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 Introduction to
Parallel Processing
Algorithms and Architectures
PLENUM SERIES IN COMPUTER SCIENCE
Series Editor: Rami G. Melhem
University of Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania

FUNDAMENTALS OF X PROGRAMMING
Graphical User Interfaces and Beyond
Theo Pavlidis
INTRODUCTION TO PARALLEL PROCESSING
Algorithms and Architectures
Behrooz Parhami
Introduction to
Parallel Processing
Algorithms and Architectures

Behrooz Parhami
University of California at Santa Barbara
Santa Barbara, California

KLUWER ACADEMIC PUBLISHERS

NEW YORK, BOSTON , DORDRECHT, LONDON , MOSCOW
eBook ISBN 0-306-46964-2
Print ISBN 0-306-45970-1

©2002 Kluwer Academic Publishers

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All rights reserved

No part of this eBook may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, recording, or otherwise, without written consent from the Publisher

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To the four parallel joys in my life,

for their love and support.

This page intentionally left blank.
 Preface

THE CONTEXT OF PARALLEL PROCESSING

The field of digital computer architecture has grown explosively in the past two decades.
Through a steady stream of experimental research, tool-building efforts, and theoretical
studies, the design of an instruction-set architecture, once considered an art, has been
transformed into one of the most quantitative branches of computer technology. At the same
time, better understanding of various forms of concurrency, from standard pipelining to
massive parallelism, and invention of architectural structures to support a reasonably efficient
and user-friendly programming model for such systems, has allowed hardware performance
to continue its exponential growth. This trend is expected to continue in the near future.
This explosive growth, linked with the expectation that performance will continue its
exponential rise with each new generation of hardware and that (in stark contrast to software)
computer hardware will function correctly as soon as it comes off the assembly line, has its
down side. It has led to unprecedented hardware complexity and almost intolerable devel-
opment costs. The challenge facing current and future computer designers is to institute
simplicity where we now have complexity; to use fundamental theories being developed in
this area to gain performance and ease-of-use benefits from simpler circuits; to understand
the interplay between technological capabilities and limitations, on the one hand, and design
decisions based on user and application requirements on the other.
In computer designers’ quest for user-friendliness, compactness, simplicity, high per-
formance, low cost, and low power, parallel processing plays a key role. High-performance
uniprocessors are becoming increasingly complex, expensive, and power-hungry. A basic
trade-off thus exists between the use of one or a small number of such complex processors,
at one extreme, and a moderate to very large number of simpler processors, at the other.
When combined with a high-bandwidth, but logically simple, interprocessor communication
facility, the latter approach leads to significant simplification of the design process. However,
two major roadblocks have thus far prevented the widespread adoption of such moderately
to massively parallel architectures: the interprocessor communication bottleneck and the
difficulty, and thus high cost, of algorithm/software development.

vii
viii INTRODUCTION TO PARALLEL PROCESSING

The above context is changing because of several factors. First, at very high clock rates,
the link between the processor and memory becomes very critical. CPUs can no longer be
designed and verified in isolation. Rather, an integrated processor/memory design optimiza-
tion is required, which makes the development even more complex and costly. VLSI
technology now allows us to put more transistors on a chip than required by even the most
advanced superscalar processor. The bulk of these transistors are now being used to provide
additional on-chip memory. However, they can just as easily be used to build multiple
processors on a single chip. Emergence of multiple-processor microchips, along with
currently available methods for glueless combination of several chips into a larger system
and maturing standards for parallel machine models, holds the promise for making parallel
processing more practical.
This is the reason parallel processing occupies such a prominent place in computer
architecture education and research. New parallel architectures appear with amazing regu-
larity in technical publications, while older architectures are studied and analyzed in novel
and insightful ways. The wealth of published theoretical and practical results on parallel
architectures and algorithms is truly awe-inspiring. The emergence of standard programming
and communication models has removed some of the concerns with compatibility and
software design issues in parallel processing, thus resulting in new designs and products with
mass-market appeal. Given the computation-intensive nature of many application areas (such
as encryption, physical modeling, and multimedia), parallel processing will continue to
thrive for years to come.
Perhaps, as parallel processing matures further, it will start to become invisible. Packing
many processors in a computer might constitute as much a part of a future computer
architect’s toolbox as pipelining, cache memories, and multiple instruction issue do today.
In this scenario, even though the multiplicity of processors will not affect the end user or
even the professional programmer (other than of course boosting the system performance),
the number might be mentioned in sales literature to lure customers in the same way that
clock frequency and cache size are now used. The challenge will then shift from making
parallel processing work to incorporating a larger number of processors, more economically
and in a truly seamless fashion.

