Fundamentals of Built

Environment
Course No: CDM 210
Tasnim Jerin
Lecturer
Department of Coastal Studies and Disaster Management
University of Barisal
[email protected]
 BUILDING FOUNDATION
• The substructure or foundation is the part of a structure that is usually
placed below the surface of the ground to transmit the load from the
superstructure to the underlying soil or rock.
• Foundation is defined as that part of the structure that transfers the
load from the structure as well as its own weight over a large area of
soil in such a way that the load does not exceed the ultimate bearing
capacity of the soil and the settlement of the total structure remains
within a tolerable limit.
• Foundation is the part of a structure on which the building stands.
• The solid ground on which the foundation rests is called the
foundation bed.
• There is a difference between foundation and footing. In simple words,
foundation means legs and footing means the foot of the leg.
• In addition, foundation also serves some other functions, such as:
✓ Prevent settlement (including differential settlement) of a structure.
✓ Prevent possible movement of structure due to periodic shrinkage
and swelling of subsoil.
✓ Allow building over water or water-logged ground.
✓ Resist uplifting or overturning forces due to wind.
✓ Resist lateral forces due to soil movement.
✓ Underpin (support) existing or unstable structures.
• Why There are Different Types of Foundation?
• As we know that there are different types of soil and bearing capacity
of the soil is different for each individual type of soil. So depending on
the soil profile, size and load of the structure, engineers chose
different types of foundation.
• Factors to be Considered in Selecting Foundation Type
✓ Subsurface conditions
✓ Groundwater conditions
✓ Column loads and spacing, basements
✓ Site constraints
– noise
– vibrations
– proximity to existing improvements, slope, channel
✓ Economics
Types of Foundation
 Types of Shallow Foundations
1. Individual Footing or Isolated Footing
• Individual footing or an isolated footing is the most common type of
foundation used for building construction. They are generally used for
ordinary buildings (Generally up to five stories).
• This foundation is constructed for single column and also called as pad
foundation.
• The shape of individual footing is
square or rectangle and is used when
loads from structure is carried by the
columns.
• Size is calculated based on the load
on the column and safe bearing
capacity of soil.
• Isolated Spread Footing is economical
when:
✓ The load of the structure is relatively
low.
✓ Columns are not closely placed.
✓ Bearing capacity of the soil is high at
a shallow depth.
2. Wall Footing or Strip footing
• This type of footing is used to distribute loads of
structural load-bearing walls to the ground.
• Wall foundation runs along the direction of the wall. The
width of the wall foundation is generally 2-3 times of the
width of the wall.
• The wall footing is a continuous slab strip along the
length of the wall. Stone, brick, reinforced concrete etc.
is used for the construction of wall foundations.
• Wall footing is economical when:
✓Loads to be transmitted are of small magnitude.
✓The footing is placed on dense sand and gravels
• Spread footings and wall footings are used for individual
columns, walls and bridge piers where the bearing soil
layer is within 3m (10 feet) from the ground surface. Soil
bearing capacity must be sufficient to support the weight
of the structure over the base area of the structure.
• These should not be used on soils where there is any
possibility of ground flow of water above bearing layer of
soil which may result in scour or liquefaction.
3. Combined Footing
• The combined footing is very similar to the isolated footing. When the
columns of the structure are closely placed, or the bearing capacity of the
soil is low and their footing overlap each other, combined footing is
provided.
• The foundations which are made common to more than one column are
called combined footings. They may be rectangular, tee-shaped or
trapezoidal in shape. The main objective is the uniform distribution of loads
under the entire area of footing. For this is necessary to coincide the center
of gravity of the footing area with the center of gravity of the total loads.
• Combined foundations are economic when:
✓The columns are placed close to each other.
✓When the column is close to the property line and the isolated footing
would cross the property line or become eccentric.
✓Dimensions of one side of the footing are restricted to some lower value.
4. Cantilever or Strap Footing
• Strap footings are similar to
combined footings and reasons for
considering or choosing strap footing
is similar to the combined footing.
• In strap footing, the footings under
the columns are built individually and
connected by strap beam. Generally,
when the edge of the footing cannot
be extended beyond the property line
the exterior footing is connected by
strap beam with interior footing.
5. Raft or Mat Foundation
• Raft or Mat foundations are used where other shallow foundation or
pile foundation is not suitable. It is also recommended in situations
where the bearing capacity of the soil is poor, the load of the structure
is to be distributed over a large area or structure is constantly
subjected to shocks or jerks.
• Raft foundation consists of a reinforced concrete slab or T-beam slab
placed over the entire area of the structure. In this type of foundation,
the entire basement floor slab acts as the foundation. The total load of
the structure is spread evenly over the entire area of the structure.
