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PRINCIPLES OF
STRUCTURE
5th EDITION
PRINCIPLES OF
STRUCTURE
5th EDITION
A UNSW Press book
Published by
NewSouth Publishing
University of New South Wales Press Ltd
University of New South Wales
UNSW Sydney NSW 2052
AUSTRALIA
newsouthpublishing.com
For legal reasons this edition is only sold in Australia, New Zealand and Papua Nuigini
© KJ Wyatt and R. Hough 1974, 1978, 1994, 2003, 2013
First edition published by UNSW Press 1974
Revised second edition published by UNSW Press 1978
Reprinted with minor amendments 1979, 1984, 1990, 1992
Revised third edition published by UNSW Press 1994
Reprinted by UNSW Press 1998
Revised fourth edition published by UNSW Press 2003
Reprinted by UNSW Press 2008
This fifth edition published in the UK by Spon Press, an imprint of Taylor and Francis 2013
This book is copyright. Apart from any fair dealing for the purpose of private study, research, criticism
or review, as permitted under the Copyright Act, no part may be reproduced by any process without
written permission. Inquiries should be addressed to the publisher.
Design: Techset
Cover Design: Christian Munoz
Printer: Griffin Press
Contents
Introduction................................................................................................................ix
Authors.......................................................................................................................xi
How to Use This Book............................................................................................ xiii
These issues were often significant during structural design of the new building
‘applications’ described in this 5th edition. For example, establishing geometry,
then carrying out structural analysis, joint modelling and fabrication scheduling for
the steel frame of the CCTV building Beijing, and the main stadium for the 2008
Olympics, all relied heavily on computer methods, with various degrees of interoper-
ability between architectural, engineering, and fabrication models.
ix
x Introduction
the Serpentine Pavilion, the Raleigh-Durham air terminal building, and Druk White
School, Ladakh, all took advantage of the lower global warming potential of timber
as a structural material, and all offer ease of disassembly for potential recycling at
end of life.
More information on the building applications in this edition can be found on-line,
often at the website of the project architect, or of design firm Arup, who were struc-
tural engineers for all of the applications.
All these additional aspects of holistic building design serve to enrich the contem-
porary practice of structural engineering. However, it remains true that good struc-
tural design still relies first and foremost on a clear understanding of the structural
principles outlined in Principles of Structure. Understanding the effect of applied
loads, and providing an efficient arrangement of structural material to respond to
these effects, is still the fundamental process of structural design.
Two particular features of the book need mentioning. Firstly, the subject matter is
presented in two parallel streams: a text and a commentary, as described in the sec-
tion on How to Use This Book. Secondly, Section 1, dealing with forces and their
effects, forms the basis on which the other sections are built, so needs to be thor-
oughly understood at the outset.
We hope you will find that the format and style of Principles of Structure 5th edition
make it easy to use, that it leads to a clear understanding of basic structural behaviour,
and that it stimulates your interest to pursue further the absorbing study of structural
design.
Ken Wyatt
Richard Hough
Authors
Ken Wyatt was the mainstay of structural engineering teaching in the Faculty of
the Built Environment at the University of NSW for many decades, where he devel-
oped the original text of Principles of Structure. He is also a structural engineer,
researcher, materials scientist and heritage consultant.
Richard Hough has practised structural engineering in London, Los Angeles and
Sydney, working for Arup with many of the world’s best-known architects on many
of the world’s most notable buildings. He is presently a Principal in the firm’s Sydney
office.
xi
How to Use This Book
The subject matter of this book is divided into two parts which are presented in par-
allel format — the text and the commentary.
The text is on the right-hand pages, and seeks to develop each topic in the logical,
rigorous way that you would expect to find in any standard text. On the left-hand
pages you will find a commentary to the text. In the commentary you will find sup-
plementary explanations and expansions of points made in the text. There are also
hints and suggestions, problem sheets and worked examples. The commentary is not
sequential; it does not tell a story or develop a theme.
This book is designed to be used in a particular way. When you approach a new
chapter, just read through the text on the right-hand pages. Perhaps there may be
parts you don’t fully understand, but don’t let that stop you; skip over them and keep
reading to the end of the chapter. You will then have a pretty good idea of what the
topic is about, even though some bits may be a little hazy.
After a day or two, start to read the text again, more slowly this time, making sure
that you understand all of it. At the same time, read and understand the commentary,
item by item. Keep cross-referencing from text to commentary; they look at the same
issues from different viewpoints. Study each worked example carefully, so that you
can see the reasons for each step.
