Unit III: Learners with Special Needs

● Multiple Intelligences at school

What does it mean to be intelligent? Trditionally, inteligence refers to a person’s ability to
perform certain academic skills, primarily knowledge-building and mathematics. However,
parents and teacers often notice that each child is unique in the way he or she understands the
world, and unique in terms of his or her skills and abilities. Some children are smart in very specific
ways that may or may not be measurable on a standard intelligence test. This can be explaned, in
part, by the theory of Multiple Intelligences. This theory was developed by psychologist Howard
Gardner and explained in his book Frames of Mind. Grardner argues tha there are many ways of
being intelligent. He recognized seven distinct intelligences: logical-mathematical, linguistic,
musical, bodil-kinesthetic, spatial, interpersonal, and intrapersonal. Naturalist, an eighth
intelligence, was added later.

Intelligence Description Activities

Logical-Mathematical a capacity for logical thinking, math, logic problems, and

an enjoyment of numbers and puzzles; working with
patterns language rules or formulas

Linguistic an understanding of how communication activities:

language works; an enjoyment speaking, listening, reading,
of its sound, rhythm, and and writing tasks covering
meaning; and a sensitivity different genres (poems,
towards its subtleties stories, recipes, etc.): anguage
analysis

Musical an ability to produce and songs, rhymes, chants, poems;

appreciate rhythmic and work with sentence rhythm
melodic sound and an and intonation patterns
understanding of musical
expression

Bodily-Kinesthetic a skillful and coordinated use miming, acting, dance, action

of the body for movement and games
expression, and the
manipulation of objects

Spatial an accurate perception of the craft activities and art work,

visual spatial world, an labelling activities (body
understanding of one’s parts), constructing models
raletion to it, and the ability to and labelling
remember and recreate visual
 scenes

Interpersonal a natural ability to relate to doing role-plays, dialogues,

others and to respond to surveys, presentations, peer-
moods, temperaments and teaching; pair and small-group
intentions of others: empathy, work
charisma and social skills

Intrapersonal an abilty for introspection and writing a journal, setting goals,

perceptive understanding of doing self-evaluation,
oneself: feelings, motivations, identifying learning strategies
why we do things

Naturalist a special appreciation and talking about nature,

understanding of nature and observing the natural
its cycles environment, doing
demonstrations and
experiments in class, bringing
plants or animals to class,
telling folklore and rural
myths

Logical-mathematical and linguistic intelligences are traditionally valued in schools.

Children whose strengths fall within those categories of intelligence tend to perform better in the
academic setting, not because they are “intelligent” and the other students are not, but because
their form of intelligence is well aligned with the content and methods of traditional academic
study. According to Multiple Intelligences Theory, teachers need to value these other strenths, or
intelligences, and avoid weighting the system heavily in favor of specific groups f learners. In
addtion, they should give children an opportunity to expand their abilities accross the range of
intelligences, rather than focusing only ion a narrow set of skills. In practice, this means
incorporating a variety of materials and activities into lessons

● Good learner strategies. Learning styles and individual variations

 Multiple Intelligences
The traditional idea of humans having a single, unified ‘intelligence’ may be rather limiting.
Howard Gardener has suggested that people could have seven ‘intelligences’:
1. linguistic
2. visual
3. musical
4. logical/mathematical
5. bodily/feeling,
6. interpersonal (contact with other people)
7. intrapersonal (understanding oneself)
Gardener suggests that we probably all have these seven intelligences but in different
proportions. So one person might be strong in musical and bodily intelligence, while another may
be stronger in language and understanding other people. Traditional education systems may have
tended to focus on some intelligences over others, especially on language and logical intelligences.

Sensory preferences
Writers in the field of NLP(Neuro-Linguistic Programing) have noted that humans tend
to have different sensory preferences, i.e. some people respond best to hearing things (auditory),
others to seeing them (visual), while others learn best when they can touch and feel tangible,
physical objects (kinaesthetic). When planning classes, you may naturally bias lesson ideas towards
your own sensory preferences, so it’s worth remembering to ensure that, over time, there is a range
of working modes appealing to visual, auditory and kinaesthetic learners.

Working with Individual differences

Here are three different teachers’ views

Teach the class or teach the individuals?

Classes certainly seem to have their own character- one often surprisingly different from
the sum total of individuals in it. Many teachers (like Gyorgy) pitch their lessons at the perceived
character, level, needs and likes of a generalised feeling of this group indentity. They may not be
concerned with any individual differences and feel their primary task is to work with the class ‘as a
whole’, maybe using a supplied syllabus or coursebook and interpreting their job as aiming ‘to
cover’ the required material in a certain period of time. Such teachers may be responsive to some
kinds of feedback from the class as a whole, mainly tending to pick up on whether the majority of
students are keeping up or not. They expect and accept that some of what is done will be
unsuitable or uninteresting or impossible to follow for some members of the class, but they feel
that that is ‘the price to pay’. Especially with large classes, the priority seems to be to maintain the
sense of progress and to hope that as many people can keep up as possible. Such an approach may
be problematic, as there is a danger in ‘teaching’ without close reference to the individuals that are
doing (or not doing) the learning.
Tibor takes the opposite position- that whole- class lessons generally won’t work because of
the variety of people in a class. If he can pull it off, such an ‘individualised’ approach would
probably be a very valuable class to be a part of. Many other teachers might find that his goal of
trying to respond to the range of different indiviuals in a room quite demanding for a teacher,
requiring a greater quantity of planning beforehand and, in class, perhaps a constant moving
around, with some careful listening and focused individual help.
Edit’s solution is a compromise position that involves working with the class as a whole
while attempting to also take individuals into account.
Teachers such as Edit may aim to teach the class by pritching the lessons to what they
perceive as the majority of the gorup, but ‘keeping in touch’ with the others- by asking questions,
adding extra comments and explanations, offering special tasks for some students, dividing the class
to work on different things at some points, choosing topics that appeal to different groups of
learners, designing tasks that appeal to different learning styles and preferences, etc.
Edit’s position is one of the classic balancing acts of teaching- to maximise working at every
individual’s level. fulfilling as many wishes and needs as possible while also keeping the entire group
engaged.