THE GOALS AND STRUCTURE OF THIS BOOK

The field of parallel processing has matured to the point that scores of texts and reference
books have been published. Some of these books that cover parallel processing in general
(as opposed to some special aspects of the field or advanced/unconventional parallel systems)
are listed at the end of this preface. Each of these books has its unique strengths and has
contributed to the formation and fruition of the field. The current text, Introduction to Parallel
Processing: Algorithms and Architectures, is an outgrowth of lecture notes that the author
has developed and refined over many years, beginning in the mid-1980s. Here are the most
important features of this text in comparison to the listed books:

1. Division of material into lecture-size chapters. In my approach to teaching, a lecture

is a more or less self-contained module with links to past lectures and pointers to
what will transpire in the future. Each lecture must have a theme or title and must
PREFACE ix

proceed from motivation, to details, to conclusion. There must be smooth transitions

between lectures and a clear enunciation of how each lecture fits into the overall
plan. In designing the text, I have strived to divide the material into chapters, each
of which is suitable for one lecture (l–2 hours). A short lecture can cover the first
few subsections, while a longer lecture might deal with more advanced material
near the end. To make the structure hierarchical, as opposed to flat or linear, chapters
have been grouped into six parts, each composed of four closely related chapters
(see diagram on page xi).
2. A large number of meaningful problems. At least 13 problems have been provided
at the end of each of the 24 chapters. These are well-thought-out problems, many
of them class-tested, that complement the material in the chapter, introduce new
viewing angles, and link the chapter material to topics in other chapters.
3. Emphasis on both the underlying theory and practical designs. The ability to cope
with complexity requires both a deep knowledge of the theoretical underpinnings
of parallel processing and examples of designs that help us understand the theory.
Such designs also provide hints/ideas for synthesis as well as reference points for
cost–performance comparisons. This viewpoint is reflected, e.g., in the coverage of
problem-driven parallel machine designs (Chapter 8) that point to the origins of the
butterfly and binary-tree architectures. Other examples are found in Chapter 16
where a variety of composite and hierarchical architectures are discussed and some
fundamental cost–performance trade-offs in network design are exposed. Fifteen
carefully chosen case studies in Chapters 21–23 provide additional insight and
motivation for the theories discussed.
4. Linking parallel computing to other subfields of computer design. Parallel comput-
ing is nourished by, and in turn feeds, other subfields of computer architecture and
technology. Examples of such links abound. In computer arithmetic, the design of
high-speed adders and multipliers contributes to, and borrows many methods from,
parallel processing. Some of the earliest parallel systems were designed by re-
searchers in the field of fault-tolerant computing in order to allow independent
multichannel computations and/or dynamic replacement of failed subsystems.
These links are pointed out throughout the book.
5. Wide coverage of important topics. The current text covers virtually all important
architectural and algorithmic topics in parallel processing, thus offering a balanced
and complete view of the field. Coverage of the circuit model and problem-driven
parallel machines (Chapters 7 and 8), some variants of mesh architectures (Chapter
12), composite and hierarchical systems (Chapter 16), which are becoming increas-
ingly important for overcoming VLSI layout and packaging constraints, and the
topics in Part V (Chapters 17–20) do not all appear in other textbooks. Similarly,
other books that cover the foundations of parallel processing do not contain
discussions on practical implementation issues and case studies of the type found
in Part VI.
6. Unified and consistent notation/terminology throughout the text. I have tried very
hard to use consistent notation/terminology throughout the text. For example, n
always stands for the number of data elements (problem size) and p for the number
of processors. While other authors have done this in the basic parts of their texts,
there is a tendency to cover more advanced research topics by simply borrowing
x INTRODUCTION TO PARALLEL PROCESSING

the notation and terminology from the reference source. Such an approach has the
advantage of making the transition between reading the text and the original
reference source easier, but it is utterly confusing to the majority of the students
who rely on the text and do not consult the original references except, perhaps, to
write a research paper.

SUMMARY OF TOPICS

The six parts of this book, each composed of four chapters, have been written with the
following goals:

Part I sets the stage, gives a taste of what is to come, and provides the needed
perspective, taxonomy, and analysis tools for the rest of the book.

Part II delimits the models of parallel processing from above (the abstract PRAM
model) and from below (the concrete circuit model), preparing the reader for everything
else that falls in the middle.

Part III presents the scalable, and conceptually simple, mesh model of parallel process-
ing, which has become quite important in recent years, and also covers some of its
derivatives.

Part IV covers low-diameter parallel architectures and their algorithms, including the
hypercube, hypercube derivatives, and a host of other interesting interconnection
topologies.

Part V includes broad (architecture-independent) topics that are relevant to a wide range
of systems and form the stepping stones to effective and reliable parallel processing.

Part VI deals with implementation aspects and properties of various classes of parallel
processors, presenting many case studies and projecting a view of the past and future
of the field.

POINTERS ON HOW TO USE THE BOOK

For classroom use, the topics in each chapter of this text can be covered in a lecture
spanning 1–2 hours. In my own teaching, I have used the chapters primarily for 1-1/2-hour
lectures, twice a week, in a 10-week quarter, omitting or combining some chapters to fit the
material into 18–20 lectures. But the modular structure of the text lends itself to other lecture
formats, self-study, or review of the field by practitioners. In the latter two cases, the readers
can view each chapter as a study unit (for 1 week, say) rather than as a lecture. Ideally, all
topics in each chapter should be covered before moving to the next chapter. However, if fewer
lecture hours are available, then some of the subsections located at the end of chapters can
be omitted or introduced only in terms of motivations and key results.
Problems of varying complexities, from straightforward numerical examples or exercises
to more demanding studies or miniprojects, have been supplied for each chapter. These problems
form an integral part of the book and have not been added as afterthoughts to make the book
more attractive for use as a text. A total of 358 problems are included (13–16 per chapter).
Assuming that two lectures are given per week, either weekly or biweekly homework can
be assigned, with each assignment having the specific coverage of the respective half-part
PREFACE xi

The structure of this book in parts, half-parts, and chapters.

