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 Introduction to
COMMUNICATIONS
TECHNOLOGIES
A Guide for Non-Engineers
Third Edition

Stephan S. Jones
Ronald J. Kovac
Frank M. Groom
 Introduction to
COMMUNICATIONS
TECHNOLOGIES
A Guide for Non-Engineers

Third Edition
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 Introduction to
COMMUNICATIONS
TECHNOLOGIES
A Guide for Non-Engineers

Third Edition

Stephan S. Jones
Ronald J. Kovac
Frank M. Groom
CRC Press
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Contents

Preface................................................................................................................ xv
Authors.............................................................................................................xvii
1 Systems and Models of Communications Technologies:
Shannon–Weaver, von Neumann, and the Open System
Interconnection Model...........................................................................1
Computing Model........................................................................................3
Open System Interconnection Model...........................................................5
Summary......................................................................................................8
Review Questions.........................................................................................9
Multiple Choice.......................................................................................9
Matching Questions...............................................................................10
Short Essay Questions............................................................................11
2 Basic Concepts of Electricity.................................................................13
Common Units of Technical Measurement................................................13
Signals........................................................................................................14
Current.......................................................................................................17
Resistance...................................................................................................19
Voltage........................................................................................................19
Capacitance................................................................................................20
Inductance..................................................................................................21
Power..........................................................................................................22
Electrical Circuits.......................................................................................22
Filters..........................................................................................................24
AC-to-DC Conversion................................................................................24
Summary....................................................................................................27
Review Questions.......................................................................................28
Multiple Choice.....................................................................................28
Matching Questions...............................................................................30
Short Essay Questions............................................................................32

v
vi ◾ Contents

3 Modulation Schemes.............................................................................33
Spectrum....................................................................................................33
Amplitude Modulation...............................................................................36
Frequency Modulation................................................................................39
Phase Modulation...................................................................................... 40
Pulse-Amplitude Modulation.....................................................................41
Pulse-Code Modulation............................................................................. 42
Amplitude Shift Keying............................................................................. 44
Adaptive Differential Pulse-Code Modulation........................................... 44
Phase-Shift Keying.....................................................................................45
Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiplexing........................................... 46
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation............................................................47
Multiple-Frequency Shift Keying................................................................48
Summary....................................................................................................48
Review Questions.......................................................................................49
True/False..............................................................................................49
Multiple Choice.....................................................................................49
Short Essay Questions............................................................................50
4 Signaling Formats, Multiplexing, and Digital Transmissions..............53
Digital Formats...........................................................................................53
Multiplexing...............................................................................................57
Frequency-Division Multiplexing...........................................................57
Time-Division Multiplexing...................................................................58
Digital Circuits...........................................................................................58
Frequency-Hopping Spread Spectrum........................................................59
Direct-Sequence Spread Spectrum..............................................................60
Summary....................................................................................................61
Review Questions.......................................................................................61
Multiple Choice.....................................................................................61
Matching Questions...............................................................................63
Short Essay Questions............................................................................63
5 Legacy to Current-Day Telephone Networks........................................65
Circuit Switching vs. Packet Switching...................................................... 66
Legacy of the Circuit-Switching Network............................................. 66
Signaling System 7.............................................................................68
Integrated Services Digital Network..................................................69
Packet Switching....................................................................................71
Packet Headers..................................................................................72
Quality of Service..............................................................................72
Connectionless vs. Connection Oriented...........................................73
Asynchronous Transfer Mode................................................................73
ATM Architecture.............................................................................73
 Contents ◾ vii

Legacy Public Switched Telephone Network...............................................74

The Telephone........................................................................................74
Network Access..................................................................................... 77
Trunks and Lines...................................................................................78
Loop Start.........................................................................................78
Ground Start.....................................................................................79
Direct-Inward-Dial Trunks...............................................................79
E&M Trunks....................................................................................79
Centrex..............................................................................................80
Customer Premise Equipment................................................................80
Private Automatic Branch Exchanges................................................80
Digital Key Systems and Hybrids......................................................82
Voice Processing.....................................................................................83
Voice over Internet Protocol....................................................................... 84
VoIP Benefits......................................................................................... 84
VoIP Challenges.....................................................................................85
Latency..............................................................................................85
Protocols Used in VoIP Environments........................................................86
Session Initiation Protocol......................................................................86
Components of SIP................................................................................86
Uniform Resource Indicators.............................................................86
User Agents.......................................................................................86
SIP Servers.........................................................................................86
Proxy Servers.....................................................................................87
Registrar Servers................................................................................87
Redirect Servers.................................................................................87
SIP Call Flow....................................................................................87
Real-Time Transfer Protocol..................................................................89
Multiprotocol Label Switching...............................................................89
Summary................................................................................................... 90
Review Questions...................................................................................... 90
True/False............................................................................................. 90
Multiple Choice.....................................................................................91
Short Essay Questions............................................................................92