Learning Styles
Multiple Intelligences Theory offer us a way of viewing students’ existing strengths and
talents through balance and variety in classroom instructions. It is also necessary to take students’
individual learning styles intto account. Learning styles are “the way human beings prefer to
concentrate on, store and remember new and difficult information”.

Sensory Learning Styles

The senses of sight, hearing, and touch offer students different ways of taking in
information. These correspond to visual, auditory, kinesthetic, and tactile learning styles. Students
with a visual preference learn better by seeing. They thrive with visual materials and supports:
illustrations, diagrams, demonstrations, props or realia, etc. Auditory learners, on the other hand,
learn better by hearing and listening. They remember information that they hear in stories, in
explanations, in music. An auditory learner may avert his or her eyes and look inattentive; however,
the student may be paying close attention by listening. Students with auditory preference may
practice by repeating things aloud. Kinesthetic learners learn best through physical action. They
remember what hey do more than what they see or hear. Kinesthetic learners enjoy role-play and
physical games. Tactile learners learn by touching. They prefer to touch, hold, and build things.
Keep in mind that learning styles are only preferences, strengths- a tactile learner may
benefit greatly from visual supports in the classroom, and an auditory learner may enjoy drama and
games. A student who experiences learning through multiple senses (holding fruit, making fruit
salad, tasting different fruits) is much more likely to remember the lesson later.

Craft activities can be a great way to provide integrated visual, auditory, kinesthetic, and tactile
learning opportunities: students can examine an example craft, such as making a kite, and read
the instructions as they hear them. Then they can work with a friend to follow the instructions,
which encourages communication through interaction. Crafts also make classroom work more
memorable for students, and involve parents who can see, ask about, and display students’ work
at home.

Active versus Reflective Learning Styles

In addition to sensory learning styles, which classify different ways of perceiving
information, students can also learn in an active or reflective way. Active and reflective styles reflect
how a learner prefer to engage a topic: active learners like to jump right in, while reflective learners
shine when given time to think and work on something alone.

Active Learners Reflective Learners

● strong interersonal skills ● strong intrapersonal skills

● aren’t worried about making mistakes ● are anxious about making mistakes
● “hands on” learners ● “look before you leap” approach
● prefer active participation ● value time to think before participating
● enjoy group projects, games, and role- ● perform well with individual work
play ● value grammatical accuracy and
● fluent communicators who “get the precision of meaning at the expense of
idea across” but struggle with finer fluency
details of form and meaning ● more likely to look something up
● more likely to guess

Many students share characteristics of both active and reflective learners; however, some
students are strongly one or the other. It is important to include classsroom activities that build on
the strengths of both groups.

Try to be ware of your own preferred learning style(s). Teachers tenfd to favor their own
learning style in classsroom activities: “listening works for me so it must work for my students”, o
“I learned by copying charts from the board so my students will, too”. When you teach, make
syure to include activities that favor a variety of learning styles.

● Children with SNE:

● ADDRESSING STUDENTS’ Special needs
 All students, in the most literal sense, are special need students; they have individual
strengths and weaknesses, and they develop and learn at different rates. However, “special needs
students”are children with conditions or disabilities that have a significant negative impact on their
ability to succeed in school under normal circumstances. Current education policy favors the use
of the same curriculum for students of all abilities, adapting it to meet various needs rather than
creating a parallel learning environment. Children with special needs do not necessarily need to go
to a special school. In most cases, they can attend a regular school and do well there, providing that
minor adaptations are made to help them. This practice of keeping special needs students in
mainstream classrooms rather than putting them in a separate school or program is called
“educational integrations” or “inclusion”. It is based on the principle of “normalization”, that
everyone, no matter their ability, should live and learn in environments as close to normal as
possible. The main goal of the teacher should be to give the special needs child the best possible
support without limiting the educational opportunities we give to the rest of the class. We should
contribute toward the well-being of the special needs student by ensuring their safety, dignity,
independence, and access to education. A special needs student should have the same rights,
responsibilities, and opportunities as the other students in the group.

Acceptance

Your most effective tool is an attitude that promotes acceptance. Remember that you
are a role model for your students. Children may not understand why a classmate looks
or acts differently. They will be looking for cues from the teacher and from fellow
classmates on how to respond to these differences. The attitude you take towards the
student with a disability is key in establishing a warm, welcoming learning
environment.

Taking Action
The first step toward providing support for special needs students is to have a
welcoming, accepting attitude toward children of all abilities and at least a basic
awareness of common conditions and disabilities. It also helps to know about resources
that are available in the community, such as organizations, occupational therapists, and
medical and behavioral health services. The next step is to observe your students as they
go about their school activities:
● Are any students falling behind?
● Do any students routinely withdraw from participating in some or all activities
(not paying attention, getting off task, watching quitly without participating)?
● Do any students demonstrate a lack of age-appropriate skills and abilities, such as
the ability to hold a pencil and form letters, use scissors, or follow multi-step
intructions?
● Are any students unusually fidgety (talking out of turn, engaging in negative
attention-seeking behaviors, demonstrating defiance)?
 Some special needs are more apparent than others, but if a student seems to be
struggling, it is important to investigate the matter. In many cases, the negative impact
of a disability can be reduced if support is provided early on. Speak with the child’s
parents and his or her other teachers to see if they have similar or related concerns. You
will often need to recommend that the child see a professional if at all possible. As a
teacher, you cannot diagnose a condition or prescrie treatment; in many cases, students’
needs are complex. A student may appear to have Attention-Deficit and Hyperactivity
Disorder, but may actually have a form of autism, or a health problem, such as lead
poisoning, that leads to unusual behavior. The right diagnosis is important to providing
appropriate assitance to the child. However,for many different reasons, a professional
diagnosis is not always possible. There are often stigmas associated with certain
conditions, and parents may respond negatively, or fail to respond at all. In these
situations, careful observation (documenting learning difficulties and the circumstances
in which they occur), research, problem solving, and dialogue are important tools in your
teacher’s toolbox. With or without a diagnosis, you can still respond to the child’s
observed needs by incoporating adaptatons of educational materials and the classroom
environment.

