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hejazi2012

This paper presents a feasibility study on using ultra-wideband (UWB) sensors for the on-line monitoring of transformer winding radial deformations. The proposed method utilizes high-frequency electromagnetic waves to detect and estimate deformation volumes, demonstrating sensitivity to mechanical changes in transformer windings. The study highlights the advantages of UWB technology in providing accurate, continuous monitoring without the need for transformer downtime.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
12 views

hejazi2012

This paper presents a feasibility study on using ultra-wideband (UWB) sensors for the on-line monitoring of transformer winding radial deformations. The proposed method utilizes high-frequency electromagnetic waves to detect and estimate deformation volumes, demonstrating sensitivity to mechanical changes in transformer windings. The study highlights the advantages of UWB technology in providing accurate, continuous monitoring without the need for transformer downtime.

Uploaded by

liman
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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IEEE SENSORS JOURNAL, VOL. 12, NO.

6, JUNE 2012 1649

Application of Ultra-Wideband Sensors for On-Line


Monitoring of Transformer Winding Radial
Deformations–A Feasibility Study
Maryam Sadat Akhavan Hejazi, Javad Ebrahimi, Student Member, IEEE,
Gevork B. Gharehpetian, Senior Member, IEEE, Mohammad Mohammadi,
Reza Faraji-Dana, and Gholamreza Moradi

Abstract— A new method for the on-line monitoring of trans- The requirement of safe and reliable operation of power
former winding radial deformations using ultra-wideband sensors transformers leads to study and development of several fault
is presented in this paper. A wideband signal is sent to a simplified detection and conditions monitoring methods. Each method
model of the transformer winding. The measurements of received
signals from the model winding demonstrate the sensitivity of the can be applied to a specific type of problem and has its own
proposed technique to the winding radial deformation. It is shown advantages and disadvantages [5], [6]. In recent years, several
that the deformation volume can be estimated using a proposed off-line methods such as Short Circuit test method (SC)
index. Also, the amount of the radial deformation is estimated [3], Low Voltage Impulse method (LVI) [7] and Frequency
by using a regression tree based on features extracted by the Response Analysis method (FRA) [5] for the detection of the
wavelet transform.
winding deformation have been proposed. In SC test method,
Index Terms— Condition monitoring, decision trees, discrete the short circuit reactance is measured while the transformer
wavelet transforms, nondestructive testing, power transformers, is off-line. In this method, the sensitivity of the reactance to
time of arrival estimation, ultra wideband antennas, ultra wide-
band radar. the winding displacement is very low, and the type and the
location of the mechanical damage in the winding cannot be
determined [5].
I. I NTRODUCTION
In the FRA method, experimental approaches of compar-

M ONITORING of electric machines for the detection of


electrical and mechanical faults have been widely used
for extending their life expectancy [1]. Power transformers
ison are: time-based, type-based and construction-based. A
prerequisite of all three methods is the independency of the
measurement from the setup to create reproducible results.
are one of the most expensive and highly essential electric The FRA method can be used off-line and on-line [8], [9].
machinery in the electric power systems whose failures and The well-known FRA method has been carried out off-line.
abnormal operations may lead to the outage of a power In the off-line FRA method, the transformer is switched on
system. and off, on the high voltage side (HV-side). Therefore, the
As a transformer ages, its internal condition degrades, which transformer is disconnected from the power network on the
increases the risk of failure [2]. The short circuits due to elec- low voltage side (LV-side) [8].
trodynamics forces cause radial deformations and axial dis- In the on-line FRA method, the frequency response should
placements of transformer windings. These mechanical dam- be measured during the operation of the transformer. The
ages may not lead to an immediate failure of the transformer, stochastic transient over-voltages caused by the switching and
but the ability of the transformer to withstand future mechan- the lightning can be used to determine the transfer function.
ical and dielectric stresses may be highly decreased [3], [4]. Many factors affect this method such as response of arresters
Manuscript received May 31, 2011; revised October 19, 2011; accepted and different power system topologies. The measurement
October 27, 2011. Date of publication November 9, 2011; date of current timing depends on the time of occurrence of overvoltage
version April 20, 2012. The work was financially supported by Tehran transients [10]. The on-line FRA method is in the research
Regional Electric Company. The associate editor coordinating the review of
this paper and approving it for publication was Dr. Dwight L. Woolard. phase and has not been used for any transformer.
M. A. Hejazi, J. Ebrahimi, G. B. Gharehpetian, and G. Moradi are The off-line methods do not meet all the needs of the
with the Center of Excellence on Power Systems, Electrical Engineer- transformer monitoring systems. The on-line methods do not
ing Department, Amirkabir University of Technology, Tehran 15914, Iran
(e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; require switching of the transformer and can continuously
[email protected]). monitor the transformer winding. The other advantage of the
M. Mohammadi is with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, on-line monitoring method is the prediction of important faults
Shiraz University, Shiraz 71345, Iran (e-mail: [email protected]).
R. Faraji-Dana is with the Center of Excellence on Applied Electromagnetic before their occurrence [11].
Systems, School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, College of Engi- The simulations have shown that the scattering parameter
neering, University of Tehran, Tehran 14174, Iran (e-mail: [email protected]). of the winding can be used as an index for on-line monitoring
Color versions of one or more of the figures in this paper are available
online at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org. of winding radial and axial deformations [12], [13]. The same
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/JSEN.2011.2175723 as FRA method, this method is based on the comparison of
1530–437X/$26.00 © 2011 IEEE
1650 IEEE SENSORS JOURNAL, VOL. 12, NO. 6, JUNE 2012