(two chapters) or full part (four chapters) as its “title.” In this format, the half-parts, shown
above, provide a focus for the weekly lecture and/or homework schedule.
An instructor’s manual, with problem solutions and enlarged versions of the diagrams
and tables, suitable for reproduction as transparencies, is planned. The author’s detailed
syllabus for the course ECE 254B at UCSB is available at http://www.ece.ucsb.edu/courses/
syllabi/ece254b.html.
References to important or state-of-the-art research contributions and designs are
provided at the end of each chapter. These references provide good starting points for doing
in-depth studies or for preparing term papers/projects.
xii INTRODUCTION TO PARALLEL PROCESSING

New ideas in the field of parallel processing appear in papers presented at several annual
conferences, known as FMPC, ICPP, IPPS, SPAA, SPDP (now merged with IPPS), and in
archival journals such as IEEE Transactions on Computers [TCom], IEEE Transactions on
Parallel and Distributed Systems [TPDS], Journal of Parallel and Distributed Computing
[JPDC], Parallel Computing [ParC], and Parallel Processing Letters [PPL]. Tutorial and
survey papers of wide scope appear in IEEE Concurrency [Conc] and, occasionally, in IEEE
Computer [Comp]. The articles in IEEE Computer provide excellent starting points for
research projects and term papers.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The current text, Introduction to Parallel Processing: Algorithms and Architectures, is

an outgrowth of lecture notes that the author has used for the graduate course “ECE 254B:
Advanced Computer Architecture: Parallel Processing” at the University of California, Santa
Barbara, and, in rudimentary forms, at several other institutions prior to 1988. The text has
benefited greatly from keen observations, curiosity, and encouragement of my many students
in these courses. A sincere thanks to all of them! Particular thanks go to Dr. Ding-Ming Kwai
who read an early version of the manuscript carefully and suggested numerous corrections
and improvements.

GENERAL REFERENCES
[Akl89] Akl, S. G., The Design and Analysis of Parallel Algorithms, Prentice–Hall, 1989.
[Akl97] Akl, S. G., Parallel Computation: Models and Methods, Prentice–Hall, 1997.
[Alma94] Almasi, G. S., and A. Gottlieb, Highly Parallel Computing, Benjamin/Cummings, 2nd ed., 1994.
[Bert89] Bertsekas, D. P., and J. N. Tsitsiklis, Parallel and Distributed Computation: Numerical Methods,
Prentice–Hall, 1989.
[Code93] Codenotti, B., and M. Leoncini, Introduction to Parallel Processing, Addison–Wesley, 1993.
[Comp] IEEE Computer, journal published by IEEE Computer Society: has occasional special issues on
parallel/distributed processing (February 1982, June 1985, August 1986, June 1987, March 1988,
August 1991, February 1992, November 1994, November 1995, December 1996).
[Conc] IEEE Concurrency, formerly IEEE Parallel and Distributed Technology, magazine published by
IEEE Computer Society.
[Cric88] Crichlow, J. M., Introduction to Distributed and Parallel Computing, Prentice–Hall, 1988.
[DeCe89] DeCegama, A. L., Parallel Processing Architectures and VLSI Hardware, Prentice–Hall, 1989.
[Desr87] Desrochers, G. R., Principles of Parallel and Multiprocessing, McGraw-Hill, 1987.
[Duat97] Duato, J., S. Yalamanchili, and L. Ni, Interconnection Networks: An Engineering Approach, IEEE
Computer Society Press, 1997.
[Flyn95] Flynn, M. J., Computer Architecture: Pipelined and Parallel Processor Design, Jones and Bartlett,
1995.
[FMPC] Proc. Symp. Frontiers of Massively Parallel Computation, sponsored by IEEE Computer Society and
NASA. Held every 1 1/2–2 years since 1986. The 6th FMPC was held in Annapolis, MD, October
27–31, 1996, and the 7th is planned for February 20–25, 1999.
[Foun94] Fountain, T. J., Parallel Computing: Principles and Practice, Cambridge University Press, 1994.
[Hock81] Hockney, R. W., and C. R. Jesshope, Parallel Computers, Adam Hilger, 1981.
[Hord90] Hord, R. M., Parallel Supercomputing in SIMD Architectures, CRC Press, 1990.
[Hord93] Hord, R. M., Parallel Supercomputing in MIMD Architectures, CRC Press, 1993.
[Hwan84] Hwang, K., and F. A. Briggs, Computer Architecture and Parallel Processing, McGraw-Hill, 1984.
[Hwan93] Hwang, K., Advanced Computer Architecture: Parallelism, Scalability, Programmability, McGraw-
Hill, 1993.
PREFACE xiii