Accommodations
Accommodations are changes in the classroom environment and in the manner of
instruction (presentation, style, timing, and testing arrangements) that increase the
student’s access to education; they allow the student to be included in and benefit from
regular activites. General accommodations you can try with many special needs students
include:
● ensuring that the students can access school facilities (classrooms, the bathroom,
common areas, etc.) and is comfortable in the classroom
● seating the student in a location that is convenient for him or her, especially for
seeing the board and participating in classroom activities
● placing classroom supplies in a place that is easy for the student to access
● pairing the student with a classmate who can help with some tasks: reading
instructions aloud, modeling an activity, etc.
● ofefering individual or small-group instruction to students with difficulties
● providing additional support activities for students to do at home
● ensuring that activity instructions are clear and straightforward
● using multiple ways to express meaning: visual, auditory, text, gesture, etc
● breaking larger, more complex tasks into short, manageable steps
● offering extra time to complete assignments
● reducing the amount of work (items or pages) assigned
● giving breaks
● changing the format of tests so that they truly measure the student’s progress and
not his or her degree of disability. Consider testing:
*at a different time of day
*in a small-group setting
*at an alternative location
*without a time limit, or with a less restrictive time limit
*with extra models and examples
 Interventions
Interventions are extra strategies and skills in addition to what is typically taught.
Interventions help the students to build academic, social and behavioral skills, enabling
the student to reach learning objectives. Examples include:
● teaching the student to ask for help and express his or her needs to the teacher.
(Some students may not realize that they can ask to go to the bathroom, or
mention that they are thirsty or feel ill.) Picture cards that illustrate common
needs may be helpful.
● providing illustrated schedules and lists of rules
● working with students on increasing their ability to remain on task for longer
intervals of time
● teaching self-calming startegies to students who experience distress or anxiety in
the classroom.
Because interventions are aimed at building the students’ skills, they change over
time as the student develops new strengths, and as new needs arise.

Modifications
Modifications are changes made to the learning objectives or goals for a special
needs student (National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities).
Modifications may be neccesary for students with moderate to severe cognitive
disabilities, mainly through providing separate instruction and more accessible
standards. However, these should be applied with caution. There is a risk of having
overly low expectations and of unnecessarily excluding a child from regular acytivities. It
is important not to give up on other strategies prematurely. It takes time to develop an
effective set of accommodations through continued problem solving; it is a trial-and-
error proccess. Consult with parents, medical professionals, and school staff before
determining that a student cannot progress even after implementing accommodations
and interventions.

● Conditions and disabilities

Students with special needs are students who have differing levels of physical, cognitive,
and/or socio-emotional abilities. In som cases, they are lifelong conditions and in other cases, they
are temporary and/or treatable conditions; these conditions are relevant because they can interfere
with a student’s ability to participate effectively and/or achieve learning aims. It is important to
note, though, that all students develop differently and reach important milestones at different
times. An increased understanding of learning differences and disabilities can help to ensure that all
of your students get the chance to succeed.

Physical conditions and disabilities

Special needs that originate from a physical condition will demand many different kinds of
compensation strategies. Accommodations and interventions will not center on cognitive
performance. Physical disability does not indicate intelletual disability or cognitive impairment;
however, it is a potential barrier to academic peformance. Students with physical disabilities need
help accessing classroom activities. Keep in mind that students with physical disabilities are also
susceptible to bullying and low self-esteem.

Visual Impairment
Visual impairment is a condition resulting from injury, disease, or congenital conditions
that interferes with the sense of sight and cannot be corrected through medication, surgery, or the
use of corrective lenses. A child may be completely blind, or may have “low vision”, where the
ability to see is severely limited. Children who have visual impairment will need special
accommodations in order to participate in classroom activities. The accommodations you provide
depend on:
● the level of the child’s visual impairment
● the time that the impairment started; a child who has always been blind or low vision may
have a different concept of the world and more coping skills than those of a child who has
lost his or her vision recently
● the level of emotional support from the family; this is important for the child’s self-esteem
● the level of financial and technical support available to the child, such as a cane, a guide
dog, a screen reader, or other software.

Vision Problems vs. Visual Impairment

The majority of students with vision problems will have only minor near- or far- sightedness
that can be corrected with glasses or contact lenses. In some cases, a student will have vision
problems that are not apparent until the child is in school. The child may squint in order to see
the board, withdraw during reading or board activities, or start to develop headaches. Children
who seem to have difficulty seeing clearly should be referred to an optometris to get an eye exam
and corrective eyewear (glasses or contacts). In the meantime, you may need to make temporary
accommodations to include the student in classroom activities.

Adaptations for Children with Visual Impairment

You can make certain changes in the way you teach to facilitate learning for visually
impaired students. The best approach is to create a sense of teamwork between you and the child,
and the child and his or her classmates. The following are some suggestions that may help
accommodate blind and low vision students in your class:
● Give the child a tour of the school in parts. Repeat the tours several times, depending on
the child’s age and his or her level of training in orientation and moility. Include tours for:
*how to get to the classroom from the main entrance. (For a blind child, leave all doors
closed so that he can feel the walls and doors)
*how to get to the bathroom from the classroom.
*the layout of the bathroom
 *how to get to the child’s seat in class
*the positions of classroom furniture
● Be sure to notify the student of any changes in the layout of the classroom.
● Establish a buddy system, where classmates take turns (over the course of the term) reading
instructions and text information aloud to the student.
● Provide a hand or stand magnifier for the student to use if helpful.
● Make large print versions of class materials.
● Use materials that are available in both print and Braille.
● Describe visual information that you are giving to the rest of the class: I’m drawing two big
circles on the board. In one circle, it says, “ Farm Animals”, and in the other circle it says,
“Pets”.
● Use more realia in class. Students can take turns touching and holding the objects as they
learn the words for them in English. This is more inclusive to low vision students and
beneficial for the entire class.
● Don’t avoid expressions or vocabulary that refer to sight, such as See you later! Visually
impaired children use these expressions themselves, figuratively rather than literally.
● Consider recording summaries of lesson information for the child to listen to at home.
● Read test items aloud to the student for him or her to answer orally, or create an alternative
form of assessing learning aim through conversation or role-play.