Transformer winding Deformation


TX Deformation
length
thickness
UWB
RADAR Disk no. 1

RX Disk no. 2

Disk no. 3

Fig. 1. Basic principle of monitoring by using UWB radar sensor. Disk no. 4

Disk no. 5
results. In this method, the scattering parameters are used as a Disk no. 6
fingerprint for the transformer winding [14]–[16]. This method
is also in the research phase and has not been used for any (a)
transformer.
In this paper, a new Nondestructive testing method of the
transformer winding damages has been developed using the
Deformation
high frequency electromagnetic waves analysis in the time
width
domain. The proposed method has been tested on a model
of transformer for different volumes of radial deformation.
The ultra-wideband (UWB) signals used for this method have
very high accuracy for fault detection and can give more
information about the type and location of the fault because
of special characteristics of UWB signals.
According to the U.S. Federal Communications Commis-
sion (FCC), a UWB signal is defined to have an absolute Sector 1 Sector 2 Sector 3
bandwidth of at least 500 MHz or a fractional (relative) (b)
bandwidth of larger than 20% [17]. Large bandwidths of UWB
signals bring many advantages such as penetration through Fig. 2. Modeling of radial deformation. (a) Disk numbering and deformation
obstacles, accurate position estimation, high-speed data trans- length and thickness. (b) Deformation width.
mission and low cost and low power transceiver designs [18].
The penetration capability of a UWB signal is due to its large
frequency spectrum that includes low frequency components designed as a solution for receiving the signals from the inside
as well as high frequency ones. This large spectrum also of transformer. The fundamental of the proposed method is
results in high time resolution, which improves ranging (i.e., based on UWB radar sensor. As shown in Fig. 1, the UWB
distance estimation) accuracy. From a radar viewpoint, short- radar generates short pulses and transmits them through the
pulse UWB techniques exhibit distinct advantages over more transmitting antenna (TX).
conventional radar approaches [19], [20]. Numerous applica- The signal propagates in an environment (transformer oil).
tions of short-pulse technology were developed for short-range When it meets target (transformer winding), a part of the elec-
radar sensing, subsurface sensing [21], metrology, communica- tromagnetic energy is reflected from the object and propagates
tions, and more recently, precision positioning [22] and radar back to the receiving antenna (RX). It has been shown by
imaging [23]. For active Radio Frequency (RF) tracking and simulations and measurements that the received waveforms
positioning applications, short-pulse UWB techniques offer are sensitive to winding axial displacements and radial defor-
distinct advantages in precision time-of-flight measurement, mations [27]–[29]. The proposed approach for interpreting the
multipath immunity for leading edge detection [i.e., first time received signals is based on comparison. The waveform of the
of arrival (TOA)] and low prime power requirements for received signals can be used as a fingerprint of the transformer.
extended-operation RF identification (RFID) tags [24]. In this The best way of comparison, like the FRA method, is time-
research, UWB pulses have been used for on-line monitoring based. The signal received from a healthy transformer can be
of transformer winding mechanical damages, which can be stored in a database. The transformer can be monitored on-
considered as a slowly moving or stationary target. line in any time. If all of the parameters in the test, e.g.
the antenna, transmitter and receiver characteristics and the
II. P ROPOSED M ONITORING M ETHOD U SING antenna location, remain constant, then every deviation in the
UWB S ENSORS received signal from the healthy fingerprint of the transformer
is only due to the mechanical changes in the environment of
High frequency antennas have been used to monitor the the wave propagation.
partial discharge in the transformer [25]. The Ultra High
Frequency (UHF) sensors of the partial discharge detection
system work only in the receiving mode [25], [26]. These III. M EASUREMENT M ETHOD
antennas can be placed inside or outside the transformer tank, A simplified model of transformer HV winding with the
through the dielectric windows, which have been recently ability of modeling the axial displacement and radial defor-
HEJAZI et al.: APPLICATION OF UWB SENSORS FOR ON-LINE MONITORING OF TRANSFORMER WINDING RADIAL DEFORMATIONS 1651

TABLE I 90° 90°


D ISK M ODEL D IMENSIONS

Disk Spacer
Diameter 60 cm 60 cm 180°
180° 0°
Thickness 2 cm 0.5 cm −20 dB −10 dB 0 dB
−20 dB −10 dB 0 dB
Number 6 6
z