[Hwan98] Hwang, K., and Z. Xu, Scalable Parallel Computing: Technology, Architecture, Programming,
McGraw-Hill, 1998.
[ICPP] Proc. Int. Conference Parallel Processing, sponsored by The Ohio State University (and in recent
years, also by the International Association for Computers and Communications). Held annually since
1972.
[IPPS] Proc. Int. Parallel Processing Symp., sponsored by IEEE Computer Society. Held annually since
1987. The 11th IPPS was held in Geneva, Switzerland, April 1–5, 1997. Beginning with the 1998
symposium in Orlando, FL, March 30–April 3, IPPS was merged with SPDP. **
[JaJa92] JaJa, J., An Introduction to Parallel Algorithms, Addison-Wesley, 1992.
[JPDC] Journal of Parallel and Distributed Computing, Published by Academic Press.
[Kris89] Krishnamurthy, E. V., Parallel Processing: Principles and Practice, Addison–Wesley, 1989.
[Kuma94] Kumar, V., A. Grama, A. Gupta, and G. Karypis, Introduction to Parallel Computing: Design and
Analysis of Algorithms, Benjamin/Cummings, 1994.
[Laks90] Lakshmivarahan, S., and S. K. Dhall, Analysis and Design of Parallel Algorithms: Arithmetic and
Matrix Problems, McGraw-Hill, 1990.
[Leig92] Leighton, F. T., Introduction to Parallel Algorithms and Architectures: Arrays, Trees, Hypercubes,
Morgan Kaufmann, 1992.
[Lerm94] Lerman, G., and L. Rudolph, Parallel Evolution of Parallel Processors, Plenum, 1994.
[Lipo87] Lipovski, G. J., and M. Malek, Parallel Computing: Theory and Comparisons, Wiley, 1987.
[Mold93] Moldovan, D. I., Parallel Processing: From Applications to Systems, Morgan Kaufmann, 1993.
[ParC] Parallel Computing, journal published by North-Holland.
[PPL] Parallel Processing Letters, journal published by World Scientific.
[Quin87] Quinn, M. J., Designing Efficient Algorithms for Parallel Computers, McGraw-Hill, 1987.
[Quin94] Quinn, M. J., Parallel Computing: Theory and Practice, McGraw-Hill, 1994.
[Reif93] Reif, J. H. (ed.), Synthesis of Parallel Algorithms, Morgan Kaufmann, 1993.
[Sanz89] Sanz, J. L. C. (ed.), Opportunities and Constraints of Parallel Computing (IBM/NSF Workshop, San
Jose, CA, December 1988), Springer-Verlag, 1989.
[Shar87] Sharp, J. A., An Introduction to Distributed and Parallel Processing, Blackwell Scientific Publica-
tions, 1987.
[Sieg85] Siegel, H. J., Interconnection Networks for Large-Scale Parallel Processing, Lexington Books, 1985.
[SPAA] Proc. Symp. Parallel Algorithms and Architectures, sponsored by the Association for Computing
Machinery (ACM). Held annually since 1989. The 10th SPAA was held in Puerto Vallarta, Mexico,
June 28–July 2, 1998.
[SPDP] Proc. Int. Symp. Parallel and Distributed Systems, sponsored by IEEE Computer Society. Held
annually since 1989, except for 1997. The 8th SPDP was held in New Orleans, LA, October 23–26,
1996. Beginning with the 1998 symposium in Orlando, FL, March 30–April 3, SPDP was merged
with IPPS.
[Ston93] Stone, H. S., High-Performance Computer Architecture, Addison–Wesley, 1993.
[TCom] IEEE Trans. Computers, journal published by IEEE Computer Society; has occasional special issues
on parallel and distributed processing (April 1987, December 1988, August 1989, December 1991,
April 1997, April 1998).
[TPDS] IEEE Trans. Parallel and Distributed Systems, journal published by IEEE Computer Society.
[Varm94] Varma, A., and C. S. Raghavendra, Interconnection Networks for Multiprocessors and Multicomput-
ers: Theory and Practice, IEEE Computer Society Press, 1994.
[Zoma96] Zomaya, A. Y. (ed.), Parallel and Distributed Computing Handbook, McGraw-Hill, 1996.

*The 27th ICPP was held in Minneapolis, MN, August 10–15, 1998, and the 28th is scheduled for September
21–24, 1999, in Aizu, Japan.
**The next joint IPPS/SPDP is sceduled for April 12–16, 1999, in San Juan, Puerto Rico.
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24. What is the chief purpose of newspaper headlines?
☐ To make the paper attractive.
☐ To show what actually happened.
☐ To help one decide where to read.
☐ To guide public opinion wisely.
Directions for Scoring the Test.
The score in this test is the number of questions correctly
answered. A stencil is furnished with each package of tests, which
makes it possible to check up at a very rapid rate the accuracy of the
votes cast, without ever reading a single word of the answers. The
stencil is merely to be adjusted to the page, according to directions
given on its face, and where the check mark made by the candidate
corresponds to the printed mark on the stencil the question has been
correctly answered, while if there is not agreement between stencil
and candidate’s check no credit is to be allowed on the question. Any
fairly careful clerical worker can learn in two minutes to score such a
test with a stencil as rapidly and accurately as a thoroughly trained
psychologist could do it.
The final score should be entered in the lower right-hand corner of
the front or title page, where it will be easily associated with the
name and other information about the candidate.
Scores from 0 to 3 indicate Inferior Ability
Scores from 4 to 8 indicate Low Average Ability
Scores from 9 to 14 indicate Average Ability
Scores from 15 to 19 indicate High Average Ability
Scores from 20 to 24 indicate Superior Ability
 Mentimeter No. 30
LOGICAL CONCLUSIONS TEST

Character of the Test.