Hearing Disorders
There are two mains types of hearing disorders: hearing loss, or deafness, and auditory
processing disorder (AP). Hearing loss refers to a reduction in or loss of the ability to perceive
sounds. It is often the result of a congenital defect, but can also be caused by accidents or illnesses
such chicken pox, measles, or chronic ear infections. Auditory processing disorder is a neurological
problem that results in difficulty understanding speech and other sounds.

Undiagnosed Hearing Disorders

While most children with hearing loss are identified through regular screenings as infants or
upon entering preschool, some children have undiagnosed hearing loss that presents itself in the
classroom
● You might observe that the child does not respond when you say his or her name, or is
slow to react to classroom instructions
● The child may respond to sounds on one side but not the other
● The child may ask people to repeat themselves frequently
● He or she may have speech problems in his or her first language
● Parents might notice that the child turns the TV volume up beyond a comfortable level
A simple hearing test at the doctor’s office can help to determine whether a child has a hearing
impairment, and if so, to what degree. If hearing loss is diagnosed, the child should then see a
specialist to determine appropriate treatment.

Children with hearing loss have different needs in the classroom depending on:
 ● their level of impairment and the length of time they have been receiving support. A child
who has gone a long time with undiagnosed hearing loss may have a developmental delays
● the use of a hearing aid or cochlear implant
● the knowledge of sign language and/or lip reading (for children who are deaf)
● the level of support at home and in the community

Adaptations for Children with Hearing Disorders

You can make certain changes in the way you teach to facilitate learning for students with
hearing disorders. As with all studens of different abilities, the best approach is to create a sense of
teamwork between you and the child, and the child and his or her classmates. Here are some
suggestions that may help accommodate a deaf or hearing impaired student in your class:
● Give the child a notebook or dry-erase board. He or she can write down questions, or
answer questions in this way.Write instructions on the board and point to them as
necessary. This will be beneficial to the other students as well.
● Prepare a simple written summary of new language students will be learning and how it is
used. The student can read this before the lesson and refer to it as needed.
● Let the child make audio or video recordings of the lessons to review at home. If the child is
partially able to hear, he or she may be able to listen to the recordings with the volume
increased. The student can also use speech recognition software to convert the audio into
text.
● Use labeled flashcards and word cards, posters, charts and illustrations to present and
practice the target language.
● Use video rather than audio materials when possible. Turn on subtitles.
● Give the student a copy of the audio transcript for listening activities.
● Have the child turn his/her desk sideways, so as to permit a view of the other students and
the board (to read your and the other students lips).
● If the child uses sign language, ask the parents of the student to teach you basic signs. You
can even invite the student to teach certain signs to the class.
● Meet with the parents regularly to discuss any concerns they may have, and how the
student feels about his or her experiences in the classroom.

Speech and Language Impairment

A child with a speech or language impairment has difficulty producing language to
communicate effectively in his or her native language. There are many distinct types of speech
disorders, but they usually affect the students’ speech in one of four ways:
● Articulation - The student has difficulty producing certain sounds- like l or r-
● Fluency - The student stutters, or has long pauses between words; the flow of speech is
altered.
● Voice - The student has an unusual quality in his or her voice. The child might speak with
an unusual pitch or volume.
● Language - The student has difficulty using basic language to communicate wants, needs,
and ideas, and to understand others’ use of language.
Adaptations for Children with Speech and Language Impairments
 Children with speech or language impairments may need a variety or accommodaations
and interventions depending on their specific challenges. Like other children, they need acceptance
and a safe learning environment free from bullying. They will benefit most from the help of
professionals such as speech-language pathologists, speech therapists, and other professionals such
as professional behavioral analysts. However, the following accommodatons and interventions
may prove helpful:
● Asses and identify the student’s abilities; then start building upon his or her specific
language capabilities.
● Take special care not to laugh at the student or allow other students to do so.
● Offer pronunciation correction strategically and patiently. The child will need to practice
sounds outside of class to improve pronunciation over a period or time.
● Avoid putting the student in embarrassing situations by telling him or her to read aloud, or
by giving constant correction.
● Do breathing and articulation exercises with the whole class at the beginning of each
lesson, for example: mimimi-mememe-mamama-momomo-mumumu. Have students
repeat in chorus.
● When teaching new vocabulary, focus the students’ attention on the number of syllables in
the word and the stress pattern of the word. Exaggerate the pronunciation and drill the
word four or five times.
● For especially challenging words and expressions, try back-chaining. Start by saying the
final syllable for the class to repeat: noon. Then say the last two syllables for the class to
repaeat: ternoon. Keep adding syllables until students have said the entire word or
expression: Good aftternoon.

Students may benefit from learning the following strategies:

● Encourage the child to write down words he or she has difficulty with using syllable breaks
(hos-pi-tal) and then ask the child to articulate the word slowly and then repeat it.
● Focus the child’s attention on the position of the tongue and lips in the articulation of
particular sounds. Have the child use a small mirror to watch and compare the way he or
she articulates the sound.
● Have the child record words and phrases he or she can pronounce correctly and then have
the child listen to the recording. This will boost self-esteem and motivation.
● Let the student do as much work as possible on the computer and show him or her how to
use the spell-check tool.
● Be selective when correcting written work. Don’t expect the child to spell words correctly
if he or she is unable to articulate them.
● Don’t penalize unclear speech in English if errors are related to the child’s speech
impairment in his or her first language. For example, if a student has a stuttering disorder, a
fluency grade should take the child’s natural rate of speech into consideration.

Mobility Impairments
Some students may have difficulty moving from one place or position to another without
the assistance of a walking cane, braces, or a wheelchair.

Adaptatins for Children with Mobility Impairment

 A child who has had a physical impairment since birth is usually highly resourceful and can
often manage his or her mobility with little assistance from others. However, this may not be the
case with children who are experiencing recent loss of mobility. Here are some suggestions that
may help accommodate a child with a mobility impairment in your class:
● Speak with parents ahead of time about the child’s specific needs. Find out what the child
needs assistance with and what the child can do independently.
● Ensure access to the classroom, the bathroom, and other important school facilities. If at all
possible , the student should be able to access these places independently.
● Ensure that the child has enough space in the classroom to participate in activities. There
should be enough space to accommodate the child’s mobility equipment.
● Carefully plan pair and group work so that the child is not excluded or forced to navigate
between closely spaced desks.
● Carefully plan how the student will be able to participate in physical games and activities.
For example, a child in a wheelchair might not be able to play Simon Says without some
modifications to the game. If the student needs to do something different than the other
students, let him or her know in advance.
● In instances of physical activity where it is not possible or safe for the child to participate,
assign him or her a special role: timekeeper, judge, scorekeeper, etc.