TABLE II
S ECTORS D IMENSIONS 270° y  270° y  90°270°
(a) θ (b)
Deformation parameters Sector 1 Sector 2 Sector 3 90° 90°
Width (cm) 0.5 1 2
Thickness (cm) 2 2 2

Area (cm2 ) 1 2 4 0°

180°
180° −20 dB −10 dB 0 dB
Hub −20 dB −10 dB 0 dB
TX
PC

Radio 1 270° 270°


(c) (d)
Boresight (θ  180°)
Ethernet RX
CAT-5 Standard
cable Fig. 4. Antenna horizontal radiation pattern. (a) 3 GHz. (b) 4 GHz. (c) 5 GHz.
Radio 2 (d) 6 GHz.

90° 90°
Fig. 3. Connection diagram of measurement set-up.

mation has been built, as shown in Figs. 1 and 2. This


180° −20 dB −10 dB 0 dB 180°
model should represent HV winding disks of transformers. 0°

−20 dB −10 dB 0 dB
Dimensions of the model are approximately 1/3 of a real one. 360°

Disks have been made from Plexiglas sheets which are covered

by a layer of copper. It should be mentioned that the high
frequency electromagnetic waves are totally reflected in the 270° (a) (b) 270°
metal-air interface, so it is not necessary to model the core 270° 90°
90° 90°
that is inside the windings. Disks are separated from each
other by spacers, which have equal thickness. Table I lists the
model dimensions.
One of these disks has been cut in sectors with different 180° 0° 180° 0°
−20 dB −10 dB 0 dB 180° −20 dB −10 dB 0 dB
dimensions. These sectors can be moved in radial direction as
shown in Fig. 2.
The amount of the deformation is characterized by the
deformation length. The thickness of each sector is equal 270° 270°
to the thickness of each disk. But their widths are differ- (c) (d)
ent, as listed in Table II, in order to model different radial
deformations. Fig. 5. Antenna vertical radiation pattern. (a) 3 GHz. (b) 4 GHz. (c) 5 GHz.
(d) 6 GHz.
In the oil-immerged power transformers, the oil is the
propagation medium. In this paper, the propagation medium is
considered to be air and the transformer tank is not modeled, are connected via Ethernet CAT-5 standard cable to a hub and
and the radial deformation of only one phase of the transformer a PC. The received signals are stored in a text file.
has been studied. It is assumed that there is not any high Two UWB antennas have been used for the measurements.
frequency source of electromagnetic waves in the transformer The antenna pattern is omni-directional. Fig. 4 shows the
except the transmitter. antenna azimuthal beam pattern, and Fig. 5 illustrates the
This method which is based on the comparison of results elevation beam pattern. For the azimuthal beam pattern, 0
in different time periods is not sensitive to the environmen- and 180 degrees represent the flat face of the antenna (“bore
tal change such as humidity and temperature. It is because sight”), and 90 and 270 degrees represent the edge of the
variation of humidity, in a maintenance period for an installed antenna. When two radios at the same elevation are rotated
transformer is negligible and it is possible to measure only in so the flat sides of the antennas face one another, due to the
a known winding temperature range. polarization of antennas, radio performance will be approxi-
A bi-static transmitter and receiver have been used for the mately 6 dB higher than the case, in which the antennas are
measurements as shown in Fig. 3. The transmitter and receiver edge-on.
1652 IEEE SENSORS JOURNAL, VOL. 12, NO. 6, JUNE 2012

Winding 1
model

Transmitted signal
0.5
d3 d3
d2
0
TX d1 RX
−0.5

d4 −1
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Time (ns)

Fig. 8. Typical transmitted pulse.


Fig. 6. Winding model in front of transmitting and receiving antennas.
Td
TI
TI

Fig. 7. Transmitted UWB pulses (every TI seconds).


TC TS
TABLE III
PARAMETERS OF T RANSMITTED P ULSE Fig. 9. Timing of pulses received in receiver.