6 Basics of Multiprotocol Label Switching Networking..........................93

Introduction...............................................................................................94
What Is MPLS?..........................................................................................95
Motivation behind MPLS...........................................................................96
Some Attractive Features of MPLS.............................................................97
Principal Components of an MPLS Network.............................................98
Operation with Edge and Core Label-Switched Routers.............................99
Labels and Label-Switched Routers......................................................100
viii ◾ Contents

Forwarding Packets with MPLS Labels................................................101

Example of MPLS Label Swapping......................................................102
Label Switching........................................................................................103
Labels...................................................................................................103
Labels and Label Edge Routers.............................................................103
Labels and Shims.................................................................................103
Signaling and Label Distribution Protocols..............................................106
Network Topology Discovery...............................................................106
Reservation Protocol............................................................................107
Label Distribution Protocol..................................................................107
Forwarding Equivalence Classes and LDP Paths......................................109
Conclusion................................................................................................ 110
Review Questions..................................................................................... 110
True/False............................................................................................ 110
Multiple Choice................................................................................... 111
Matching Questions.............................................................................112
Short Essay Questions..........................................................................112
7 Local Area Network Technology.........................................................113
Business and Human Factors.................................................................... 114
Costs of a LAN......................................................................................... 115
Initial Costs......................................................................................... 115
Ongoing Costs..................................................................................... 116
Personnel......................................................................................... 116
Equipment Maintenance, Upgrades, and Repairs............................ 117
Moves, Additions, and Changes...................................................... 117
Outside Links.................................................................................. 117
Software Licensing.......................................................................... 117
Technical Factors...................................................................................... 118
Working Parts of a LAN...................................................................... 118
End-User Devices............................................................................ 118
Physical Media................................................................................. 119
Networking Equipment................................................................... 119
Network Operating Systems............................................................123
Common LAN Types..........................................................................123
Ethernet (802.3)..............................................................................123
Regulatory and Legal Factors....................................................................125
Use and Function of Standards............................................................125
Process of Standardization...................................................................125
Standard-Setting Bodies.......................................................................126
Legal Aspects.......................................................................................126
Other Networks........................................................................................127
Summary..................................................................................................127
 Contents ◾ ix

Review Questions.....................................................................................128
True/False............................................................................................128
Multiple Choice...................................................................................129
Short Essay Questions..........................................................................130
8 The Language of the Internet: Transmission Control Protocol/
Internet Protocol (TCP/IP).................................................................131
Business and Human Factors....................................................................131
Technical Factors......................................................................................133
Message Casting...................................................................................133
Message Addressing..............................................................................135
Network Routing.................................................................................137
Centralized Routing........................................................................138
Decentralized Routing.....................................................................139
Language of the Network: Routed Protocols........................................140
TCP/IP............................................................................................140
IPX/SPX..........................................................................................142
SNA.................................................................................................142
SNA Access Programs......................................................................144
IPv6..................................................................................................... 145
Regulatory and Legal Factors....................................................................146
Summary..................................................................................................147
Review Questions.....................................................................................148
Multiple Choice...................................................................................148
Short Essay Questions..........................................................................149
9 Wireless Local Area Networks............................................................151
Business and Human Factors.................................................................... 151
Technical Factors...................................................................................... 152
Basics of Radio Frequency.................................................................... 152
Wireless Protocols................................................................................154
802.11n Protocol..............................................................................154
802.11ac Protocol............................................................................ 155
802.11ad Protocol............................................................................ 157
What Is a WLAN?............................................................................... 157
Aspects to Consider.............................................................................. 159
Access Technology........................................................................... 159
Frequency Range.............................................................................160
Antennas......................................................................................... 161
Range and Bandwidth.....................................................................163
Interference......................................................................................164
Security...........................................................................................164
Wireless Metropolitan Area Networks.................................................165
Regulatory and Legal Factors...............................................................165
x ◾ Contents