This test is to be given to large groups of individuals at the same

time, although it may be given as a part of an individual examination.
It will not be found worth while to give this test to individuals who
have not had at least the equivalent of an elementary school
education. The solution of the problems contained is so difficult that
not more than half of the pupils of the sixth or seventh grade of the
elementary school would be able to answer correctly more than five
or six of the problems.
The method of the test is to present a short hypothesis, introduced
by the word “if” and followed by four different conclusions
introduced by the word “then.” The individual being examined
should read carefully the first part of the statement and understand
exactly what it means, and should then put a check mark before the
conclusion which would logically follow the hypothesis. There are
twelve of these problems, beginning with one which is quite simple
and elementary, and progressing to more difficult and more complex
statements of a similar nature. The explanations by which this test is
introduced are illustrated by an example and are not difficult to
understand. The difficulty of the test lies in keeping clearly in mind
just what are the implications of the introductory statement or
hypothesis.
The present test is almost entirely new, both in its form and in its
content. The nearest approach to this particular test was made by Dr.
Agnes L. Rogers at the suggestion of Professor Thorndike, when she
prepared a list of six problems of which the following is a good
sample: “P is larger than Q, R is smaller than Q, therefore P is ........
R.” The blank is to be filled in. It will be observed that the present
Mentimeter differs from Doctor Rogers’s test in that names of
familiar persons or objects are used in place of the capital letters and
that four conclusions are stated from which the subject is to select
the proper one, rather than leaving to the subject the formulation of
his own conclusion.
Because of its newness, it will be impossible to state here just what
is measured by this test, but certainly the ability to read and
understand the words is one factor, and the ability to think clearly
about the logical implications of these words is another very
important element making for success. The ability to see the
relations between the words is probably as near to what may be
called “logical ability” or “reasoning” as to any other popularly
recognized “mental qualification.” Although Doctor Rogers found a
coefficient of correlation of .65 between her form of the logical
reasoning test and a composite measure of mathematical ability, the
present Mentimeter is so different that its true value can only be
indicated by the comparisons which its users will be able to make
between their results and the most accurate measures obtainable of
special ability.
This test will probably have very little usefulness in commercial or
industrial fields, although it may be very helpful for a professional
group such as lawyers, educators, etc., in the selection of clerical or
professional assistants. In the public schools, it is quite certain that it
should not be used below the high school grades. Even in the high
school, it is probable that only those with very great ability in
handling abstract ideas and symbols of ideas will be able to make a
high score.
The subject matter of those statements which appear in the test is
such as would not be found in ordinary life and has very little value
in itself. As an entertainment feature, this test will not be successful
except among a very specially selected group of people who believe
themselves to be extraordinarily keen intellectually. It might be held
in reserve as a special “stunt” for any persons who seem to think that
they have demonstrated their “high-brow” qualities by making high
scores in other tests. Shortening the time limit from five minutes to
three minutes would further add to the consternation of such
persons.

Directions for Giving the Test.

 The examiner should distribute one test booklet to each candidate,
announcing at the beginning of the distribution that the booklets
should not be opened or turned over until an order to that effect is
given. Since the blanks on the front cover of the booklet will be self-
explanatory to any person capable of taking the test, the examiner
may direct that each candidate fill out the blanks on the title page of
his booklet as soon as he receives it.
When the information blanks have been filled satisfactorily the
examiner should ask the candidates to read the directions silently
while he reads them aloud. This reading should be at a very
deliberate rate and in good, clear tones:
“The following pages contain twelve sentences, each sentence
being printed with four different endings. Only one of these endings
can be true if the first part of the sentence is true. You are to decide
which ending or conclusion is truest or agrees best with the first part,
and to make a mark in the square standing in front of that best
ending. Notice the example:

“If roses cost more than violets, then violets

☐ cost more than roses

☐ cost as much as roses
☐ do not cost as much as roses
☐ do not cost less than roses

“The only one of the four endings which can be true, if the first
part of the sentence is true, is the third, ‘violets do not cost as much
as roses,’ so the square in front of this third conclusion should be
check-marked.
“You will have five minutes in which to read and mark the twelve
sentences. Think carefully and get all of your marks correctly placed.
Ready! Go!”
At the end of five minutes exactly, call “Stop! Time up! Give me
your papers.” All papers should be collected at once.
 MARK (✓) THE SQUARE IN FRONT OF THE TRUEST
ENDING TO EACH SENTENCE