Maximum pulse repetition frequency (PRF) 9.6 MHz


Center frequency (radiated) 4.7 GHz IV. O N -L INE M ONITORING OF R ADIAL D EFORMATION
Bandwidth (10 dB radiated) 3.2 GHz
The first phase in on-line monitoring of transformer winding
Power consumption 5.7 Watts
mechanical damages is the detection of deformations and
displacements. In this phase, the measurements are classified
in the following two groups.
Fig. 6 shows the winding model in front of transmitting and
1) Reference measurement: There is no deformation on the
receiving antennas. In this figure, d1 is the distance between
transformer winding model. The results of this test have
the transmitting and receiving antenna, d2 is the distance
been stored as a normal and base case.
between the winding model and the center of the line con-
2) Deformation measurement: Different radial deforma-
necting the antennas, d3 is the distance between the transmit-
tions are applied to the winding but the test set-up
ting/receiving antennas from the model and d4 is the height of
configuration is the same as the reference case.
the set-up table from the ground. It should be mentioned that
the effect of changing the position of transmitter and receiver The radial deformation is detected by the comparison of
antennas on the detection of mechanical damages has been reference and deformation measurements based on a proposed
studied in [30] as a sensitivity analysis. index.
As shown in Fig. 7, UWB pulses are radiated to the In the second phase, the amount of the mechanical
transformer model from the transmitter every TI seconds. The deformation is estimated for a possible maintenance. This
TI parameter should be set lower for the detection of fast is been accomplished by a regression tree [31] explained in
moving objects. As the deformations in the transformer have Section VIII.
very low occurrence frequency (for example once in a year),
the time interval (TI ) between transmitted pulses is not an V. D ETECTION OF R ADIAL D EFORMATION
important factor. The analysis of the measured data, to detect radial deforma-
A typical transmitted pulse has been shown in Fig. 8 and tions has two essential stages. The first stage is the selection
its parameters have been listed in Table III. of a window in the time axis and the second stage is the
Fig. 9 shows the timing of received pulses. If the test comparison of test results with the reference measurement
duration is Td seconds, then Nr pulses can be sent, and we using the mean absolute distance criteria.
have:
Td
Nr = . (1) A. Selection of Window by Using TOA Method
TI
Only a part of the received signal is related to the trans-
The total number of samples in each scan (NC ) is calculated,
former model and the rest are reflected signals, from the
as follows:
TC surrounding objects of transformer model. In the first stage,
NC = (2) unwanted parts of the signal should be omitted by using TOA
TS
method by using the following steps.
where, TS and TC are the sampling time and receiving duration Step 1: In this step, a matrix which has the data of received
time in each scan, respectively. signals should be formed. The sampled data of each signal
HEJAZI et al.: APPLICATION OF UWB SENSORS FOR ON-LINE MONITORING OF TRANSFORMER WINDING RADIAL DEFORMATIONS 1653

First reflection (T0) 500

Normalized amplitude 500 300

300 100

100 −100
0
−100 −300

−300 −500
10.8 11 11.2 11.4 11.6 11.8
−500 500
0 5 10 15 20 0 cm
Time (ns) 1 cm
(a) 300 2 cm

Normalized amplitude
500 3 cm
4 cm
100
Normalized amplitude

300
−100
100
0
−100 −300

−300 −500
6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
–500 Time (ns)
0 5 10 15 20 T1
Time (ns) 100
(b)
60
Fig. 10. Two received pulses (a) before and (b) after synchronization.
20

received in the test duration time (Td ), is placed in a row of −20


this matrix. The number of the matrix columns is equal to
−60
the number of samples in each scan (NC ). The matrix has
Nr rows, where Nr is the number of pulses, which have been
−100
sent in Td seconds (test duration time). It can be said that for 12 12.2 12.4 12.6 12.8 13
each test set-up configuration, the test has been repeated for
Fig. 11. Received pulse can be windowed to detect winding reflections.
Nr times and results of each test have been saved in a row.
The results of the reference case (measurement) are stored in a
matrix named w1 . The received pulses for the cases modeling Step 4: In the step 3, the time origin of all rows of the
the deformations are stored in the matrices w2 , w3 and wn , matrices, i.e., w1 , w2 , w3 , …, wn have been determined. In
where (n–1) is the number of modeled deformations. this step, the columns of each matrix should be averaged to
Step 2: Some of received pulses are pseudo noise which form a representative vector for each deformed case named,
should be eliminated from the data matrices. This can be (W1 , W2 , W3 , …,Wn ).
accomplished by deleting the out of range data. Step 5: Fig. 11 shows a sample of received pulses for the
Step 3: The received signals are not synchronized because reference winding and deformed windings with a deformation
of the timing jitter. Considering Fig. 6, the shortest distance area of 4 cm2 and deformation length of 1 to 4 cm.
between the transmitter and the receiver is equal to d1 . The In this step, in order to decrease the size of the matrix,
first peak of the received signal waveform is related to the the time interval related to transformer winding reflections is
direct line of sight of the transmitter and receiver, as shown determined in the received waveform. The distance between
in Fig. 10(a). The instant of this peak determines the time the antenna and the winding is known (d3 ). So, the moment
origin (T0 ). Based on this method, the time origin of the signal of the first reflection from the transformer winding is known.
can be determined for each test. All of the received pulses in This parameter can be calculated by the following equation:
the reference measurement and deformation measurement are
shifted to be synchronized with each other. Fig. 10(b) shows 2d3 − d1
T1 = (3)
the signals after synchronization. 3 × 108
After synchronization of two data sets as shown in Fig. 10, where, T1 is the receiving time of the first reflection received
the signal shape is found to be consistent in almost all of the from the model of the winding. In a real transformer, the
scans. For the reduction of the remaining white noise, the data propagation medium is oil. This will just affect the velocity
has been averaged as is mentioned in the next step. of electromagnetic wave used in the denominator of equation
1654 IEEE SENSORS JOURNAL, VOL. 12, NO. 6, JUNE 2012

