Segments of the renal tubule:

• Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT): Highly coiled segment.

• Henle’s Loop:
• Descending limb (extends into medulla).

• Ascending limb.
• Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT): Another coiled segment, connecting to the collecting duct.
Types of Nephrons:

1. Cortical Nephrons:
• Loop of Henle is short, extending slightly into the medulla.
2. Juxta Medullary Nephrons:

• Loop of Henle is long and penetrates deep into the medulla.

• Plays a key role in urine concentration.

3. Blood Supply to the Nephrons

• Peritubular Capillaries: Formed by the efferent arteriole, surrounding the renal tubule.

• Vasa Recta: A U-shaped vessel parallel to Henle’s loop, prominent in juxta medullary nephrons,
aiding in maintaining osmotic gradients.

The human excretory system efficiently filters blood, maintains water-ion balance, and eliminates
nitrogenous wastes, ensuring proper body function.
Urine Formation
Urine formation involves three primary processes:

1.glomerular filtration
2.reabsorption

3. secretion
all occurring in different parts of the nephron.
1. Glomerular Filtration

• The process of filtering blood in the glomerulus.

• Rate: Approximately 1100-1200 ml of blood is filtered by the kidneys per minute, accounting for
about 1/5th of the cardiac output.
Mechanism:

• Filtration occurs due to glomerular capillary blood pressure.

Blood passes through three layers:
1. Endothelium of glomerular blood vessels.
2. Basement membrane between the layers.
3. Epithelium of Bowman’s capsule.
• Specialized epithelial cells of Bowman’s capsule, called podocytes, form filtration slits,
allowing fine filtration.
• Plasma constituents (except proteins) enter the Bowman’s capsule lumen in this ultrafiltration
process.
Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR):
◦ The amount of filtrate formed per minute.
◦ Normal Value: 125 ml/min (180 litres/day).
◦ Regulation:
The Juxta Glomerular Apparatus (JGA) regulates GFR.
A decrease in GFR activates JG cells to release renin, which increases glomerular blood
flow and restores normal GFR.
2. Reabsorption
• Nearly 99% of the filtrate is reabsorbed into the blood from the renal tubules.

•Carried out by tubular epithelial cells through active or passive transport.

a.Active Reabsorption:

→ Substances like glucose, amino acids, Na+.

b.Passive Reabsorption:

→ Nitrogenous wastes and water (in the early nephron segments).

3. Tubular Secretion
→ The process where tubular cells secrete substances like H⁺, K⁺, and ammonia into the
filtrate.

Importance:
•Maintains ionic balance.

•Regulates the acid-base balance of body fluids.

Summary
•From 180 litres/day of filtrate, only 1.5 litres/day of urine is excreted.

•Efficient reabsorption and secretion ensure the body maintains fluid, electrolyte, and acid-base
balance while eliminating waste products.

Functions of the Renal Tubules

The nephron’s tubules play essential roles in the filtration, reabsorption, and secretion processes
to maintain the body’s fluid and electrolyte balance. Here’s how different segments contribute:

1. Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT)

•Structure: Lined with simple cuboidal brush border epithelium, increasing surface area for
reabsorption.
Functions:

•Reabsorbs essential nutrients, 70-80% of electrolytes, and water.

•Helps maintain pH and ionic balance:

Secretes: Hydrogen ions (H⁺) and ammonia (NH₃).

Reabsorbs: Bicarbonate ions (HCO₃⁻).
2. Henle’s Loop

a.Descending Limb:
•Permeable to water, but impermeable to electrolytes.

•Leads to concentration of the filtrate as water exits into the medullary interstitium.
b.Ascending Limb:

•Impermeable to water, but allows active/passive transport of electrolytes.

•Dilutes the filtrate by transporting electrolytes into the medullary fluid. •Maintains high
osmolarity of the medullary interstitial fluid.
3. Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT)

Functions:
•Performs conditional reabsorption of Na⁺ and water, regulated by hormonal signals (e.g.,
aldosterone).
•Maintains pH balance:

Reabsorbs: Bicarbonate ions (HCO₃⁻).

Secretes: Hydrogen ions (H⁺), potassium ions (K⁺), and ammonia (NH₃).

•Maintains sodium-potassium balance in blood.