Summary..................................................................................................166
Review Questions.....................................................................................166
True/False............................................................................................166
Multiple Choice...................................................................................167
Short Essay Questions..........................................................................169
10 Mobile Wireless Technologies.............................................................171
Advanced Mobile Phone Service...............................................................171
Multiple-Access Technologies...................................................................173
Mobile Switching.................................................................................175
Fourth-Generation Wireless (4G).........................................................177
Future of 4G....................................................................................177
Future of Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access
(WiMAX).......................................................................................178
Fifth-Generation Wireless (5G)............................................................178
Time-Division Synchronous Code-Division Multiple Access...............179
Enhanced Data Rate for GSM Environment (EDGE).........................179
General Packet Radio Service (GPRS)..................................................180
High-Speed Downlink Packet Access...................................................180
Antennas.............................................................................................. 181
Smart Antennas....................................................................................183
Microwave Signals................................................................................184
Engineering Issues for Microwave Signaling.........................................187
Summary..................................................................................................189
Review Questions.....................................................................................190
Multiple Choice...................................................................................190
Matching Questions............................................................................. 191
Short Essay Questions..........................................................................195
11 Virtualization......................................................................................197
Compute Virtualization............................................................................197
Hypervisor...........................................................................................198
Kernel Module.....................................................................................198
Virtual Machine Monitor.....................................................................199
Virtualized Storage...................................................................................199
Virtual Machine–Based Storage Options............................................ 200
Block-Level Storage........................................................................ 200
File-Level Storage........................................................................... 200
Virtual Provisioning and Automated Storage Tiering...........................201
Thin Pools and Thin Logical Units (LUNs).....................................201
Virtualizing the Workstation....................................................................202
Benefits of Desktop Virtualization.......................................................202
Desktop Virtualization Techniques......................................................203
 Contents ◾ xi

Remote Desktop Service................................................................. 204

Virtual Desktop Infrastructure....................................................... 204
VDI Benefits................................................................................... 204
VDI Limitations and Considerations...............................................205
Virtualizing the Application.................................................................205
Application Encapsulation...............................................................205
Application Streaming.................................................................... 206
Summary................................................................................................. 206
Review Questions.....................................................................................207
True/False............................................................................................207
Multiple Choice...................................................................................207
Short Essay Questions......................................................................... 208
12 Analyzing Big Data.............................................................................209
Introduction to Big Data..........................................................................209
The Structure of Big Data.........................................................................210
The Four Types of Data Structures.......................................................210
Analyzing Big Data................................................................................... 211
Analyzing the Four Data Types................................................................212
Analyzing Structured Data...................................................................212
Analyzing Unstructured and Semistructured Data.............................. 214
The Corpus or Body of Work...............................................................216
Reviewing Results................................................................................ 217
Summary.................................................................................................. 217
Review Questions..................................................................................... 218
True/False............................................................................................ 218
Multiple Choice................................................................................... 218
13 The Cloud and Cloud Computing.......................................................221
Introduction.............................................................................................221
The History of Cloud Computing.............................................................221
What Is the Cloud?.................................................................................. 222
Virtualization...........................................................................................223
Delivery Models for Cloud Computing....................................................224
Deployment Models for Cloud Computing..............................................225
Public Cloud Deployment................................................................... 226
Private Cloud Deployment.................................................................. 226
Hybrid Cloud Deployment................................................................. 226
Community Cloud Deployment..........................................................227
Risks of the Cloud....................................................................................227
Future Predictions................................................................................... 228
Summary..................................................................................................229
xii ◾ Contents