TABLE IV
PARAMETERS OF M EASUREMENT S ET-U P

Parameter TC TI Ts Td d4 d3 d2 d1
Value 20 ns 50 ms 31.789 ps 5s 90 cm 50 cm 40 cm 60 cm

S1 TABLE V
S2 D IFFERENT C OMBINATIONS OF S ECTORS
S3
S4 Cross Section Deformation width (cm)× Cross Section
No. Deformation thickness (cm) Area (cm2 )
S1 1×2 2
S2 2×2 4
S3 1×2+2×2 6
(a)
S4 2×2+2×2+1×2 10
S5 S5 2×2+2×2+2×2 12
S6 S6 2×2+2×2+2×2+1×2 14

B. Comparison of Waveform of Each Test with Reference Case


After windowing, each pulse is compared with the reference
(b) case. The surrounding objects do not have any movement
and only the deformation has been applied to the transformer
Fig. 12. Different combinations of sectors. (a) S1 , S2 , S3 , and S4 . (b) S5 winding. By using the Mean Absolute Distance Criterion
and S6 .
(MADC), the signals received in different deformation tests
  
(W2 , W3 , . . . , Wn ) can be compared with the signal of the

80 Calculated MADC versus Deformed volume reference case (W1 ), as follows:
Fitted curve
T2 /Ts  
60 1   Wk ( j ) − W1 ( j ) 
M ADC(k) =  , k = 2, . . . , n (4)
MADC

N W1 ( j )
40 j =T1 /Ts

20 where, T1 is the beginning time of the window or receiving


time of the first reflection from the transformer, T2 is the end
0 10 20 30 40 50 instant of the window and N is defined, as follows:
Deformed volume (cm3) T2 − T1
N= (5)
Fig. 13. Calculated MADC for first window versus deformed volume (cm3 ). TS
where, TS is the sampling time.

√ VI. M EASUREMENT R ESULTS OF R ADIAL D EFORMATION


(3), i.e. u = 3 × 108 / εr , where εr is the relative dielectric
constant of the oil. In a real transformer, the aging effect of Table IV shows the measurement set-up parameters. Table V
the oil can be considered by regular measurements of the oil lists dimensions of different combinations of sectors and
relative dielectric constant (εr ). Fig. 12 shows different combination of sectors (highlighted
Due to the very simple model, used for a transformer in similar colors), which have been used to model different
winding, there have been no multipath effects in our mea- radial deformation extents.
surements. In a real transformer, however one should consider The variation of the deformation length, as shown in
the multipath effects. Fig. 2(a), for each of cross sections is from 0 to 40 mm in
The timing interval of reflections (related to the winding) 2 mm steps. Therefore, there are 120 different cases of radial
can be determined (using the winding dimensions) by the deformation with different extents. The volume of deformation
same equation. The part of the pulse related to the winding is calculated by multiplying the length, width and thickness
can be extracted from the received pulse for the reduction of of each sector and adding to the volume of other sectors
unwanted reflections. Because of the existence of multipath, in a specified cross section. The results of measurements of
there are several reflections from the transformer winding. radial deformations are sorted according to the volume of
The second reflection is attenuated because its traveling time deformation in ascending order.
in the space is longer. The window related to the first and The measurements of the radial deformation have been
second winding reflections has been shown in Fig. 13. After studied by using the proposed MADC index. Fig. 13 shows the
 
windowing, the reduced size matrices are named W1 , W2 , calculated MADC for the first window (T1 = 10.169 ns and
 
W3 , . . . , Wn . T2 = 12.076 ns) versus deformed volume and Fig. 14 shows
HEJAZI et al.: APPLICATION OF UWB SENSORS FOR ON-LINE MONITORING OF TRANSFORMER WINDING RADIAL DEFORMATIONS 1655

TABLE VI
F EATURES AND T HEIR S YMBOLS E XTRACTED U SING WAVELET

Magnitude Phase Power


Feature Symbol Feature Symbol Feature Symbol
a7 ( f 0: f n ) X 1:X 45 a7 ( f 0: f n ) X 361:X 405 a7 X 721
d1 ( f 0: f n ) X 46:X 90 d1 ( f 0: f n ) X 406:X 450 d1 X 722
d2 ( f 0: f n ) X 91:X 135 d2 ( f 0: f n ) X 451:X 495 d2 X 723
d3 ( f 0: f n ) X 136:X 180 d3 ( f 0: f n ) X 496:X 540 d3 X 724
d4 ( f 0: f n ) X 181:X 225 d4 ( f 0: f n ) X 541:X 585 d4 X 725
d5 ( f 0: f n ) X 226:X 270 d5 ( f 0: f n ) X 586:X 630 d5 X 726
d6 ( f 0: f n ) X 271:X 315 d6 ( f 0: f n ) X 631:X 675 d6 X 727
d7 ( f 0: f n ) X 316:X 360 d7 ( f 0: f n ) X 676:X 720 d7 X 728