1. If John is older than James, then John is

☐ younger than James
☐ older than James
☐ not as old as James
☐ not older than James
2. If Mary is younger than Will, then Will is
☐ younger than Mary
☐ not older than Mary
☐ not as old as Mary
☐ older than Mary
3. If Dot is taller than Pet, then Pet is
☐ as tall as Dot
☐ shorter than Dot
☐ not shorter than Dot
☐ taller than Dot
4. If May is heavier than Jean, then Jean is
☐ not lighter than May
☐ as heavy as May
☐ not heavier than May
☐ heavier than May
5. If Walter runs faster than William, and William runs faster than
David, then David runs
 ☐ faster than Walter
☐ as fast as William
☐ as fast as Walter
☐ slower than William
6. If Edna is smarter than Bertha, and Bertha is not as smart as
Mabel, then Mabel is
☐ not as smart as Edna
☐ not as smart as Bertha
☐ smarter than Edna
☐ smarter than Bertha
7. If Mr. Jones is wealthier than Mr. Smith, and Mr. Smith is
poorer than Mr. Brown, then Mr. Smith is
☐ not as poor as Mr. Jones
☐ richer than Mr. Jones
☐ not as rich as Mr. Jones
☐ not poorer than Mr. Jones
8. If Robert is noisier than Harold and Harold is as noisy as
George, then George is
☐ not noisier than Robert
☐ noisier than Robert
☐ noisier than Harold
☐ not as quiet as Robert
9. If Henry drives faster than Joseph, and Joseph drives no more
slowly than Peter, and Peter drives more rapidly than Edgar,
then Edgar drives
 ☐ as rapidly as Henry
☐ no more slowly than Joseph
☐ as swiftly as Peter
☐ less rapidly than Henry
10. If Monday was cooler than Wednesday, and Tuesday was cooler
than Monday, and Thursday was hotter than Wednesday, then
Monday was
☐ not hotter than Tuesday
☐ not cooler than Thursday
☐ not warmer than Thursday
☐ cooler than Tuesday
11. If Mrs. Brown is exactly as extravagant as Mrs. Smith, and Mrs.
Smith is less extravagant than Mrs. Jones, then Mrs. Jones is
☐ more frugal than Mrs. Brown
☐ not as frugal as Mrs. Brown
☐ less extravagant than Mrs. Smith
☐ not more extravagant than Mrs. Smith
12. If there were four parades in a month, and the first was larger
than the fourth, and the third was smaller than the second,
and the second was not smaller than the first, then the fourth
was
☐ larger than the second
☐ equal to the second
☐ not smaller than the second
☐ not larger than the second
Directions for Scoring the Test.

The score in this test is the number of sentences for which the
correct conclusion is checked. The stencil furnished with the test
booklets makes this process of counting the number correct so
simple that a child can do it almost at a glance. The degree of
intellectual capacity is indicated roughly by the score as follows:

Scores 0 to 1 indicate Low Average or Inferior Ability

Scores 2 to 5 indicate Average Ability
Scores 6 to 8 indicate High Average Ability
Scores 9 to 12 indicate Superior Ability

Attention should be invited here again to the fact that this is a new
test and that its reliability and implications will need to be carefully
tested and measured before one can be sure what it measures or how
accurate it is.
 CHAPTER XI
TRADE TESTS OR TESTS OF SKILL