Review Questions.....................................................................................230
True/False............................................................................................230
Multiple Choice...................................................................................230
Short Answer Questions.......................................................................231
14 Video Basics.........................................................................................233
The Business and Human Factors.............................................................233
High-Quality VC.................................................................................... 234
Medium-Quality VC................................................................................235
Low-Quality VC.......................................................................................236
The Technical Factors...............................................................................236
Image Scanning........................................................................................237
Color........................................................................................................240
Transmission of Video..............................................................................241
High-Definition Television.......................................................................242
Summary................................................................................................. 244
Review Questions.....................................................................................245
True/False............................................................................................245
Multiple Choice.................................................................................. 246
Short Essay Questions..........................................................................247
15 Digital Media......................................................................................249
Introduction.............................................................................................249
Digital Media...........................................................................................250
Convergence.........................................................................................250
Digital Photography..................................................................................252
Advantages of the Digital Form over Analog Form..............................252
Convenience....................................................................................252
Personalization.................................................................................252
Technical Differences between Digital and Analog Forms...................252
Camera Sensor.................................................................................254
Storage Media..................................................................................255
Compression....................................................................................256
Digital Darkroom Techniques.........................................................257
Printing................................................................................................257
Advanced Darkroom Technique..........................................................258
New Opportunities..............................................................................259
Digital Video........................................................................................... 260
Digital Video: Genesis and Advantages over Analog Video................. 260
Technical Differences between the Digital and Analog Forms.............261
New Opportunities..............................................................................263
Digital Audio............................................................................................263
Advantages over Analog Version...........................................................263
Technical Differences between Digital and Analog Forms.................. 264
 Contents ◾ xiii

New Opportunities..............................................................................265
3-D Digital Gaming.................................................................................267
Advantages over the Analog Version.....................................................267
Technical Differences between the Digital and Analog Forms.............269
New Opportunities..............................................................................272
Summary..................................................................................................273
Review Questions.....................................................................................274
True/False............................................................................................274
Multiple Choice...................................................................................275
Short Answer Questions.......................................................................276
16 Network Security and Management....................................................277
Introduction.............................................................................................277
Network Security Threats.........................................................................278
Who Are the Bad Guys?...........................................................................278
Hackers................................................................................................278
Types of Network and Computer Attacks................................................ 280
Social Engineering Attacks.................................................................. 280
DOS Attacks....................................................................................... 280
Malware Attacks..................................................................................281
Virus................................................................................................281
Worm..............................................................................................281
Trojan Horse...................................................................................281
Sniffing................................................................................................282
Data Theft.......................................................................................282
Data Alternation..............................................................................282
Spoofing..........................................................................................282
The Payback of Security............................................................................282
Customer Trust....................................................................................282
Mobility...............................................................................................283
Increased Productivity..........................................................................283
Reduced Cost.......................................................................................283
Basics of Security......................................................................................283
Authentication..........................................................................................283
What You Know................................................................................. 284
What You Have................................................................................... 284
Who You Are...................................................................................... 284
Accounting...............................................................................................285
Encryption................................................................................................285
Symmetric Key.................................................................................... 286
Asymmetric Key.................................................................................. 286
Access Control and Site Security...............................................................289
Security Policy..........................................................................................290
xiv ◾ Contents

Network Security Tools and Techniques...................................................290

Network Security......................................................................................290
Depth in Design..................................................................................290
Firewalls...............................................................................................292
Intrusion Detection Systems and Intrusion Prevention Systems...........292
Honey Pot............................................................................................294
Host Security............................................................................................294
OS Security..........................................................................................294
Software Security.................................................................................294
Antivirus Programs..............................................................................295
Spam/Pop-Up and Cookie Blockers.....................................................296
Network Administration and Management..............................................296
Key Aspects of Network Administration and Management......................296
Network Management Tools....................................................................297
Client/Server Architecture....................................................................297
Client...............................................................................................297
Server...............................................................................................298
Network OSs...................................................................................298
Simple Network Management Protocol................................................299
Management Station....................................................................... 300
Management Agents....................................................................... 300
Management Information Base.......................................................301
Network Management Protocol.......................................................301
Case Study: Network Security and BYOD................................................302
Summary..................................................................................................303
Review Questions.................................................................................... 304
True/False........................................................................................... 304
Multiple Choice.................................................................................. 304
Short Essay Questions......................................................................... 306
Appendix: Answer Key to Chapter Questions..............................................307
Preface