Calculated MADC versus Deformed volume


2 a7 1 d7
20 Fitted curve
1 0
MADC

15 0 −1
10 −1 −2
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
5
1 d6 d5
2
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 0
Deformed volume (cm3)
−1 −2
Fig. 14. Calculated MADC for second window versus deformed vol- −2 −4
ume (cm3 ). 0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
d4 500 d3
10
an dn d2 d1 0 0
0 fs fs fs fs fs −10 −500
2(n + 1) 2n 8 4 2 0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20

500 d2 d1
Fig. 15. Frequency ranges cover for details and final approximation. 10

0 0
the calculated MADC for the second window (T1 = 12.076 ns
and T2 = 13.983 ns) versus deformed volume. −500 −10
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
A curve can be fitted to the calculated MADC for both
Time (ns) Time (ns)
windows. The results of the curve fitting are, as follows.
For the first window: Fig. 16. Typical waveform of detail and approximate components of received
signal for daubechies 16.
f (x) = 4.239e − 006 · x 5 + −0.0005416 · x 4 + 0.02353 · x 3
+ − 0.3995 · x 2 + 3.584 · x + 6.43 (6) estimate the amount of the radial deformation for an unknown
state of the winding.
and, for the second window:
f (x) = 9.006e − 006 · x 4 + −0.001053 · x 3 + 0.03569 · x 2 A. Feature Extraction Using Wavelet Transform
+0.06971 · x + 4.293. (7) A wavelet-based signal processing technique [32], [33] is an
effective tool for feature extraction. Some applications of the
The MADC indexes are ascending functions of the deformed technique have been reported for data compression and fault
volume and they can approximately estimate the severity of detection [34]. The wavelet transform is the breaking up of a
the radial deformation using fitted curves. Considering MADC signal into scaled and shifted versions of the mother wavelet
curves, presented in Figs. 13 and 14, it is obvious that they [35]. The wavelet function is localized in time and frequency
have not enough accuracy for finding the exact amount of yielding wavelet coefficients at different scales (levels). Any
radial deformations. But, they can be used to detect an existing discrete signal x[n] can be decomposed by using the wavelet
radial deformation. function and the wavelet coefficients, as follows:
 j0

VII. E STIMATION OF R ADIAL D EFORMATION E XTENT x[n] = a j 0,k .2 2 .φ[2 j 0 n − k]


k
For the exact determination of the radial deformation extent, J −1 
 j
a regression tree can be trained by the features extracted from + d j,k .2 2 .ϕ[2 j n − k] (8)
measurements of winding in different states. Then, the tree can j= j0 k
1656 IEEE SENSORS JOURNAL, VOL. 12, NO. 6, JUNE 2012

150 Sound
150 4 10

<FFT(d7)
<FFT(a7)
Deformed

|FFT(d7)|
|FFT(a7)| 100 100 2
5
50 50 0 Sound
Deformed
0 −2 0
0 0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
0 3 6 9 12 15 0 3 6 9 12 15
150 10
150

<FFT(d6)

<FFT(d5)
|FFT(d5)|
|FFT(d6)|

100 100
5 5
50 50
0 0
0 3 6 9 12 15 0 3 6 9 12 15 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
200 10000 10 50
|FFT(d3)| 7500
|FFT(d4)|

150
25

<FFT(d3)
5

<FFT(d4)
100 5000
50 2500 0 0
0 0 −5 −25
0 3 6 9 12 15 0 3 6 9 12 15
−10 −50
10000 100 0 3 6 9 12 15 0 3 6 9 12 15
|FFT(d2)|

7500
|FFT(d1)|

75

<FFT(d2)

<FFT(d1)
5000 50 25 25
2500 25
0 0 0 0
0 3 6 9 12 15 0 3 6 9 12 15
Frequency (GHz) Frequency (GHz) 0 3 6 9 12 15 0 3 6 9 12 15
Frequency (GHz) Frequency (GHz)
Fig. 17. Magnitude of FFT of details and approximation of two different
received signal.
Fig. 18. Phase of FFT of details and approximation of two different received
signal.