This is called Raft because in this case, the building seems like a vessel
which floats on a sea of soil.
• Raft foundations are economic when:
✓ The soil is weak and the load has to be
spread over a large area.
✓ The structure includes a basement.
✓ Columns are closely placed.
✓ Other kinds of foundations are not feasible.
✓ Differential settlement is to be prevented.
✓Raft foundation is economical when one-half
area of the structure is covered with
individual footings and wall footings are
provided.
• It is suitable for expansive soils whose bearing
capacity is less for suitability of spread
footings and wall footings.
• These foundations should not be used where
the groundwater table is above the bearing
surface of the soil. Use of foundation in such
conditions may lead to scour and
liquefaction.
 Types of Deep Foundation
1. Pile Foundation
• Pile foundation is a common type of deep
foundation. They are used to reduce cost and
when as per soil condition considerations, it is
desirable to transmit loads to soil strata which are
beyond the reach of shallow foundations.
• Pile is a slender member with a small cross-
sectional area compared to its length. It is used to
transmit foundation loads to a deeper soil or rock
strata when the bearing capacity of soil near the
surface is relatively low. Pile transmits load either
by skin friction or bearing. Piles are also used for
resist structures against uplift and provide
structures stability against lateral and overturning
forces.
• Pile foundations are economic when
✓ Soil with great bearing capacity is at a greater depth.
✓ The depth of hard rock strata may be 5m to 50m (15 feet to 150 feet)
deep from the ground surface.
✓ When there are chances of construction of irrigation canals in the
nearby area.
✓ When it is very expensive to provide raft or grillage foundations.
✓ When the foundation is subjected to a heavy concentrated load.
✓ In marshy places.
✓ When the topsoil layer is compressible in nature.
✓ In case of bridges when the scouring is more in the river bed.
2. Pier Foundation
• Pier is an underground structure that transmits
heavier load which cannot be transmitted by
shallow foundations. It is usually shallower than
pile foundations.
• Pier foundation is a cylindrical structural member
which transfer heavy load from superstructure to
the soil by end bearing. Unlike pile, it can only
transfer load by bearing and by not skin friction.
• Pier Foundation is economic when:
✓Sound rock strata lie under a decomposed rock
layer at the top.
✓The topsoil is stiff clay which resists driving the
bearing pile.
✓When a heavy load is to be transferred to the soil.
3. Drilled Shafts or Caisson Foundation
• Caisson foundation is a ready-made hollow
cylinder depressed into the soil up to the
desired level and then filled with concrete
which ultimately converts to a foundation.
It is mostly used as bridge piers. Caissons
are sensitive to construction procedures
and lack construction expertise.
• Caisson foundations are economic when:
✓ Pile cap requirement is to be minimized
✓ Noise and vibration needed to be reduced
✓ Foundation has to be placed beneath
water bodies.
✓ Highly lateral and axial loading capacity is
required.
• Drilled shafts can transfer column loads
larger than pile foundations. It is used
where depth of hard strata below ground
level is location within 10m to 100m (25
feet to 300 feet).
• Drilled shafts or caisson foundation is not
suitable when deep deposits of soft clays
and loose, water-bearing granular soils
exists. It is also not suitable for soils
where caving formations are difficult to
stabilize, soils made up of boulders,
artesian aquifer exists.
 Bearing Capacity of Soil
• All civil engineering structures impose a loading on the underlying soil (or
rock). The lowest part of the structure, usually lying below the ground level,
which transmits the load to the supporting soil/rock strata, is known as
foundation. The ability of the underlying soil to bear the load of the
foundation without overstressing the soil in terms of either shear failure or
excessive settlement failure is termed as bearing capacity of soil. This is
often termed as bearing capacity of foundation.
• The bearing capacity of a soil depends mainly on the types of foundation
encountered by the soil. Foundations of structures are basically of two
types; shallow and deep. The classification indicates the depth of foundation
installation and the depth of the soil strata providing most of the support. A
number of definitions are relevant in the context of types of foundation
and bearing capacity.
 Basic Definitions
• Shallow Foundation: Shallow foundation is one that is placed on a firm soil
at shallow depth below ground level and beneath the lowest part of the
superstructure. e.g. spread footing or simply footing, mat or raft etc. The
most useful definition of a shallow foundation refers to the founding depth
being less than the breadth of the foundation. However, for wide foundation
this is not acceptable. It is sensible to limit the term shallow to mean less
than 3 m or less than the breadth of the foundation footing.
• Deep Foundation: Deep foundation is one that transmits the load of the
structure considerably at a greater depth below the lowest part of the
superstructure. e.g. pile, pier, caissons etc.
• Foundation Soil or Bed: The soil to which loads are transmitted from the
base of the structure.