Our original effort in writing this book was to create a starting point for those in
the business community who did not have a high level of technical expertise but
needed to have some understanding of the technical functions of their information
and communication technologies (ICT) in a corporate environment. As was true
with the first edition of this book, if you are already an engineer, find some other
form of pleasure reading—this text is not designed for you!
The third edition of Introduction to Communications Technologies: A Guide for
Non-Engineers has been updated to attempt to keep pace with the ever-changing
industry associated with ICT. The basic fundamentals of communicating informa-
tion have not changed: system models and electricity are still the building blocks
of how we send information around the world. However, with the advancement of
faster processors within our communicating devices, we have seen a rapid change in
how information is modulated, multiplexed, managed, and moved!
We have also tried to include in this edition some forward perspectives on where
the networks we currently use will migrate in the next few years. With streaming
video, Internet Protocol–defined voice communications, advanced wireless data
networking, and a convergence of our various communication methods (i.e., voice,
data, and media) to be delivered on a single platform, various sections address this
changing landscape. As an example, the chapter on Multiprotocol Label Switching
(MPLS) gives the reader a valuable understanding of what should be expected from
vendor services for external networking offerings in the near term, of how the core
of the network is changing, and of how traffic engineering is impacted by MPLS-
defined virtual private networks (VPNs).
As with our previous editions, we have made a concerted effort to avoid trying
to confuse readers with too many equations or having them perform calculus gym-
nastics. These formulas and functions are critical in creating the granular compo-
nents and operations of each technology; however, understanding the application
and its purpose to the business environment does not require a scientific calculator.
Reading this text should provide a knowledgeable starting point for further explo-
ration into any areas impacting the reader’s communication challenges.
We use this text in our core curriculum to help students without technical
undergraduate degrees entering our graduate professional program in information

xv
xvi ◾ Preface

and communication sciences to get a good, broad understanding of what they

should expect from their educational experiences. The students have consistently
requested that the book be made a “mandatory” summer read, prior to their show-
ing up for classes. We hope that the third edition continues to provide the reader
with the knowledge necessary to work within this fast-paced and ever-changing
industry.

Student Acknowledgments
Our thanks to the following individuals for their assistance and contributions to
this text:

William Brunson
Jessica Chaffin
Jonathan Chamboneth
Matt Cresswell
Larissa Denton
Charles Geyer
Rebekah Hobbs
Maria Lee
Breanna Parker
Kalyn Sprague
Steven Williams
Authors

Stephan S. Jones, PhD, joined the Center for Information and Communication
Sciences faculty in August of 1998. He came to Ball State University (BSU), Muncie,
Indiana, after completing his doctoral studies at Bowling Green State University,
Bowling Green, Ohio, where he served as the dean of continuing education, devel-
oping a distance learning program for the College of Technology’s undergraduate
technology education program. Dr. Jones was instrumental in bringing the new
program on board because of his technical background and extensive research in
the distance learning field.
Prior to coming to higher education, Dr. Jones spent over 16 years in the com-
munication technology industry. He owned his own interconnect, providing high-
end commercial voice and data networks to a broad range of end users. Dr. Jones
provided all the engineering and technical support for his organization, which grew
to over 20 employees and became one of the top 100 interconnects in the coun-
try. Having sold his portion of the organization in December of 1994, Dr. Jones
worked for Panasonic Communications and Systems Company as a district sales
manager providing application engineering and product support to distributors in
a five-state area.
Since coming to BSU, Dr. Jones has been engaged in development efforts
to provide up-to-date equipment for the graduate students’ production labs, the
Network Integration Center, and the Wireless Institute’s lab. He has also partnered
with local nonprofits to provide community support for their information technol-
ogy needs through graduate student service learning projects. He has appeared as a
presenter at regional development gatherings and has provided research agendas to
facilitate the application of broadband technologies for underserved constituencies.
In his new role as the director of the graduate program, he is charged with making
the success of the past 20 years viable for the next generation of information and
communication technology students.

Frank M. Groom, PhD, is a professor in the Graduate Center for Information and
Communication Science at Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana. His research is
concentrated in the areas of high-bandwidth networking, distributed systems, and
the storage of multimedia objects. Dr. Groom is the author of seven books, most

xvii
xviii ◾ Authors

recently having finished The Basics of Voice over IP Networking and The Basics of
802.11 Wireless LANs. Among his best known books are The Future of ATM and The
ATM Handbook. Dr. Groom earned his PhD from the University of Wisconsin–
Milwaukee in information systems. He is the former senior director of information
systems for Ameritech.