where φ[n] is the scaling function, and φ[n] is the mother a small frequency range of the FFT magnitude is used. It
wavelet, j is the scale of decomposition, k is the shifting is obvious that, the magnitude and the phase of FFT differ
factor, a j 0,k are the approximation coefficients at a scale of significantly for different types of fault. Thus, the features are
s = 2 j 0 , d j,k are the detail coefficients at a scale of s = 2 j the magnitude, the phase and the power of FFT of details and
and N is equal to 2 j , where N is the number of x samples. approximation of received signals, which are listed with their
The DWT divides the given function into different frequency symbols in Table VI.
components based on a power of two divisions. More con-
cretely, if f s (in samples per second) is the sampling rate
used for capturing x, at the j ’th decomposition level, the B. Regression Tree
detail d j and the approximation a j coefficient contains the Classification and regression tree (CART) is extensively
information concerning the original signal components with implemented in machine fault diagnosis, for classification
the frequency bandwidth [ f s /2 j +1 , fs /2 j ] and [0, f s /2 j +1 ], or regression problems depending on the response variable,
respectively [35], [36]. Therefore, DWT carries out the filter- which is either categorical or numerical [31]. Regression tree
ing process shown in Fig. 15. Note that the filtering is not is applied to forecast the short-term load of the power system
ideal, a fact leading to a certain overlap between adjacent [38], [39].
frequency bands. The shape of the frequency response for A binary tree is developed for a regression problem with
these filters depends on the type and the order of the mother the repeated splits of subsets into two next subsets according
wavelet used in the analysis. to independent variables. The data must be as homogenous
Also, the type of wavelet function is important for the fault as possible with respect to the response variables, in order to
detection. Several wavelet functions such as daubechies 4, produce subsets of the data by the regression tree. The trees,
8, 16, 28, 32, symlet 2, 4, 8, coiflet 3 have been tested for which are produced by CART, consist of internal nodes and
a typical radial deformation. It is shown that daubechies 16 terminal nodes or leaf nodes. Each internal node is related to a
maximizes the fault index for the detection of the radial defor- decision function to show the next node, while each terminal
mation [37]. Therefore, daubechies 16 has been selected as the node is the output of a given input vector that leads to this
wavelet function to extract useful features. The approximate node [40].
a7 and details d1 , . . ., d7 for daubechies 16 mother wavelet are Both classification and regression trees built by CART
shown in Fig. 16. consist of the tree growing and pruning.
After the decomposition of signals, the extraction of useful Suppose L be a learning sample of size n, and it consists of
features is studied. The FFT is employed to feature extraction n couples of observations ( y1 , x 1 ), . . . , (yn , x n ), where x i =
from the DWT. The corresponding phase and magnitude of (x 1i , . . . , x di ) is a set of independent variables and yi ∈ R is a
FFT of the approximate a7 and details d1 , . . . , d7 of the response associated with x i [41]. In this paper, yi is a specific
received signals for two different states of winding are shown case of the radial deformation and x i is the feature vector for
in Figs. 17 and 18, respectively. For data reduction, only this case. To prepare the training set, the sector S2 has been
HEJAZI et al.: APPLICATION OF UWB SENSORS FOR ON-LINE MONITORING OF TRANSFORMER WINDING RADIAL DEFORMATIONS 1657

X91 < 89.1405 1. On-line measurement


using UWB sensor
X124 < 74.0098 X188 < 94.1137
2. Data acquisition and
preprocessing
X67 < 39.3493 X105 < 1297.6 X83 < 15.1006 X91 < 94.7483
3. Feature extraction
(Wavelet)

Training data set Test data set


Fig. 19. Regression tree for estimation of radial deformation extent.

TABLE VII
C ART T EST R ESULTS 4. Training of RT

Estimated Absolute
Deformation (mm)
deformation (mm) error (mm)
2 2 0
4.5 4.5 0 RT training Is RT
7 7.5 0.5 training
complete?
9.5 10 0.5 N
12 12 0
14.5 14 0.5 Y
17 17.5 0.5
19.5 20 0.5
Trained RT (Important
features have been selected)

