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PHY110 UNIT V SSP - class ppt

Engineering Physics (Lovely Professional University)

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Solid State Physics (Unit V)

A Brief Overview of the Unit

 Free electron theory (Introduction), diffusion and drift current

(qualitative), fermi energy, fermi-dirac distribution function,
band theory of solids.

 Formation of allowed and forbidden energy bands, concept of

effective mass-electrons and holes, Hall effect (with
derivation), semiconductors and insulators, fermi level for
intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors, direct and indirect band
gap semiconductors, solar cell basics.

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THE FREE ELECTRON THEORY OF SOLIDS

INTRODUCTION

 The electron theory of solids aims to

explain the structures and properties
of solids through their electronic
structure.

 The electron theory of solids has been

developed in three main stages.

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(a) The classical free electron theory:

Drude and Lorentz developed this theory in 1900.
According to this theory, the metals containing free
electrons obey the laws of classical mechanics.

(b) The Quantum free electron theory:

Sommerfeld developed this theory during 1928. According
to this theory, the free electrons obey quantum laws.

(c) The Zone Theory:

Bloch stated this theory in 1928. According to this theory, the
free electrons move in a periodic field provided by the
lattice. This theory is also called “Band theory of solids”.

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(a) The classical Free Electron Theory of Metals

(Drude - Lorentz Theory of Metals )
Postulates :
(i) Electrons move around nucleus or positive ions
randomly like gas molecules in a gas cloud. These
electrons obey classical kinetic theory of gasses
and they move randomly.
(ii) They may collide with each other elastically
(energy conserved).
(iii) The electron velocities in a metal obey the
classical Maxwell – Boltzmann distribution of
velocities.
(iv) They only have kinetic energy and no potential
energy.
(v) When an electric field is applied to the metal, the
free electrons are accelerated in the direction
opposite to the direction of applied electric field.

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Success of Classical Free Electron Theory

(i) It verifies Ohm’s law.

(ii) It explains the electrical and thermal

conductivities of metals.

(iii) It derives Wiedemann – Franz law. (i.e., the

relation between electrical conductivity and
thermal conductivity)

(iv) It explains optical properties of metals.

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Wiedemann-Franz law
ne  2  nk T
2 2

  K B

me 3me
The ratio of the electrical and thermal conductivities is
independent of the electron gas parameters;
2
Lorentz K  2  kB  8 2
    2.45 x10 W  K
number T 3  e 

K
L  2.23 x108W K 2 For copper at 0 C
T

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Drawbacks of Classical Free Electron Theory

I. The phenomena such a photoelectric effect,

Compton effect and the black body radiation
couldn’t be explained by classical free electron
theory.
II. Electrical conductivity of semiconductor or
insulators couldn’t be explained using this model.
III. Though K/σT is a constant (Wiedemann – Franz
Law) according to the Classical free electron
theory, it is not a constant at low temperature.
IV. Ferromagnetism couldn’t be explained by this
theory. The theoretical value of paramagnetic
susceptibility is greater than the experimental
value.

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Mean Free Path

The average distance traveled by an electron

between two successive collisions inside a
metal in the presence of applied electric field
is known as mean free path.
NA = Avogadro's number = 6.0221 x
1023 /mol

P=Pressure
d= Diameter of the gas molecules.
R= Universl gas constant=8.3145
J/mol K
T= Temperature in absolute scale

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Relaxation Time

The time taken by the electron to

reach equilibrium position from its
disturbed position in the presence
of an electric field is called
relaxation time.

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Drift Velocity
• In the presence of electric field, in addition to
random velocity there is an additional net velocity
associated with electrons known as drift velocity.
• Due to drift velocity, the electrons with negative
charge move opposite to the field direction.

Educational Video 1

Educational Video 2

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Quantum free electron Theory

• According to quantum theory of

free electrons energy of a free
electron is given by
En = n2h2/8mL2

• According to quantum theory of

free electrons the electrical
conductivity is given by
σ = ne2T/m

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Electrical Resistivity

• The main factors affecting the electrical

conductivity of solids are i) temperature and ii)
defects (i.e. impurities).

• According to Matthiessen’s rule, the resistivity of a

solid is given by
ρ= ρpure+ ρimpurity

where ρpure is temperature dependent resistivity due

to thermal vibrations of the lattice and ρimpurity is
resistivity due to scattering of electrons by impurity
atoms.

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CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS

Based on ‘band theory’ (will be

discussed later), solids can be
classified into three categories,
namely,
1. Insulators,
2. Semiconductors &
3. Conductors.