Ronald J. Kovac, PhD, is a full professor in the Center for Information and Commu­
nication Sciences at Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana. The center prepares gradu-
ate students in the field of telecommunications. Previous to this position, Dr. Kovac
was the telecommunication manager for the state of New York and a CIO for a large
computing center located on the east coast. Dr. Kovac’s previous studies included
electrical engineering, photography, and education. Dr. Kovac has published two
books and over 50 articles and has completed numerous international consult-
ing projects in both the education and telecommunications field. Additionally, he
speaks worldwide on issues related to telecommunications and holds numerous cer-
tifications, including the Cisco Certified Network Associate (CCNA), the Cisco
Certified Academy Instructor (CCAI), and the almost-complete Cisco Certified
Network Professional (CCNP).
Chapter 1

Systems and Models

of Communications
Technologies: Shannon–
Weaver, von Neumann,
and the Open System
Interconnection Model

The language, acronyms, and terminology in communications technology (CT) are

based on fundamental ideas that can be considered systems. Understanding these
fundamental systems allows knowledge of various information technologies (IT)
to be added, brick by brick, to build an understanding of current and developing
technologies. One of the primary systems in CT is signaling. Signaling occurs in
traditional voice telephone connections, local area networking, and wireless com-
munications ranging from cellular to satellite systems. Each of these areas of signal-
ing usually becomes the domain of an engineer who is focused specifically on this
area of expertise. Preparing someone to understand all the intricacies of each of
these disciplines is a huge undertaking. However, understanding the basic underly-
ing principles of the signaling process can give the nonengineering professional the
ability to converse on the topic intelligently.
The capacity to communicate is determined by a number of factors that influence
the quality of the signal. How will the information be sent or transmitted? Will the

1
2 ◾ Introduction to Communications Technologies

person or device at the distant end of the communication signal be able to receive the
transmitted signal? Will the person or device at the receiving end need to decipher or
decode the signal in any way? What would happen if noise were introduced into the
transmitted signal? Would it cause the transmission signal to be corrupted in any way?
Exhibit 1.1 shows how communications can be understood in terms of a model
(or systems format). The source (transmitting side of communications) signaling
systems need to encode the information to be transmitted so that it fits onto the
medium or channel that is used to convey the information. The medium could be
air, copper wires, or even fiber optics. When we speak to another human, we first
determine whether or not the person understands the language we are speaking. As
the source, we encode our information in the language and put it on the medium
(air) to be delivered to the other person. What if the transmitting person has French
as his or her primary language and the receiving person does not? The receiving
person will need to decode the French language into one that he or she is able to
understand. The return signal from the receiving person may ask the transmitting
person, “Is this what you are trying to tell me? If it is, then we can discuss this topic
further.” This type of transmit/receive/confirm format is the basis of human com-
munication and is also employed in data networking transmissions.
Claude Shannon developed a mathematical equation that defines the theoreti-
cal limit of the capacity of information transmitted in this model. He theorized
(and later proved) that the amount of information being transmitted was based on
a number of factors, including noise, frequency, transmission, and the strength of
the signals. The formula is

C = Blog2(1 + S/N)

Do not be concerned about solving the math problem! It is presented to show

the relationship between the signal (S) and noise (N) in a given transmission based
on the bandwidth (B) or frequency at which the signal is being transmitted. The
capacity (C) of information being transmitted is determined by all of these factors.
Later, when we consider more complex topics, we will be able to use this formula to
help us understand how much information can be transmitted over a wireless con-
nection for our local area network or how our cell phone can be used to connect to
Noise

Encoder Encoder

Source Channel Sink

Decoder Decoder

Exhibit 1.1 Shannon–Weaver model of communication.

 Systems and Models of Communications Technologies ◾ 3

the Internet. This formula tells us that as the noise in a transmission increases, the
capacity to send information decreases. As the frequency (or bandwidth) at which
we transmit increases, the capacity for information transfer increases. We will dis-
cuss the topics of frequency and bandwidth in Chapter 3.

Computing Model
Any device on a communication network can be considered a node. A node can
be a computer, telephone, router, server, tandem switch, or any number of devices
that receive and transmit information on their respective networks. If every device
connected to a network used a different format for collecting, storing, modify-
ing, or transmitting information, the design of networks and the components con-
nected to them would be extremely difficult to accomplish. John von Neumann, a
mathematician whose theories led to the development of the first electronic digital
computer, proposed a model based on work originally presented by Alan Turing (a
mathematician who is famous for leading the group responsible for deciphering the
Enigma code during World War II). Von Neumann’s idea is known as the stored
program model. Exhibit 1.2 is a simple block diagram of von Neumann’s model.
The general structure of this model is based on four primary components, and
a fifth component is necessary for interblock signaling. This model can be extrapo-
lated to define how the nodes connected to any communication network operate:

1. Main memory: stores data and instructions

2. Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): performs computational functions on binary
data
3. Control unit: interprets the instructions in memory and causes them to be
executed
4. Basic Input/Output System (BIOS): devices operated by the control unit

The fifth component of this model is the bus structure. The information that needs
to be exchanged between these blocks relies on an interconnecting medium referred
to as a bus. Bus structures can be found in everything from digital wristwatches to
the most sophisticated high-speed computer device. We will look at this model and

Program control unit

Main
memory
Arithmetic-logic unit Input/output equipment

Exhibit 1.2 Components of the stored program model.