Neurocognitive conditions
There are a number of neurocognitive conditions: learning disabilities, such as dyslexia,
dysgraphia, and dyscalculia; attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD); intellectual
disability (ID); Down syndrome; and autism spectrum disorder (ASD).

Learning Disabilities
Learning disabilities are neurocognitive conditions that specifically affect the processing of sensory
information. They include dyslexia, dysgraphia, and dyscalculia. Learning disabilities are lifelong
conditions, but with the right supports, children can often overcome the difficulties caused by
their learnig disability.

Dyslexia
Dyslexia causes a person to have trouble interpreting visual information, particularly
symbols like words and letters. It primarily affects reading ability and is most often diagnosed in the
early to middle years of primary school, after children start reading more proficiently. It is not
typically diagnosed when students are just beginning more proficiently. It is not typically
diagnosed when students are just beginning to read and write because very young learners often
invert or reverse words, letters, and numbers. At a young age, this is considered normal
development and does not indicate a disability. Signs of dyslexia may include:
● Letters and numbers may be read and written in the wrong order. The child often looks at
the word and guesses what is says.
 ● It may be very difficult for the child to read aloud. Even if he or he manages to read a text
aloud, the child may not understand the text at all.
● Words like “nap” and “pan” look the same to the student. The child confuses similar-
looking letters, for example, ‘p” and “q”, and “b”.
● The child may have difficulty following a sequence of steps in the correct order, or
following a set of instructions.
● The child finds it hard to distinguish left from right.
● The child yawns often during literacy tasks. (This is due to mental fatigue).
● Handwriting may be consistently untidy or “babysh”, although the child can write neatly
when not under pressure.
● The child may have low self-esteem and “feel stupid” because he or she can’t perform as
well or as effortlessly as other classmates.

Dysgraphia
Writing is a process that requires coordination between the hand and the brain. In students
with dysgraphia, this process doesn’t work properly. The result is a learning disability that can
affect spelling, handwriting, and the organization of writing on the page. Signs of dysgraphia
include:
● illegible printing and/or handwriting.
● difficulty holding a pencil correctly.
● difficulty writing on the lines or within the margins of a ruled notebook.
● leaving inconsistent spaces between letters and words.
● copying letters and numbers incorrectly.
● misspelling familiar words.
● reading aloud while writing.
Dysgraphia does not only affect the physical act of writing. It also affects the student’s
ability to express ideas through writing. He or she may have trouble thinking of words while
writing or organizing ideas in an outline.

Dyscalculia
Dyscalculia is a disability that affects the way a child understands and uses numbers. While
this does not directly impact a student’s ability to learn English, it may interfere with specific
classroom activities that incoporate numbers or mathematical concepts: counting activities, telling
time, understanding charts, and understandng spatial directions.

Adaptations for Children with Dyslexia, Dysgraphia, or Dyscalculia

As a teacher, you can make certain changes in the way you work that will facilitate learning
for students with learning disabilities such as dyslexia, dysgraphia, and dyscalculia:
● Pair the student with a peer who can help by reading challenging words or text aloud.
● Give verbal as well as written instructions. After you give instructions, ask a student to
explain them to the class.
 ● Keep instructions simple. Break more complex tasks into short, manageable steps.
● Use props, charts, and other visual aids such as pictures and symbols to help the child
access and assimilate key information.
● Read texts aloud, or verbally summarize the main ideas.
● Have the student record the lesson to listen to and review at home.
● Show the child how to use a pointer or bookmark to keep track of the words on a page.
● Encourage the child to use a highlighter pen to mark key information in longer texts.
● Show the child how to use the spell-check function in a word processor and let him or her
do as much work as possible on the computer.
● Let the student take a bathroom break or stand up and stretch as a way to oxygenate the
brain and reduce fatigue.
● Allow extra time for tests and give partial credit for partial work. Don’t deduct points for
spelling or handwriting in written work. Consider testing the student orally.
● Avoid tasks that require copying. Provide handouts so that the student will have less to
copy.
● Be gentle when giving feedback about spelling and or handwriting.
● Use wide-rule paper so the student can write with larger letters.

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neurocognitive condition that
affects a child’s behavior in multiple contexts and may negatively impact his or her ability to learn.
The most common characteristics of ADHD are:
● an inability to pay attention during routine tasks.
● hyperactivity.
● impulsivity, acting without thinking.

There are three types of ADHD: inattentive, hyperactive-impulsive, and combined

ADHD.
Inattentive ADHD
Children with this form of ADHD struggle specifically with paying attention. Indications
of inattentive ADHD include:
● an inability to stay focused on schoolwork or play activities.
● a lack of attention to detail: sloppy or babyish handwriting, careless mistakes.
● a tendency not to respond when spoken to.
● difficulty following instructions and completing tasks.
● an inability to organize tasks.
● a tendency to be easily distracted.
● a tendency to forget or lose personal belongings.
● an aversion to tasks that require mental effort for an extended period of time.
Students with inattentive ADHD may be harder to recognize because they are not
disruptive in the way that students with other forms of ADHD may be.
 Hyperactive-Impulsive ADHD
Children with hyperactive-impulsive ADHD are overly active and tend to do things
without thinking first. This form of ADHD is characterized by:
● constant physical activity: wiggling and not staying in his or her seat, touching other
students, tapping his or her hands or fingers, or manipulating objects.
● difficulty playing quietly.
● excessive talking.
● an inability to wait for his or her turn to speak or participate: interrupting and shouting
out answers.

Combined Type AHDH

Students with combined type ADHD demonstrate both inattentive and hyperactivity-
impulsive behaviors.