While the determination of individual skill in the performance of a

given operation is not, strictly speaking, a test of intelligence or of
mental capacity, it has been established that the most accurate and
speedy method of discovering the precise degree of skill possessed by
any artisan is closely analogous to the scientific method of mental
measurement. It has been found, moreover, that there is quite a close
relation between an individual workman’s skill at his trade and the
degree of mental capacity disclosed by the Mentimeter or similar
scientific tests; the more intelligent the worker, the greater his skill if
he has any natural aptitude for his trade.
Many persons view with skepticism the idea that a workman’s
degree of skill at his trade can be determined by tests that require but
a few minutes. A month, they argue, is little enough for an expert
foreman to classify justly the men under him, after observing their
skill with his own eyes. When it is proposed that those who apply the
tests for any trade need not themselves be skilled in it and may, in
fact, know nothing about it, it is no wonder that they doubt the
practicality of a method so foreign to previous conceptions and
practice.
Psychologists have long realized that the same methods by which
mental qualities, abilities, and capacities are determined, analyzed,
and measured, could be applied to the measurement of manual
dexterity or the combination of manual dexterity, judgment,
perception, adaptability, and patience that, taken together, make the
skilled workman. For, as the reader who has perused this book thus
far will long since have recognized, there is included in the foregoing
list of qualities a predominance of those which come quite definitely
under the classification of mental abilities or capacities. As has been
previously pointed out, it is impossible to separate mental and
physical powers, and psychologists do not regard the mind as a
separate entity, but merely as a convenient term for the definition of
certain of the higher physical powers and their manifestations. And
just as a certain type of nervous (physical) organism manifests itself
in the development of abilities which we are accustomed to term
“intellectual” or “mental,” so the abilities which we call “physical” or
“manual” are merely other manifestations of a different type of
nervous organism.
The principal distinction, scientifically, between a trade test and an
intelligence test, is in the purpose to be served by the test. In the
intelligence test the aim is to ascertain the subject’s general capacity;
in the trade test, to discover his present ability or degree of skill in
some special direction. Capacity, as has been previously pointed out,
is only to be measured in terms of demonstrable ability, so that in the
application of trade tests, although limited in their scope to a single
class or kind of ability, there is also obtainable as a by-product a
partial measure of the subject’s mental capacity.
While trade tests devised by psychologists had been demonstrated,
in a number of industries, to be superior to any other method, both
in picking the most skilful workers from among all applicants for
positions, and in transferring workers from one department to
another in large industries, it was in the classification and placement
of the personnel of the Army during the war that the first really
large-scale demonstration of the precision and effectiveness of
scientifically devised trade tests was made. While one group of
psychologists, working under the direction of the Surgeon-General’s
Office, was engaged in classifying the Army personnel by means of
intelligence tests the Personnel Branch of the Operations Division of
the General Staff, organized and officered by trained psychologists,
was undertaking the task of determining the special technical and
vocational ability of the millions of men drawn into the Army
through the medium of the selective draft.
This personnel organization had a multiplex duty to perform.
First, it had to ascertain with precision what particular kinds of work
had to be done in the preparation of an army for battle and in its
transport and maintenance. This involved not only finding out just
what needed to be done but translating this need into terms of trades
and occupations.
For example, the Army might report that it needed a number of
men capable of making all sorts of repairs to electric generators and
motors. The Personnel Division proceeded to analyze the special
qualifications required of electricians to enable them to meet this
demand. These were listed, along with the qualifications required for
every other army occupation, in a thick book entitled Trade
Specifications Index. There were 239 pages in this book and in it
were set forth in specific detail the exact qualifications needed by 565
different kinds of trade and technical experts. Chauffeurs, for
instance, were classed as auto drivers, auto drivers with pigeon
experience, motorcycle drivers with pigeon experience, plain
motorcyclists, heavy auto-truck drivers, motor truck drivers, and
plain chauffeurs. There were sixteen different classes of electricians,
each of which required a man with special experience and
knowledge. Nine different kinds of chemists were used in the Army.
It was a big job, in the first place, to determine exactly how men
should be classified. After the classification had been decided upon,
it then became necessary to devise simple, rapid, and accurate
methods of placing every enlisted man in the Army in his proper
classification, and then of so indexing three or four millions of men
that any particular demand could be met. For example, one camp
might ask for three farriers, nine sanitary engineers, two car
carpenters, six boilermakers, and a pipe fitter. It was necessary that
some system be perfected to permit of the filling of this order
instantly by taking the men qualified to perform these duties out of
the camps where they were undergoing military training.
The whole system had as its basis a card for each soldier, on which,
by a simple system of marginal numbers, punch holes, and coloured
index tags the record of each man’s precise ability was kept. Every
man, as he was inducted into the service, was required first to make a
preliminary, rough classification of himself—that is to say, he
recorded himself as a tailor, a blacksmith, or a milk wagon driver.
But the Trade Specifications Index was as precise in its detail as a
dictionary. It was, in fact, a collection of definitions of what was
meant by occupational titles which had vague or various meanings in
different parts of the country. Thus, a man might have classified
himself as a tailor who, if called upon to make a uniform, would have
been unable to do so. Tailoring had to be subdivided, from simple
pressing and repairing up to expert fitting. One might be a good coat
maker while another had never worked on anything but trousers.
So there was devised a system of trade and occupational tests to
which every man claiming skill at a trade was subjected, and which
determined, as nearly as it is humanly possible to do, exactly the
degree and kind of vocational skill possessed by every man in the
Army.
When the problem of formulating tests was analyzed, it was seen
that certain requirements were fundamental. Trade tests to be
absolutely satisfactory,
1. Must differentiate between the various grades of skill;
2. Must produce uniform results in various places and in the hands
of individuals of widely different characteristics;
3. Must consume the least amount of time and energy consistent
with the best results.
Now it must be recognized that trades useful in the Army are of
many kinds and of widely differing requirements. Trade ability in
any one of them, however, means about the same thing. It means
that the workman is not simply the possessor of a single item of
information, nor simply able to execute one particular movement
required by the trade, but that he has many items of information
more or less systematized together with the ability to execute various
movements not only singly but in combinations.
While there are all degrees of trade ability among the members of
any trade, it is convenient to classify them in a few main groups.
Ordinarily the terms Novice, Apprentice, Journeyman, and
Journeyman Expert (or Expert) are employed. The Novice is a man
who has no trade ability whatever, or at least none that could not be
paralleled by practically any intelligent man. The Apprentice has
acquired some of the elements of the trade but is not sufficiently
skilled to be entrusted with an important task. The Journeyman is
qualified to perform almost any work done by members of the trade.
The Expert can perform quickly and with superior skill any work
done by men in the trade.
 It is sometimes desirable that the Trade test should differentiate
between the skill of different members of the same group, for
instance, of the journeyman group. It is essential that it should
differentiate between the journeyman and the apprentice and the
apprentice and the novice. Trade tests devised to make this
classification are of three kinds: oral, picture, and performance.