4 ◾ Introduction to Communications Technologies

how it relates to a computer and, using the same model, define how it works with
telephone systems, data networking equipment, and other nodal devices.
The main memory on the computer is its working area. The program files that are
needed to run specific applications are stored in this work area. An analogy is with a
large legal pad of paper. The program running on a computer occupies the top page of
a writing tablet: this area of memory is also called the random access memory (RAM) of
a computer. If it needs more information to process a request, the system will look into
the pages available on the tablet to see if the data are there. To retrieve more informa-
tion for a program or to pull a completely new program into the work area, the system
needs to retrieve more pages of information (data). Another typical memory storage
area is the hard drive, which, according to our model, is viewed as an I/O device.
The process of responding to requests for data is based on a set of instruc-
tions written in binary language. Most of us have never seen the machine language
that runs our digital devices, but it is the mother tongue of the information age.
Requests for printer or modem access (instructions for information retrieval) and
other functions are acted upon by the central processing unit (CPU). The CPU
relies on the ALU to crunch numbers and feed the information back so that it can
control the flow of data.
Exhibit 1.3 represents a more detailed view of the stored program model. The
memory portion of the diagrams is now populated with the various pages of infor-
mation necessary to operate the computer: BIOS, operating system, and applica-
tion programs. The bus structure represented by arrows in Exhibit 1.2 is shown in

Storage I/O mod

Memory External
Buses memory
Network I/O mod
Local data Control
Network
Application data Print I/O mod
program #1 address
Processor/CPU

RPC stub Registers

Database manager
ALU SL CAR
Network
operating Control
Control unit memory
system

Operating PSW and CBR

BIOS system program center

Exhibit 1.3 von Neumann’s architecture in a computing device. (Courtesy of

Frank M. Groom, Movement and Storage of Information, class notes.)
 Systems and Models of Communications Technologies ◾ 5

greater detail in Exhibit 1.3, which shows

Flash CPU
the connection between the memory, CPU,
NVRAM and ALU. The I/O modules are connected
to external memory (hard drives), networks,
Bus
ROM interface RAM or printers. This greater level of detail
depicted in Exhibit 1.3 is also applicable to
other network equipment that requires pro-
Interface Interface Interface cessing and memory management to work.
This model can be used to define how
Exhibit 1.4 Simple router architec- a router, digital personal automatic branch
ture block diagram. exchange (PABX), and data networking
switches work. (These topics are defined in
subsequent chapters.) A router is a device used in data networks to forward infor-
mation from one network to another. They are the workhorses of the Internet, the
World Wide Web (the web), and corporate wide area networks (WANs). With this
level of responsibility, the equipment may seem more complex and sophisticated
than it really is. A router is required to analyze packetized information received
from its I/O module connection to decide where the information packet is sent or
routed next. This requires an operating system that keeps the organization of the
system flowing correctly. A CPU to control requests in conjunction with the ALU is
necessary to analyze the binary data. Connecting all of these parts together is a bus
structure that is able to send and receive millions of requests every second!
Exhibit 1.4 is another example of how the von Neumann architecture works on
a different type of computing device. The router has all the components previously
defined for a computer, and it works in a similar manner. The operation system
and application programs reside in the flash and other nonvolatile memory. Just
as in the computer, RAM is the working area memory of the router. A router does
not need the same memory capacity as a computer, but it requires the same binary
process, or 1s and 0s, to analyze data.
By understanding the von Neumann architecture, you can comprehend how
any number of devices can operate on different networks. The foundational work
for this model was presented in 1946; 61 years later, it continues to be used to define
the operation of digital devices.

Open System Interconnection Model

The ability to interchange vendors’ products in the network without issues of incom-
patibility has long been a vital concern of those who work in the industry. Most ven-
dors strive to enable various components to talk intelligently to one another reliably
and consistently. The International Standards Organization (ISO), whose members
are representatives from countries around the world, has developed the Open System
Interconnection (OSI) model. This model consists of seven layers. The OSI model,
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