• Footing: An enlarged base of the structure to distribute the column or wall
load to ground at a compatible strength and deformation characteristics of
foundation soil.
• Bearing Capacity: This is a general term used to describe, the load
carrying capacity of a foundation soil that enables to bear and
transmit loads from a structure.
• Ultimate Bearing Capacity: Maximum pressure that a foundation soil
can withstand without the occurrence of shear failure of the
foundation.
• Gross Bearing Capacity: The bearing capacity inclusive of the pressure
exerted by the weight of the soil standing on the foundation (called
the surcharge pressure) is known as gross bearing capacity.
• Net bearing capacity: Gross bearing capacity minus the original
overburden pressure or surcharge pressure at the foundation level.
• Safe bearing capacity: Net ultimate bearing capacity divided by a
factor of safety. The factor of safety in foundation may range from 2
to 4, depending upon the importance of structure, and the soil profile
at the site. The factor of safety should be applied to the net ultimate
bearing capacity, and the surcharge pressure should then be added to
get the safe bearing capacity.
• It is thus the maximum intensity of loading that can be transmitted to
the soil without the risk of shear failure, irrespective of the
settlement that may occur.
• Allowable bearing capacity/pressure: The maximum allowable net
loading intensity on the soil at which the soil neither fails in shear nor
undergoes excessive or intolerable settlement detrimental to the
structure. The conventional design of a foundation is based on the
concept of bearing capacity or allowable bearing pressure.
• Criteria for the Determination of Bearing Capacity
• The criteria for the determination of bearing capacity of a foundation
are based on the requirements for the stability of the foundation. These
are stated as follows:
▪ Shear failure of a foundation soil or bearing capacity failure: This is
associated with plastic flow of the soil material beneath the foundation,
and lateral expulsion of the soil from underneath the footing.
▪ The probable settlements, differential as well as total: The settlement
of the foundation must be limited to safe, tolerable and acceptable
magnitude.
• Factors Affecting Bearing Capacity
• Bearing capacity is governed by a number of factors. The following are the
some of the important factors that affect the bearing capacity.
▪ Nature of soil and its physical and engineering properties
▪ Nature of the foundation and other details such as the size, shape, depth at
which the foundation is located and rigidity of the structure
▪ Total and differential settlement that the structure can withstand without
functional failure
▪ Location of ground water table relative to the level of foundation
▪ Initial stresses, if any.
• In view of the wide variety of factors that affect the bearing capacity, a
systematic study of the factors involved is necessary for proper
understanding.
 SOIL SETTLEMENT
• A soil shear failure can result in excessive building distortion and even
collapse. Excessive settlements can result in structural damage to a
building frame nuisances such as sticking doors and windows, cracks
in tile and plaster, and excessive wear or equipment failure from
misalignment resulting from foundation settlements.
• It is necessary to investigate both base shear resistance (ultimate
bearing capacity) and settlements for any structure. In many cases
settlement criteria will control the allowable bearing capacity.
• Except for occasional happy coincidences, soil settlement
computations are only best estimates of the deformation to expect
when a load is applied.
• The components of settlement of a foundation are:
1. Immediate settlement
2. Consolidation Settlement, and
3. Secondary compression (creep)
• ΔH = ΔHi + U ΔHc + ΔHs (6.1)
• ΔH = total settlement, ΔHc = consolidation settlement, ΔHs =
secondary compression, U = average degree of consolidation.
Generally, the final settlement of a foundation is of interest and U is
considered equal to 1 (i.e. 100% consolidation)
1. Immediate Settlement: Immediate settlement concerns the initial pressure
on the soil under and surrounding the foundation. It is "immediate" because
it occurs during and right after construction. It has nothing to do with water
displacement, but is merely caused by the weight of the structure. In terms of
building foundations, immediate settlement is relatively easy to predict and
measure. In many cases, given the nature of the soil, foundations are
constructed with the ability to withstand a certain amount of shift without
damage. Damage usually occurs only in the long term, as the shift slowly
continues over time.
• Immediate settlement takes place as the load is applied or within a time
period of about 7 days.
• Predominates in cohesion less soils and unsaturated clay
• Immediate settlement analysis are used for all fine-grained soils including
silts and clays with a degree of saturation < 90% and for all coarse grained
soils with large co-efficient of permeability (say above 10.2 m/s)
2. Consolidation Settlement (ΔHc): Consolidation settlement is distinguished
from immediate settlement both by the duration of the settlement and by
displacement of water.
Consolidation is the more worrisome form of settlement because it is difficult to
predict over months or years.
Consolidation settlement is the settling of a foundation, over time, due to
pressure exerted by the structure and squeezes out the water content of the soil,
thus compressing it. Expulsion of moisture from the soil usually is a long-term
process.