The oral tests are most generally used because they are of low cost
and they may be applied to a large number of men in a comparatively
short time and without much equipment. They are satisfactory in
determining the presence or absence of trade ability and in many
instances determine the degree of ability with such accuracy that no
other tests are required.
As a preliminary to the preparation of a trade test, there is
required a thorough inquiry into the conditions of the trade. This
inquiry has a threefold purpose:
1. To determine the feasibility of a test in this field. Does the trade
actually exist as a recognized trade? It was found, for example, that
the trade of gunsmith was not a recognized trade, though there were
gun repairers.
2. To determine the elements which require and permit of testing.
In other words, can men be graded in it according to degrees of skill?
In some trades it was found that the trade required simply the
performance of a single set of operations and there were no
gradations among the members of the trade.
3. To determine the kinds of tests that can be used. Some trades,
such as truck driving and typewriting, are mainly matters of skill,
and for them performance tests are better than oral tests. Other
trades, such as interior wiring and power-plant operation, are mainly
matters of knowledge. For these trades oral and picture tests are
best.
After having discovered by inquiry that the trade is a recognized
trade and can be tested, information is collected from all available
sources. In the Army’s preparation of trade tests experts in the trade,
trade union officials, the literature of the trade, trade school
authorities, employers, and the like were consulted. In this way it
was discovered what are the elements of the trade and what
constitutes proficiency in it.
 As a result of this collection of information it was possible to
compile a number of questions, usually from forty to sixty, each of
which called for an answer that showed knowledge of the trade.
Experience in the formulation of such questions has shown that a
good question meets the following requirements:
1. It must be in the language of the trade.
2. It must be a unit, complete in itself and requiring no further
explanation.
3. It must not be a chance question that could be answered by a
good guess. The extreme example would be a question calling for the
answer “yes” or “no.”
4. It must be as short as possible and must be capable of being
answered by a very short answer.
5. It must not be ambiguous; the meaning must be unmistakable.
After the large number of questions originally formulated has been
sifted down by application of the requirements stated above and
others of less importance they are used in a preliminary sampling on
a number of artisans engaged in the trade, usually from nine to
twelve, whose answers indicate the merits of the different questions
and their grades, from easy to difficult. In this sampling, tradesmen
from different shops or plants are tried in order to guard against
specialized methods or modes of expression confined to a single
locality. At least two examiners worked on each set of questions at
this stage, in the Army’s work, to get the benefit of more than one
point of view for revision.
This preliminary sampling affords a means of checking on the
following points:
1. Is the test applicable to trade conditions?
2. Does the test represent good trade practice?
3. In what way can parts be profitably modified, supplemented, or
eliminated?
4. Does the test represent the whole range of the trade, from the
novice to the expert?
5. Is it a representative sampling of the whole range of trade
processes?
 In the light of the answers to these questions, the test is revised
during this sampling process and is then ready to be formulated.
This formulation consists of limiting the questions to a small enough
number to be handled in a short space of time and to a wide enough
range to represent every possible degree of trade skill. The questions
are tabulated and are then ready to be used in the final sampling
process.
Final sampling is made by testing twenty men who are known to
be typical representatives of each group (novice, apprentice,
journeyman, expert). Among the novices tested are some highly
intelligent and mature men of good general knowledge but no trade
ability. Three testing stations were used in the Army’s work: one in
Cleveland, one in Newark, and one in Pittsburgh, in order to get the
benefit of wide geographical distribution. Examinations were given
to men whose record in the trade was already known and who were
tested as nearly as possible in the same manner as men in the camps.
The results of this final sampling are turned over to experts who
make a careful study of the results and of the answers to each
question. This enables them to determine the relative value of each
individual question and the selection that makes a proper balance.
If a trade test is good, a known expert, when tested, is able to
answer all, or nearly all, the questions correctly; a journeyman is able
to answer the majority; an apprentice a smaller part, and a novice
practically none. This does not mean that each question should be
answered correctly by all the experts, a majority of the journeymen,
some apprentices but no novices. There are a few questions which
show this general result. A graphic curve when plotted for such a
question is almost a straight line.
Other types of questions, however, are more common. Some show
a distinct line of cleavage between the novice and the apprentice.
Novices fail, but apprentices, journeymen, and experts alike answer
correctly. There are likewise questions that are answered correctly by
nearly all journeymen and experts but only a few apprentices, and
questions that only an expert can answer correctly.
Each type of question has its value in a good test. The main
requirement is that the tendency of the curve should be upward; a
question which is answered correctly by more journeymen than
experts or more apprentices than journeymen is undesirable and is
at once discarded. A proper balance is made of the others.
One task still remains; namely, that of calibrating the test. As each
question is allowed four points, it becomes necessary to determine
how many points should indicate an expert, how many a
journeyman, etc. Obviously the way to do this is to note how many
points were scored by the known experts and the known journeymen
when they were tested. Ordinarily the expert scores higher than the
journeyman and the journeyman higher than the apprentice. It
frequently happens that a few journeymen score as high as the lowest
of the experts and a few apprentices as high as the lowest of the
journeymen. There are consequently certain overlappings between
the classes. In calibrating, the object is to draw the dividing line
between classes so that the overlapping shall be as small as possible.
When these dividing lines, or critical scores as they are usually
called, are established, the test is ready for editing, printing, and
distribution to camps.
Picture tests are made in practically the same way as oral tests.
The peculiar characteristic of picture tests is that the questions
making up the tests relate to illustrations of trade tools and
appliances.
The performance tests are now being used in many trades for
those who make a satisfactory showing in the oral or picture tests.
These performance tests are devised by conference with experts in
the trade. They consist of some apparently simple tasks that can be
performed quickly and with a small amount of apparatus but that
nevertheless indicate clearly the degree of skill of the performer. As a
result of experience the following have been drawn up as the
requirements for a good performance test:
1. It should require the smallest possible quantity of tools and
materials and these should be capable of standardization;
2. A journeyman should not require more than 45 minutes to
perform it;
3. It should be typical of the work required;
4. The operations should be exact so that a correct standard form
of product is always obtainable. Performance tests undergo much the
same processes of sampling as do the oral and picture tests and they
are calibrated in the same way. The principle followed here, as
elsewhere, is that the value of a test lies not in its theoretical
exactness but in its proved ability to pick out and classify correctly
men of all degrees of skill within the trade. If the test does classify
men in the groups in which they are known to belong, then it can be
relied upon to classify correctly men about whom nothing is known
in advance.
The method which the Army pursued is adaptable for any private
enterprise. The work done under the direction of the Army General
Staff in analyzing the essentials of nearly seven hundred trades and
subdivisions of trades and in preparing tests for a large proportion of
these was pioneer work, the results of which, in the shape of the tests
themselves, while not issued for general distribution, are available as
a time-saving guide to those who are interested in the building and
application of trade tests.
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