Adaptations for Children with ADHD

The most effective tool in helping a student with ADHD is to demonstrate a positive
attitude and create a sense of teamwork between you and the child. Set clear expectations for good
behavior and academic work, and give the child immediate positive feedback whenever he or she
meets those expectations. In addition, you may consider the following accommodations and
interventions:
● Seat the child as close as possible to your desk (or wherever you spend the most time during
class). Avoid seating the child near the windows or the door, which can be distractions.
● Keep instructions simple. Give instructions one step at a time and repeat as necessary.
● Monitor activities closely and remind the student of details he or she may have missed.
Make sure that the student completes tasks.
● Make eye contact with the child on a regular basis while addressing the class.
● List the activities for the lesson on the board and check each step off as you cover it in the
lesson. Encourage the child to do the same with the steps for instructions in class work.
● Vary the pace of the lesson and include a mix of activities that are rapid and intense, and
slower and more focused. Make sure there is quiet in the class (no distractions) when
learners are working on more challenging tasks.
● Incorporate short stretching activities at different points in your lessons: this helps students
to release tension and regain focus.
● Provide acceptable, non-disruptive alternatives for students who need constant movement:
a small object or squeeze ball (as long as this can be done safely).
● For students who interrupt or have outbursts in class, provide a notebook so that he or she
can still express the idea, but in a less disruptive way. (Read the notes at a latter time.)
● Include physical games and learning activities into your lessons.
● Establish a signal with the child, such as touching the desk, to remind him or her to stay on
task.
● Divide longer tasks into short, manageable steps. When possible, provide illustrations or
symbols that students can check off as they work.
 ● Give small, frequent quizzes rather than long, end-of-term exams. When a longer test is
required, give the test in sections with breaks in between.
● Institute a reward system to encourage positive behavior: a sticker for remaining seated for
the whole class, a certificate after a week of high effort, or randomly timed positive
feedback about a specific behavior.
● Make sure there are predefined consequences for problem behaviors: for example, after
three warnings (in one week), the teacher sends a note home to the parents. To avoid
interrupting the lesson to give a warming, quietly place a yellow warning card on the
student’s desk. This is best applied to more serious infractions.

Intellectual Disabilities
According to the American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, an
intellectual disability is associated with “significant limitations both in intelletual functioning and
in adaptive behavior, which cover many everyday social and practical skills.” In other words,
students’ ability to think, learn, and perform everyday tasks is reduced. Intellectual disability (ID)
can be the result of a birth defect, an injury, or an illness. ID can be mild, moderate, or severe. In
the past, intellectual disability was called “mental retardation”. however, tis is now considered a
derogatory term.

Adaptations for Children with Intellectual Disability

Here are some adaptations that may be beneficial to students with ID:
● If possible, allow more time for students to acquire new language and skills. the teacher
should incorprate activities that support a range of learning styles.
● Use audio and visual resources and do kinesthetic activities whenever possible. It is also
important to include model language and examples because children with intellectual
disability have trouble making generalizations.
● Opt for concrete input over abstract input whenever possible. Use props, realia, and
illustrations.
● Divide projects and tasks into small, more manageable steps. Demonstrate activities and
steps.
● Be patient when eliciting answers; give the child more time to answer.
● Offer positive feedback as every opportunity. Encourage the students to keep trying.

Down Syndrome
Down syndrome is a condition caused by a chromosomal abnormality. It can be mild or
severe and it affects cognitive and motor performance. Children with Down Syndrome often have
distinct physical characteristics, particularly a difference in facial features and reduced muscle tone.
They tend to grow at a sklower rate than their peers and may also suffer from congenital health
conditions such as heart defects or hearing and vision problems. Some children with Down
syndrome also have a misalignment of the spine that makes them vulnerable to neck injury. Parents
shuld have their child checked by doctors to rule out or treat any of these additional health
concerns.

Adaptations for Children with Down Syndrome

 All children with Down syndrome are unique, with individual abilities and challenges.
Observation of the student’s strengths and needs is the best approach to determining the right
adaptations for him or her. Here are some accommodations to start with:
● As with students who have intellectual disability, use visual aids, props, and realia to
illustrate concepts and clarify verbal explanations and instructions. Nonverbal students
may benefit from learning to communicate through labeled picture cards and choice
boards. Sign language is also an option, especially for expressing basic needs.
● Get as much information as possible from the child’s parents.
● Divide projects and tasks into small, more manageable steps. Demonstrate activities and
steps.
● Be patient when eliciting answers; give the child more time to answer and offer plenty of
positive feedback.
● If objectives are too ambitious for the child to achieve, focus on making progress toward
the objectives.

Autism Spectrum Disorder

In the past, when a child was diagnosed with autism, it referred to “classic autism”, a
condition characterized by severe social and developmental disability, often in combination with a
form of intellectual disability. However, it is possible to have some attributes of autism without
having all of them, or to have some mild symptoms and ther severe symptoms. For this reason, a
child with some attributes of autism is considered to be “on the autism spectrum”. Some children
with autism have a more severe form of intellectual disability (also called “low-functioning
autism”). Others may have generally average or even above-average intelligence (also called “high-
functioning autism”), while still lacking certain adaptive behaviors. Common signs that a child has
autism spectrum disorder (ASD) include:
● a tendency to avoid eye contact.
● a tendency to isolate him or herself from others when experiencing anxiety; the child may
shut his or her eyes or cover his or her ears, or simply stare off into space.
● extreme aversion to specific sensory stimulation: students cannot tolerate certain sounds,
smells, or textures of food or clothing.
● self-injury when under stress: bitting, pinching, digging of fingernails into the skin, etc.
● repetitive movements when experiencing excitement, stress, or discomfort: arm flapping,
stroking, folding, rocking, humming, etc.
● atypical play behaviors: persistently lining up toys or spinning wheels on toys rather than
playing with them.
● extremely interested in a specific topic; not interested in anything outside of this topic.
● difficulties with fine or gross motor coordination, which can affect the student’s ability to
write, use scissors, or participate in sports or active play.
● unpredictable and extreme reactions to changes in routines.
● frequent misinterpretation of others’ facial expressions, gestures, tones of voice, etc.
● facial expressions that don’t correspond to how the student feels: smiling when distressed
or showing no expression when happy.
● “meltdowns” where the student may scream or cry hysterically without the ability to calm
down.
 ● “scripting” where the child repeats information he or she has heard word for word from
memory.
● monotone speech (a strong characteristic of a form of high-functioning autism called
Asperger’s syndrome).
● impulsive behavior.
All children on the autism spectrum are unique and exhibit different combinations of
autistic behaviors.