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INSULATORS

• Bad conductors of electricity

• Conduction band is empty and
valence band is full, and these band
are separated by a large forbidden
energy gap.
• The best example is Diamond with
Eg=7eV.

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SEMI-CONDUCTORS

• Forbidden gap is less

• Conduction band and valence band are
partially filled at room temperature.
• Conductivity increases with temperature as
more and more electrons cross over the small
energy gap.
• Examples Si(1.2eV) & Ge(0.7eV)

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CONDUCTORS

• Conduction and valence bands are

overlapped
• Abundant free electrons already exist in the
conduction band at room temperature hence
conductivity is high.
• The resistively increases with temperature as
the mobility of already existing electrons will
be reduced due to collisions.
• Metals are best examples.

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EFFECTIVE MASS

• When an electron in a periodic potential of

lattice is accelerated by an electric field or
magnetic field, then the mass of the electron
is called effective mass.
• It is denoted by m*

Education
al Video

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Drift and Diffusion Currents

● Current
Generated by the movement of charged particles
(negatively charged electrons and positively charged
holes).

● Carriers
The charged electrons and holes are referred to as carriers

● The two basic processes which cause electrons and holes

move in a semiconductor:

 Drift - the movement caused by electric field.

 Diffusion - the flow caused by variations in the
concentration.

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Drift Currents
● Drift Current Density (n-type semiconductor)
 An electric field E applied to n-type semiconductor with a large
number of free electrons.
•Produces a force on the electrons in the opposite direction, because
of the electrons’ negative charge.
•The electrons acquire a drift velocity, Vdn (in cm/s):

N-type
E

Vdn e
I

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Drift Currents
● Drift Current Density (p-type semiconductor)
 An electric field E applied to p-type semiconductor
with a large number of holes.
• Produces a force on the holes in the same
direction, because of the positive charge on the
holes.
• The holes acquire a drift velocity, Vdp(in cm/s):

P-type

p Vdp
I

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Diffusion Current

●The basic diffusion process

●Flow of particles from a region of
high-concentration to a region of
low-concentration.
●The movement of the particles will
then generate the diffusion current

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Fermi-Dirac distribution and the Fermi-

level
Density of states tells The number of states available to
be occupied inside an interval [ E , E + d E]. The Fermi function
f(E) specifies how many of the existing states at the energy E
could be filled with electrons.

According to Fermi Dirac statistics, the probability of

electron occupation in an energy level E is given by

EF = Fermi energy or Fermi level

k = Boltzmann constant = 1.38 1023 J/K = 8.6  105 eV/K
T = absolute temperature in K

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Fermi Level
• The highest energy level that can be occupied at 0K
is called Fermi level.

• At 0K, when the metal is not under the influence of

an external field, all the levels above the Fermi level
are empty, those lying below Fermi level are
completely filled.

• Fermi energy is the energy state at which the

probability of electron occupation is minimum ½ at
any temperature above 0k.

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Fermi-Dirac distribution: Consider T  0 K

1
For E > EF : f ( E  EF )   0
1  exp ()

1
For E < EF : f ( E  EF )   1
1  exp ()

EF

0 1 f(E)
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Fermi-Dirac distribution: Consider T > 0 K

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Temperature dependence of Fermi-Dirac

distribution

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Temperature dependence of Fermi-Dirac

distribution

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Electronic structure of Solids

Overlapping levels
Outer levels begin to interact
gas

Electron energy

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Band Formation in Solid

Probability density function for the lowest

electron energy state of the single, non
interacting hydrogen atom.

Overlapping Probability density of two

adjacent hydrogen atoms. The wave
functions of two atom electrons overlap
and that means the two electrons will
interact.

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Band Formation in Solid

This interaction or perturbation results in the
discrete quantized energy level splitting into two
discrete energy levels. The splitting is consistent
with Pauli exclusion principle. When we push several
atoms together to make close to each other, the
initial quantized energy level will split into a band of
discrete energy levels.

However, since no two electrons can have the same

quantum number, the discrete energy must split into
a band of energies in order that each electron can
occupy a distinct quantum state. When a large
number of atoms get close to make a crystal,
difference between energy states are very small.

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Allowed And Forbidden Energy Bands

When two atoms with n=3 energy

level are brought close together,
first the outermost level (n=3) is
split and then the second level
and finally the first level (n=1).
This energy-band splitting and
the formation of allowed and
forbidden bands is the energy-
band theory of single crystal
materials.