For your third reading, ignore the text and, instead, study the commentary. Treat
each of the worked examples as a set problem, and work it through on a separate
page. Don’t refer to the worked solution until you reach a stage where you are unable
to progress further. Then go back to the text to clear up the point that blocked you.
By the time you’ve mastered all the worked examples in the section in this way, you
are ready to test yourself against the worksheet at the end of the chapter. Don’t start
on the worksheet until you are able to do all of the worked examples! Check your
answers against those starting on page 187.
The Appendix contains a separate section called ‘A First Encounter with Statics’.
This is a supplement to Chapter 1, intended for those students unfamiliar with the
basic concepts of forces and their effects. Use this supplement if you need a fuller
explanation of the basics.
There are many texts on structures or structural mechanics and each has its own
particular strengths. If one topic baffles you, there will be another book that has
the special key for this topic for you. Do not hesitate to supplement Principles of
Structure whenever you need additional information or fresh insight.
xiii
xiv How to Use This Book
1
2 Principles of Structure
NEWTON’S LAWS
Newtonian physics is based upon the following three laws:
1. A body at rest will remain at rest and a body in motion will remain in
motion with constant velocity unless an external resultant force acts upon
the body.
2. The rate of change of momentum of a body is proportional to the exter-
nal resultant force acting on the body. If the mass of the body remains
unchanged, the product of the mass and the acceleration of the body equals
the external force.
3. For every external force that acts on a body (the action force) there is an equal
and opposite force (the reaction force) that acts on some other body.
It is worth noting that Newton’s Laws refer to external forces. If you place your
pen on the table in front of you, there are two external forces acting on it. One
is its weight, the gravitational force caused by its mass. If the pen has a mass of
0.02 kg, what is its weight? What is the direction of this gravity force, and what
is its sense? The second external force acting on the pen is the thrust exerted by
the table. What is the magnitude, direction and sense of this force? Now, there
are many other forces associated with the pen, but these other forces are all
internal forces. The clip presses against the cap, and the cap exerts a reaction
force against the clip. The nib or ball-point is clamped into its mounting. Even
the molecules are exerting forces upon one another. But, as long as it is the pen
as a whole that we are considering, these forces are internal forces, and must
not be lumped together with the two external forces if we are to successfully
apply Newton’s laws to deduce anything about the external forces.
Forces, Moments and Equilibrium 3
CONTENT OF CHAPTER 1
Chapter 1 deals very briefly with the external forces that act on rigid bodies in
equilibrium, and with the effects produced within those bodies. You will have
studied some or all of this material before — that is the reason for the brevity
of the treatment in this chapter. However, if you do encounter any difficulties,
refer to the Appendix. Most of the material will be amplified later in the text,
but because this chapter is so very fundamental to your future studies, you
must be thoroughly conversant with it. Make quite sure that you clearly under-
stand all the material in Chapter 1 before you proceed further with your stud-
ies. Read other texts to clear up any points of doubt; often a different viewpoint
will provide a new insight.
1.3 External Forces
To fully describe a force, however, we need to specify more than just its magnitude.
The following characteristics are required:
4 Principles of Structure
Use as many of these terms as possible to explain what happens in each of the
situations sketched below.
Turning a door-handle and opening the door Tugging a rope while sitting on a swing
Forces, Moments and Equilibrium 5
If we represent each force by a vector (an arrow having the same direction and sense
as the force, and whose length represents the magnitude of the force to some scale)
we can find the resultant of two forces by a graphical construction known as the
parallelogram of forces (Figure 1.3).
150 kN
F2 F1 5
29
150
200 kN 200
Vectors
F3 Forces
In the reverse of this process, we sometimes wish to replace a single force by two other
forces; the other forces are then called the components of the single force. In Figure
1.2, F2 and F3 are components of F1, i.e. the single applied force F1 could be replaced
by the pair of forces F2 and F3, and the effect on the body would be unchanged.
By using the parallelogram of forces, we can see that any one force can be replaced
by an infinite number of pairs of component forces. F1 and F2, or F3 and F4, or F5 and
F6, are all component pairs of the force F (Figure 1.4).
6 Principles of Structure
Consider the equilibrium of the hook H. The three forces acting on the hook are as
shown, force HA being unknown in both magnitude and direction.