• Consolidation settlements are time dependent and take months to years to
develop. The leaning tower of Pisa in Italy has been undergoing consolidation
settlement for over 700 years. The lean is caused by consolidation settlement
being greater on one side. This, however, is an extreme case. The principal
settlements for most projects occur in 3 to 10 years.
• Dominates in saturated/nearly saturated fine grained soils where consolidation
theory applies. Here we are interested to estimate both consolidation
settlement and how long a time it will take or most of the settlement to occur.
3. Secondary Settlement/Creep (ΔHc) Consolidation settlement has two
components, primary and secondary. The former deals explicitly with the settlement
caused by soil moisture displacement, and the latter deals with the elastic settlement
after all movable water has been squeezed out of the soil.
• Primary consolidation is the most significant and potentially harmful of the two.
Primary consolidation takes quite a bit of time, from weeks to years. Secondary
consolidation is the quicker result of primary consolidation. Once primary has been
completed, and all movable water has been moved, secondary kicks in.
• Secondary consolidation occurs immediately after primary, and takes far less time
to complete. After secondary consolidation is complete, the structure remains in its
permanent position. As a result, many builders advise residents in new homes to
avoid repairing any settlement damage until secondary consolidation is complete,
which is normally after two years at most.
• Occurs under constant effective stress due to continuous rearrangement of clay
particles into a more stable configuration.
• Predominates in highly plastic clays and organic clays.
 Differential Settlement: Uneven Settling of a
Building's Foundation
• Differential settlement is the term used in structural engineering for a
condition in which a building's support foundation settles in an uneven
fashion, often leading to structural damage. All buildings settle somewhat in
the years following construction, and this natural phenomenon generally
causes no problems if the settling is uniform across the building's foundation
or all of its pier supports. But when one section of the foundation settles at
a faster rate than the others, it can lead to major structural damage to the
building itself.
• Differential settlement is not usually a sign of carpentry construction flaws,
although some people view it that way. Instead, the phenomenon results
when the soil beneath the structure expands, contracts, or shifts in an
uneven fashion, causing the foundation to settle at an uneven rate. Thus, the
villain is not the carpentry construction practice, but rather the prior
evaluation and preparation of the building site itself and the construction of
the foundation.
 Causes
• Uneven settlement of a foundation is always caused by some form of
shifting of the soil beneath the foundation, but this shifting can take place
for several reasons.
✓Soils with weak bearing capacity. Some soils are weak and highly
compressible by nature, and buildings erected on such soils require special
footings to spread the load over a wider area. This tends to be an issue
about which local building architects are well familiar, and it is generally
addressed during the excavation and construction of the foundation.
✓Poorly compacted soil. Building sites for commercial or residential
structures often consist of land that has been artificially leveled and filled
for ease of construction. When properly compacted, this fill soil can provide
a perfectly solid base for supporting foundations, but when not compacted,
the soil may settle and compress unevenly under the foundation, leading to
structural damage.
✓Changes in soil moisture. Soil that is either too dry or too wet can cause foundation
settlement. When moisture builds up, soils saturate and lose their load-bearing
capacity. Dry soils shrink in volume. Either situation can cause uneven settling of the
foundation. Soil moisture changes can come about due to prolonged drought or by
mature trees and other plantings that draw moisture from the soil. In rare instances,
leaking in subfloor heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning ductwork can affect the
soil moisture beneath the foundation.
✓Trees and vegetation. Large trees, shrubs, and other vegetation planted along a
building's foundation or close to it can gradually draw the moisture out of the soil
and cause it to shrink. This situation is more common with shallow foundations than
with basement-level foundations that extend down many feet. When foundation
settlement begins to occur several decades after construction, the soil has likely
shrunk because large trees are drying out the soil.
✓Soil consolidation. The weight of a building on the underlying soil, especially fill soils
that were added just prior to construction, will naturally compress the soil. Clay
soils, in particular, become very dense as moisture is squeezed out. As the soil
consolidates and shrinks, the foundation settles downward, a movement that can
cause cracks and other structural damage.
✓Vibration. Vibration of the soil from seismic activity or even from nearby road traffic
can cause soils to settle or shift unevenly, leading to structural damage to the
building.
• Prevention

✓Uneven foundation settling—differential settlement—is best prevented by

careful analysis of the soil before a building foundation is constructed. The
best soils for building foundations are non expansive—meaning that they
contain little clay or silt content. Ideally, the building site will be native soil
rather than a site artificially filled with outside soil.

✓Make sure to consult an engineer to determine the load-bearing capacity of

the soil. Any necessary changes or amendments to the soil—or to the
foundation construction methods—can be determined early, before the
foundation is built. In some cases, the solution may be as simple and
extending the foundation below the poor soils to good load-bearing soils.