4. Collecting Duct
 •Structure: Extends from the cortex to the medulla.

Functions:
•Reabsorbs large amounts of water, producing concentrated urine.
•Allows small amounts of urea to pass into the medullary interstitium to maintain osmolarity.

•Plays a role in pH and ionic balance:

•Secretes: Hydrogen ions (H⁺) and potassium ions (K⁺).

Summary
Each tubule segment has a specialized role in urine formation, ensuring:

•Efficient reabsorption of nutrients, water, and electrolytes.

•Elimination of waste products.
•Maintenance of pH, osmolarity, and ionic balance of body fluids.

Mechanism of Concentration of the Filtrate

Mammals have the ability to produce concentrated urine, which is achieved through the counter-
current mechanism involving the Henle’s loop and vasa recta. Here’s how it works:

1. Counter-Current Flow
a.Henle’s Loop:

•The filtrate flows in opposite directions in the descending and ascending limbs of Henle’s loop,
creating a counter-current.

b.Vasa Recta:
•The blood in the descending and ascending limbs of vasa recta also flows in opposite directions,
forming another counter-current.
2. Osmolarity Gradient

•Cortex to Medulla Gradient:

•Osmolarity increases progressively from the cortex (300 mOsmol/L) to the inner medulla (1200
mOsmol/L).

•This gradient is mainly maintained by NaCl and urea.

3. Role of Henle’s Loop
a.Ascending Limb:
•Impermeable to water, but actively transports NaCl into the interstitium, increasing its osmolarity.
b.Descending Limb:
•Permeable to water, allowing water to move out into the hyperosmotic medullary interstitium.
•As a result, the filtrate becomes more concentrated as it moves down.

4. Role of Vasa Recta

a.Descending Limb:
•NaCl diffuses into the vasa recta from the interstitium, while water diffuses out.

b.Ascending Limb:
•NaCl diffuses back into the interstitium, while water enters the vasa recta.

This exchange ensures that the osmolarity gradient in the medullary interstitium is maintained
without washing it away by the blood flow.
5. Role of Urea
•Urea contributes to the osmolarity of the medullary interstitium:

•A small amount of urea from the collecting tubule enters the thin ascending limb of Henle’s loop.
•Urea is recycled back into the medullary interstitium, further enhancing the gradient.

6. Concentration of Urine
•The hyperosmotic medullary interstitium enables water reabsorption from the collecting tubules,
resulting in the production of concentrated urine.
•Human kidneys can concentrate urine up to four times more than the osmolarity of the initial
filtrate.

Summary
The counter-current mechanism in the nephron and vasa recta, along with the osmolarity gradient
maintained by NaCl and urea, allows efficient water reabsorption and the production of highly
concentrated urine. This mechanism is crucial for water conservation in terrestrial animals.

Micturition
Micturition is the process of urine excretion, involving the urinary bladder, nervous system, and
urethral sphincters.
1. Urine Formation and Storage:

• Urine is formed in the nephrons and transported to the urinary bladder.

• The bladder stores urine until a voluntary signal from the central nervous system (CNS)
initiates its release.
2. Micturition Reflex:

• Stretch receptors in the bladder walls are activated as the bladder fills with urine.

• These receptors send signals to the CNS, which triggers the following responses:
• Contraction of bladder smooth muscles.
 • Relaxation of the urethral sphincter, allowing urine to flow out.
3. Urine Characteristics:

• Volume: 1–1.5 liters per day (on average in adults).

• Appearance: Light yellow, watery fluid.

• pH: Slightly acidic (pH 6.0).

• Odor: Characteristic smell.
• Urea excretion: 25–30 g/day.

4. Clinical Relevance:
• Urinalysis is a diagnostic tool for detecting metabolic disorders or kidney malfunctions.

Common indicators in urine include:

a.Glycosuria: Presence of glucose, indicative of diabetes mellitus.
b.Ketonuria: Presence of ketone bodies, also associated with diabetes mellitus or starvation.
Summary:
Micturition is a reflex-controlled, voluntary process involving the bladder and CNS. The analysis
of urine provides critical insights into health and the functioning of the kidneys.