Adaptations for Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder

There are many approaches to coping with and treating autism spectrum disorder,
including behavioral therapy, dietary modifications, and sometimes medicine. Children often
respond favorably to behavioral interventions and accommodations in the classroom, and
inclusion is important as long as the child is not a danger to himself or herself or others.
Students with autism have strengths as well as weaknesses, and can succeed in the academic
environment. The classroom teacher will need to keep a special watch for signs of sensory and
emotional overload and high anxiety. Students with autism spectrum disorder may have difficulty
expressing that they are upset or anxious. A typical student will indicate distress through crying
while a child with autism may remain silent despite feeling extremely distressed. (Students with
autism may also have extreme reactions.) It is also important for the teacher to watch for signs that
the child is being bullied by his or her classmates, or that the child is behaving in socially
unacceptable ways.
It can be challenging to teach and help a child on the autism spectrum because we tend to
take for granted that our experiences of the world around us are very similar to others’ experiences.
With autism this is not necessarily the case. However, there are many things you can do to increase
an autistic student’s access to instruction and help him or her to cope with and possibly thrive in
the educational environment of a regular classroom.
● If the child already has a diagnosis, seek input from the parents on how to help the child in
school. Ask what strategies or tools they have been using. Determine the child’s cognitive
ability, learning style, and behavior patterns, as well as his or her ability to communicate
and his or her independent living skills (going to the bathroom, dressing, feeding,
expressing hunger/thirst, etc). If possible, give the child a tour of the school and the
classroom.
● If the child does not have a formal diagnosis but seems to exhibit characteristics of autism,
speak with the child’s parents. Ask about any unusual behaviors or preferences the child
has at home. Be cautious in suggesting that the child has autism; many parents are not
initially receptive to this kind of news. Instead, express your concerns based on things that
have happened in class, and recommend that they consult the child’s doctor or a specialist
who can conduct an evaluation.
● When possible, use observation and data collection to identify patterns in the student’s
behavior. Notice when the child is able to participate and when he or she exhibits
distressed or disruptive behaviors, and when he or she does well. Make a few brief notes on
what is happening when the child has problems (or, inversely, when he or she demonstrates
strengths). Over time, patterns in the child’s behaviors and performance will help you to
develop a plan for helping him or her.
● Incorporate an illustrated schedule of school and classroom activities so that the student
knows what to expect in each activity. Avoid unnecessary changes to routines; routines are
comforting to children with autism.
● If possible, provide a quiet place in the classroom where the student can go if distressed.
● Keep instructions simple and give them step by step. Help the student to find the
instructions on the page. Teach the child to highlight the instructions and number the
steps. Give additional explanation as needed.
● Clearly state the purpose of each activity. Give examples or models to follow.
● For more complicated tasks, give the child a checklist so that he or she knows when the task
has been completed correctly.
● Introduce new and difficult tasks using topics that are of special interest to the child.
● Make use of visual aids, props, and realia to illustrate concepts and clarify verbal
explanations and instructions. Students may benefit from learning to communicate
through labeled picture cards and choice boards.
● Plan how to manage transitions from one task to another. Changes can be stressful and
disorientating to a child with ASD. In corporate techniques such as: giving five- and one-
minute reminders to the whole class before any transition, singing a clean-up song between
activities, or (for younger learners) having students move to different places in the
classroom while holding hands with a peer.
● Allow the student to work individually, or pair the child with a compatible classmate.
Assign individual roles for group work. Provide an action plan and a list of useful phrases
for each role.
● Take frequent stress breaks; this can involve standing and stretching, breathing exercises, or
other physical activity.
● Encourage the child to make choices: provide a list of options, such as Answer three out of
five questions, Read quietly or with a buddy, or Take notes using words or pictures.
● Make sure the child has access to a toy or other object that helps him or her to stay calm
and focused. Some children like to squeeze a soft ball, stroke a soft toy, or fold and unfold a
soft cloth.
● Find or make a social story for the student. Social stories are short illustrated stories that
present a specific situation, behavior, or skill from an outsider’s perspective to help the
child understand it. For example, a child may need a social story that explains common
things that happen at school:
The teacher may speak loudly. But she is not angry. She wants all of the sudents to
hear.
or
It’s recess. Bobby wants to play. He sees David. David is playing by himself. He is
pretending to be an airplane. Bobby wants to be an airplane too. Bobby goes near to
David. He says. “Hi, David! Can I play too?” David says...
● Use sticky notes to remind the child to use a relaxation strategy when he or she starts to
become stressed: Count to ten, Breethe deeply, Use your stress ball, and so on. Make the
sticky notes in advance and keep them on hand. When a sticky note is needed, place in on
the child’s desk to remind him or her of the relaxation strategy.
 ● Multisensory Approach

What is a Multisensory Approach?

A multisensory learning approach is a term many schools use to describe teaching methods
that involve engaging more than one sense at a time. Involving the use of visual, auditory and
kinesthetic-tactile pathways, a multisensory approach can enhance memory and ability to learn.
This can also include taste, smell, touch, sight, hearing and movement. The students are able to
experience a lesson through multiple pathways that can best stimulate their brains and engage them
more deeply in the subject matter. There is a long history in the educational literature dating back
to Montessori, John Dewey and Grace Fernald, just to name a few.

Multiple studies, including those from the National Institute of Child Health and Human
development, show that a multisensory approach is the most effective teaching method for
children who have difficulties in learning.
Although every lesson won’t necessarily use all of a child’s senses at the same time, most
multisensory lessons engage students with the learning material in more than one approach.

Who Can Benefit From a Multisensory Approach?

All children benefit from exposure to multisensory lessons; including those who may not
have any difficulties with learning or paying attention. Whether general education or special
education, if a student has the opportunity to learn something using more than one sense, the
information is more likely to make a memorable impact and be internalized.