moved in steps of 0.5 mm from 0 to 20 mm. Therefore, there Performance


are 41 different cases of the radial deformation with different evaluation RT output
extents.
The aim of the regression tree is to predict the values of
response variables y = (y1 , . . . , yn ) derived from the set 5. Estimation of deformation
of independent variables (x 1 , . . . , x n ). To build the tree, the
learning sample L is partitioned into two subsets by a binary Fig. 20. Algorithm for estimation of radial deformation extent.
split. The splits are formed by using the inequality condition
between the criterion and value of independent variables. The outer HV winding using FRA method is 5% of the transformer
result of this splitting is to move the couples (y, x) to the left winding radius [42]. The algorithm of the estimation of the
or right nodes, which contain more homogeneous responses. radial deformation extent is shown in Fig. 20.
This process is repeated until the terminal nodes are achieved. In the first step, a databank of reflected signals for the
The CART can inherently estimate the suitability of features sound and deformed cases are acquired using UWB sensors.
for the separation of objects, representing different classes and Preprocessing the data is accomplished in the second step.
regressions. The occurrence of a feature in a tree provides the This step comprises the steps 1–4 presented in Section VI of
information about the importance of the associated feature. the paper. In the third step, the feature extraction from the data
This facility can be directly exploited for the purpose of is performed by the wavelet transform. The output is divided
the important feature selection. It is clear that the top node to training and test data sets. In the fourth step, training of the
is the best node for regression. The other features in the Regression Tree (RT) is performed by using the training data
nodes of CART appear in descending order of importance. set. In the fifth step, the performance evaluation of the RT is
Fig. 19 shows the regression tree for the estimation of the accomplished by the estimation of the radial deformation of
radial deformation extent, which has been created by using the test data set.
MATLAB Statistics Toolbox.
It can be seen that the most important feature is X 91 , (the
top node of Fig. 19). In the second level, X 124 and X 188 are VIII. C ONCLUSION
the important ones. The tree is tested by 8 test samples. The On-line monitoring of transformer winding radial deforma-
regression tree test results are listed in Table VII. tion using UWB sensors has been proposed in this paper.
The minimum detectable radial deformation is very impor- The measurements on a simplified model of the transformer
tant, because the tolerances are very fine for the transformer winding show the sensitivity of the proposed method to
and deformations more than 1% can cause serious damages the winding deformation. In the paper, an index has been
to the winding. So, it is important to detect the deformations proposed, which can be used to detect the radial deformation.
below 1%. The minimum detectable radial deformation using The radial deformation extents have been estimated using
the proposed method is 0.66 % of the winding radius, i.e., regression tree by features extracted from wavelet transform
2 mm. But, the minimum detectable radial deformation in the of measured signal.
1658 IEEE SENSORS JOURNAL, VOL. 12, NO. 6, JUNE 2012

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HEJAZI et al.: APPLICATION OF UWB SENSORS FOR ON-LINE MONITORING OF TRANSFORMER WINDING RADIAL DEFORMATIONS 1659

Javad Ebrahimi (S’10) was born in Isfahan, Iran, Reza Faraji-Dana received the B.Sc. degree (with
in 1986. He received the B.Sc. degree in electrical honors) from the University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran,
engineering from the University of Tabriz, Tabriz, in 1986, and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees from
Iran, in 2008, and the M.S. degree (first class honors) the University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada,
in electrical engineering from the Amirkabir Uni- in 1989 and 1993, respectively, all in electrical
versity of Technology (AUT), Tehran, Iran, in 2010. engineering.
He is currently pursuing the Ph.D. degree with the He was a Post-Doctoral Fellow with the University
Electrical Engineering Department, AUT. of Waterloo for one year. In 1994, he joined the
His current research interests include the analysis School of Electrical and Computer Engineering,
and control of power electronic converters, flexible University of Tehran, where he is currently a Profes-
alternative current transmission systems devices, dis- sor. He has been engaged in several academic and
tributed generation, and transformer monitoring. executive responsibilities, among which was his deanship of the Faculty of
Engineering for more than four years until 2002, when he was elected as
the University President by the university council. He was the President of
Gevork B. Gharehpetian (SM’08) received the the University of Tehran until December 2005. He is the author of several
Ph.D. degree (first class honors) in electrical engi- technical papers published in reputable international journals and refereed
neering from the University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran, conference proceedings.
in 1996. Prof. Faraji-Dana is an Associate Member of the Iran Academy of Sciences.
He was an Assistant Professor with the Amirkabir He was the Chairman of the IEEE-Iran Section from 2007 to 2009. He
University of Technology, Tehran, from 1997 to received the Institution of Electrical Engineers Marconi Premium Award in
2003, an Associate Professor from 2004 to 2007, and 1995.
has been a Professor since 2007. He was selected by
the ministry of higher education as the Distinguished
Professor of Iran and the Iranian Association of
Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IAEEE) as the
Distinguished Researcher of Iran. He is the author of more than 450 journal Gholamreza Moradi received the B.Sc. degree from
and conference papers. His current research interests include power systems, the University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran, the M.Sc.
transformers transients, and power electronics applications in power systems. degree from the Iran University of Science and
Prof. Gharehpetian was awarded the National Prize in 2008 and 2010, Technology, Tehran, and the Ph.D. degree from the
respectively. He is a Distinguished Member of IEEE and IAEEE, respectively, Amirkabir University of Technology (AUT), Tehran,
and a member of the Central Board of IAEEE. all in electrical engineering.
He was with Civil Aviation of Technology as a
Faculty Member from 1997 to 2006, then he joined
AUT, where he is an Associate Professor in the
Mohammad Mohammadi was born in Shiraz, Iran, Electrical Engineering Department. He is the co-
in 1977. He received the B.Sc. degree from Shiraz author of five books and numerous papers in his
University, Shiraz, in 2000, and the M.Sc. and research fields. His current research interests include microwave measure-
Ph.D. degrees from the Amirkabir University of ments, numerical measurements, radio frequency circuits, and system designs.
Technology (AUT), Tehran, Iran, in 2002 and 2007,
respectively, all in electrical engineering.
He is currently with Shiraz University. He is the
author of more than 40 journal and conference
papers. His current research interests include power
system security assessment, machine learning, and
power system dynamics.

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