A FHA y
B 75° FHA
1630N 1630
H θ
15° x
163 kg C
200 kg 2000 N 2000
(a) (b) (c)
For equilibrium, ∑ Fx = 0
i.e. ∑ Fx = −1630 cos 15° + FHA cos θ = 0
i.e. FHA cos θ = 1578 N
(1)
Also, ∑ Fy = 0
i.e. ∑ Fy = +1630 cos 75° + FHA cos (90 − θ) − 2000 = 0
i.e. FHA sin θ = 2000 − 422 = 1578 N (2)
Combining equations (1) and (2), we have:
sin θ 1578
= = tan θ
cos θ 1578
∴ θ = 45°
1578
∴ FHA = = +2230 N
cos 45°
The unknown force in HA acts at 45° to the horizontal, upwards to the right. Its
magnitude is 2230 N.
The reader should note particularly the way in which the sign convention for
sense (stated in para. 1.3) has been used in this example. Frequently, the sense of
an unknown force is not obvious at the start of a problem. In these cases, a sense
should be assumed; if the numerical solution is positive the assumed sense was
correct; if negative, the assumption was incorrect and the force has the opposite
sense to that assumed.
The vector notation used to represent the force FHA is also worth noting. This
‘wriggly arrow’ is a reminder that the direction of this force is not yet known; the
direction must be found as part of the solution.
Forces, Moments and Equilibrium 7
a C
F
F1
F1
F2 θ
α A
b
F cos
F3 CAB
B
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 1.5
1.5 Moments
When an external force acts upon a body it may tend to cause a translation (displace-
ment in a straight line) or a rotation. In most instances both tendencies are present,
and we need a concept to measure the turning effect or rotating effect of a force about
a point. The torque or moment of a force about a point is the product of the force and
the perpendicular distance from the point to the force (Figure 1.6). The perpendicular
distance is called the ‘lever arm’ of the force. Being the product of force and length,
moments have the units of Newton-metres, Nm, or kNm, etc. It is most important to
note that we may measure the moment of a force about any point we choose; the point
does not have to be the centre of gravity, the fulcrum, the point of support or any such
particular point. The moment of a force about a point is simply a measure of the turn-
ing effect produced by that force about that point. We shall adopt a convention that
clockwise moments are positive, and anti-clockwise moments are negative.
8 Principles of Structure
WORKSHEET 1.1
1.1 A force of 10 kN is applied at an angle of 30° to the horizontal (Figure 1).
(a) Calculate the component of this force in each of the directions AB,
CD and EF.
(b) Confirm for yourself, by rapid sketches drawn approximately to scale,
that the values you have computed seem reasonable.
E
45° 10 kN
12 kN
30°
A B
60°
45° 8 kN
45°
F
C 10 kN
Figure 1 Figure 2
(a) What is the moment of this weight about the hinged support at A?
(b) The force in the steel bar BC will also produce a moment about A.
What is the lever arm of this moment?
(c) What force does the steel bar BC exert on the awning?
(d) What force does the hinge A exert on the awning? What are the verti-
cal and horizontal components of this force?
Forces, Moments and Equilibrium 9
b P d
A F x
B
F
MA = F.a MB = F.b MP = +F.(d + x) – F.x = F.d
1.6 Couples
A couple consists of two equal, parallel, non-collinear forces of opposite sense. If
we measure the total moment produced by the two forces about any point in the
plane of the couple, we find that the moment of a couple about any point in its plane
is constant, and is equal to the product of one of the forces and the perpendicular
distance between the forces (Figure 1.7). The perpendicular distance is called the
‘arm’ of the couple.
1.7 Equilibrium
Consider a rigid body being acted upon by a system of external forces (Figure 1.8). If
the body does not accelerate horizontally, there can be no horizontal resultant force
acting on the body (i.e. the sum of the hori-
zontal components of all forces in the system
must be zero). y
Thus, having stipulated three mutually perpendicular axes, x, y and z, the necessary
and sufficient conditions for a body to remain in equilibrium are that:
(a) What is the vertical component of the force exerted on the ladder by
the floor? (Consider equilibrium of vertical forces.)
(b) What is the thrust exerted by the wall on the ladder? (Consider equi-
librium of moments.)
(c) What is the resultant force exerted by the floor on the ladder?
C 800 N
1.5
A 30°
B
15°
1.5
20 kN
2.0 2.0
Figure 3 Figure 4
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CAPITULO XXXIX
CIBDAD DE LA PLATA
TOLEDO
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