However, multisensory learning can be particularly helpful for students with learning
disabilities and cognitive limitations who may have difficulty in one or more areas of education.
For example, a differently-abled student may have trouble processing visual information. This can
make it challenging for them to learn and retain information through only reading and visual
stimuli. Using other senses, such as tactile or auditory, these children can make a stronger
connection with what they’re learning.

Instead of each student experiencing a lesson through a singular medium like a textbook, a
multisensory approach will involve more students in taking active roles in learning. This kind of
hands-on learning enhances students’ ability to collect and remember information, make
connections between what they already know and new information, understand and work through
complexities, and use nonverbal problem solving skills.

Ultimately, using a multisensory approach in a learning environment helps to meet the

varying needs of all children giving them each a chance to succeed.
 What is multi-sensory instruction?
Multi-sensory instruction refers to the way information is delivered to the student. The
three primary modes of instruction are visual, auditory, and sensory-motor. Visual instruction
includes activities like reading a text or looking at a picture. Auditory instruction might involve
listening to a lecture or a book on tape. A third mode of instruction is sensory-motor. This is often
referred to as a “hands-on” approach. Sensory-motor instruction can be further divided into fine
motor (tactile), and gross motor. Many forms of instruction use more than one mode. For
example, watching a film involves both auditory and visual components. Writing is an example of
an activity that involves fine motor and visual instruction. Speaking would be a fine motor and
auditory experience. Acting out a scene from a play involves all three modes: visual, auditory, and
sensory-motor activities. multisensory

Why is multi-sensory instruction important?

When information is presented, it goes into our short term, working memory. Like a
computer, unless we deliberately save the data into long-term storage, it is lost very quickly. The
method we use to save new information that is presented to us determines the likelihood we will be
able retrieve it in the future. If you think of memory as a file card box, then the least effective
system for organizing information would be to write everything down in the same color, on the
same size and color cards and throw them all into a big box. The chance of being able to find the
one card you want at any particular time will be fairly small, especially as you fill the box up with
cards. The more organization you give the file system, the better your odds of finding a specific
piece of information. In a filing system, we might first color code the cards by topic. Then we
could arrange each topic alphabetically. Each step we take to better organize the system, improves
our ability to find a specific card.

The same is true for learning. Here, our chances of successfully retrieving information are
influenced by the number of pathways we create to find it. The pathways are the modes of
learning. Let’s consider a spelling word we want to learn as an example. If we just look at the word
we want to learn how to spell, we are creating one visual pathway to the information. If we say the
word aloud, we are creating two more paths to the information, one auditory since we are now
hearing the word, and one sensory motor as the muscles in our mouth form the sounds of the
word. If we add writing the word too, we create two more pathways: a second visual one and a
tactile one as we “feel” the word when we write. The more ways we experience the word, the more
pathways we create and thus improve our likelihood of remembering how to spell this word when
we need to.

The purpose behind multi-sensory instruction is to apply this concept of learning to all
subject areas. The more experiences a student has with a piece of information, be it a spelling word,
a process in mathematics, a novel, or a concept in science; the stronger their ability will be to
remember it over a longer period of time.

How do I determine my student’s learning style?

Learning style refers to the different ways of learning: visual, auditory, or sensory-motor.
This should not be confused with the Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences, which
has to do more with how the student demonstrates intellectual abilities. Most students do not
necessarily show a strong preference for one learning style over another. In fact, students who
relate to some of the characteristics of all three learning styles emphasize the importance of using
multi-sensory instruction. In general, here are some possible indicates of learning style preference.

Visual Learners: learn through seeing

● Benefit from diagrams, handouts, illustrations, maps, etc.

● Aware of the body language, facial expressions of others
● Take notes during lectures or readings
● Doodle while listening
● Follow written directions better than oral ones
● Close their eyes when memorizing or remembering
● Prefer watching television, movies, and video games
● Enjoy jigsaw puzzles
● Vivid imagination

Auditory Learners: learn through listening

● Benefit from discussions, lectures, talking through ideas

● Remembers dialog, jingles, or lyrics easily
● Talks out loud when problem solving or mumbles when reading
● Prefer listening to CD’s, tapes, or the radio
● Follows oral directions easily
● Likes to talk on the phone

Sensory-motor Learners: learn through moving and touching

● Enjoys working with tools
● Bears down hard on writing implements
● Likes to touch or feel textures of things
● Fidgets
● Difficulty following oral directions
● Prefers sports, active games, or making things
● Enjoys jigsaw puzzles and mazes
● Counts on fingers or writes in the air
● Comfortable with personal contact (hugging, handshakes, etc.)
 Which students need multi-sensory instruction?
From our description of how multi-sensory instruction influences learning, it is easy to see
how beneficial its application is to all students. Most people have somewhat preferred means of
learning. You will often hear it said, “I am a visual person. I need to see it.” This person has
recognized that they have more difficulty processing and storing information when it is only
presented orally or perhaps in written form. They store information best when it is presented in a
picture form. Usually their memory of even a picture presentation will be improved if it is
accompanied by a written or spoken explanation as well. Other people might say, “I’m terrible
with maps.” This person is probably a more auditory learner in that they benefit more from
hearing directions than seeing them in written or graphic form.

While most people have some relative strength in one mode over another, there are other
students who experience marked difference in their ability to process information through a
particular sense. For example, students with dyslexia, a language based learning disability, have
particular difficulty with information that is presented in written form. Students with auditory
processing disorders can struggle with information that is presented orally. Students with
nonverbal learning disabilities may have particular difficulties with mathematical concepts and
handwriting due to a combination of sensory and visual deficits. If your student has been
diagnosed with a specific learning disability, then it will especially helpful for you as the Home
Teacher and the student to be aware of the types of instruction that are more challenging to him
and the ways instruction can be modified to better suit his needs.

Once you understand the concept of multi-sensory instruction you can begin to put it into
practice. Some of the ideas and activities will be useful for day-to-day instruction, while others are
particularly helpful for periodic reviews and test taking. Once you begin using multi-sensory
instruction, you will find yourself coming up with additional ideas to best teach your individual
student. We encourage you to experiment with these new techniques as well. With time and
experience your student will even begin to think of new ways to help themselves learn, the ultimate
reward for your efforts.