Regulation of Kidney Function

The kidneys are regulated by hormonal feedback mechanisms involving the:

• Hypothalamus
• Juxta Glomerular Apparatus (JGA)
• Heart
These mechanisms ensure proper:
• Blood pressure
• Fluid balance
• Glomerular filtration rate (GFR)
1. Role of ADH (Antidiuretic Hormone or Vasopressin)
• Stimulus:
◦ Activated by osmoreceptors due to:
Decreased blood volume
Loss of body fluids or changes in ionic concentration
• Source:
◦ Released from the neurohypophysis (posterior pituitary)
• Function:
 ◦ Facilitates water reabsorption in the distal tubule and collecting duct
◦ Prevents excessive water loss (anti-diuresis)
• Feedback:
◦ Increased body fluid volume turns off osmoreceptors, reducing ADH release
• Additional Effects:
◦ ADH causes blood vessel constriction, raising blood pressure, which enhances glomerular
blood flow and GFR
2. Renin-Angiotensin Mechanism (Regulated by JGA)

• Trigger:
◦ Activated when there is a fall in:
Glomerular blood flow
Blood pressure
GFR
• Process:
◦ JG cells release renin
◦ Renin converts angiotensinogen (in the blood) to angiotensin I, which is further converted
to angiotensin II
◦ Angiotensin II:
A vasoconstrictor that increases glomerular blood pressure and GFR
Stimulates the adrenal cortex to release aldosterone
◦ Aldosterone:
Promotes Na+ and water reabsorption from the distal tubule
Raises blood pressure and restores GFR
3. Atrial Natriuretic Factor (ANF)

• Stimulus:
◦ Released by the atria of the heart when blood flow to the atria increases (indicating high
blood volume)
• Function:
◦ Causes vasodilation (dilation of blood vessels)
◦ Reduces blood pressure
◦ Acts as a check on the renin-angiotensin mechanism by opposing its effects
Summary

• ADH conserves water by preventing diuresis

• The Renin-Angiotensin Mechanism increases blood pressure and GFR during low perfusion
• ANF lowers blood pressure and counters the renin-angiotensin mechanism to maintain
balance
These mechanisms ensure efficient kidney function and homeostasis of body fluids.

Role of Other Organs in Excretion

Besides the kidneys, the following organs play a significant role in the elimination of excretory
wastes:

1. Lungs:
• Remove large amounts of carbon dioxide (CO₂) (~200 mL/min).

• Eliminate significant quantities of water vapor through exhalation.

2. Liver:

• The largest gland in the body.

• Secretes bile, which contains:
a.Bilirubin and biliverdin (byproducts of hemoglobin breakdown).

b. Cholesterol.
c. Degraded steroid hormones, vitamins, and drugs.

• These substances are excreted along with digestive wastes.

3. Skin:

• Sweat Glands:
• Produce sweat, a watery fluid containing:NaCl, urea, and lactic acid.

• Primary function: Cooling the body.

• Secondary function: Removal of some waste products.
• Sebaceous Glands:

• Secrete sebum, which contains: Sterols, hydrocarbons, and waxes.

• Provides a protective oily covering for the skin while aiding in the excretion of certain waste
substances.

4. Saliva:
• Small amounts of nitrogenous wastes are eliminated through saliva.

Disorders of the Excretory System

1. Uremia:
• A condition caused by the accumulation of urea in the blood due to kidney malfunction.
• Highly harmful and can lead to kidney failure.
• Treatment:

Hemodialysis:
• Blood is drained from an artery and passed through a dialyzing unit (artificial kidney).
• The dialyzing fluid (similar to plasma but without nitrogenous wastes) facilitates the removal
of urea and other wastes via a cellophane membrane.

• The purified blood is returned to the body through a vein after adding anti-heparin.
• A life-saving procedure for uremic patients.

2. Kidney Transplantation:
• The ultimate treatment for acute renal failure.
• A functioning kidney from a donor (preferably a close relative) is transplanted to minimize
immune rejection.

• Advances in medical technology have significantly improved the success rate of kidney
transplants.

3. Renal Calculi (Kidney Stones):

• Stones or insoluble masses of crystallized salts (e.g., oxalates) formed within the kidneys.

• Can cause severe pain and disrupt kidney function.

4. Glomerulonephritis:

• Inflammation of the glomeruli in the kidney.

• Can impair the filtration process, leading to kidney dysfunction.

Summary
• Uremia and acute renal failure are life-threatening conditions that may require hemodialysis or
kidney transplantation.

• Renal calculi and glomerulonephritis are also significant disorders affecting kidney function,
often requiring medical intervention.