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Concept of Hole
In solid-state physics, an electron hole (usually referred to simply as a hole) is the
absence of an electron from a full valence band. Since in a normal atom or crystal
lattice the negative charge of the electrons is balanced by the positive charge of
the atomic nuclei, the absence of an electron leaves a net positive charge at the
hole's location. Holes in a metal or semiconductor crystal lattice can move
through the lattice as electrons can, and act similarly to positively-charged
particles. They play an important role in the operation of semiconductor devices
such as transistors, diodes and integrated circuits. However they are not actually
particles, but rather quasiparticles or virtual particle.

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The Fermi level EF for an

intrinsic semiconductor
lies midway in the
forbidden gap.

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Fermi level
The number of free electrons per unit volume in an intrinsic
semiconductor is
3/ 2
 2 mekT
*
 EF  Ec 
n2 2

 exp 
 h   kT 

The number of holes per unit volume in an intrinsic

semiconductor is

p=  2mh k T 2
2 2  . exp
 EV  EF 
 
 h   KT 

Since n = p in intrinsic semiconductors.

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If we assume that, m *e  m *h

 E  E 
E F   v c
 [ since loge1 = 0]
 2 

Thus, the Fermi level is located half way between the

valence and conduction band and its position is independent
of temperature. Since mh* is greater than me*, EF is just
above the middle, and rises slightly with increase in
temperature

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Forward Biased of a PN Junction

Initial stage: Electrons and Final Stage: Disappearance of

holes are rushing towards
depletion region.
each other and recombining
at the depletion region.

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Reversed Biased PN Junction

Depletion Layer increases

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Direct and Indirect Bandgap

Direct Band-gap
Indirect Band-gap
Semiconductor
Semiconductor
Those materials for which maximum of valence band and minimum of conduction band
lie for same value of k, called direct bandgap materials (i.e. satisfies the condition of
energy and momentum conservation). For example: GaAs, InP, CdS..etc

Those materials for which maximum of valence band and minimum of conduction
band do not occur at same value of k, called indirect bandgap materials. For
example: Si and Ge

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Direct Band Gap Absorption

A Direct Vertical Transition
E

Conservation of Energy
h = EC(min) - Ev (max) = Egap

K (wave number)
h
The Photon Conservation of
Momentum Momentum
is Negligible Kvmax + qphoton = kc

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Indirect Band Gap Absorption

K (wave number) h

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Hall Effect
In a magnetic Field B, the electron experiences a force
perpendicular to its velocity. A current j, causes a build up
of charge at the edges which generates an Electric field E
which balances the Lorentz force
Initially, v  vx x̂  vy ŷ  vz ẑ
E  Ex x̂
B  Bz ẑ

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Electrons flowing without a magnetic field

semiconductor slice
t

+ _

d
I I

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When the magnetic field is turned on ..

I qBv

B-field

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As time goes by...

high
potential

qE

low
qBv = qE potential

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Finally...

VH
I

B-field

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A quick review: The Lorentz Force

F = q[E + (v  B)]

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A quick review: The Lorentz Force

The Velocity Filter:
E
Undeflected trajectories in crossed E & B fields: v = B

Cyclotron motion: FB = mar  qvB = (mv2/r)

•Orbit radius:
mv p
r 
qB qB
momentum (p) filter

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Derivation of Hall voltage and Hall coefficient

At equilibrium Condition, the force due to magnetic field and that

due electric field (due to electron-hole separation) must be same in
magnitude but opposite in direction.

Force on electron due to magnetic field:

Force due to electric field:

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Derivation of Hall voltage and Hall coefficient

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Derivation of Hall voltage and Hall coefficient

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Derivation of Hall voltage and Hall coefficient

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Derivation of Hall voltage and Hall coefficient

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Derivation of Hall voltage and Hall coefficient

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Solar cell basics

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 A solar cell is an electrical device that converts the energy of light

directly into electricity by the photovoltaic effect, which is a
physical and chemical phenomenon.

 Solar cells are often bundled together to make larger units called
solar modules, themselves coupled into even bigger units known
as solar panels.

 Just like the cells in a battery, the cells in a solar panel are
designed to generate electricity; but where a battery’s cells make
electricity from chemicals, a solar panel’s cells generate power by
capturing sunlight instead.

 A solar cell is a sandwich of n-type silicon and p-type silicon . It

generates electricity by using sunlight to make electrons hole
pairs across the junction.

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 When sunlight shines on the cell, photons

(light particles) bombard the upper surface.

 The photons carry their energy down

through the cell.

 The photons give up their energy to

electrons in the, p-type layer.

 The electrons use this energy to jump

across the barrier into the, n-type layer and
escape out into the circuit.

 Flowing around the circuit, the electrons

make the lamp light up.

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