UNIT IV.

ABSOLUTISM TO REVOLUTION

I. Absolute Monarchs in Europe

Lesson 1. Spain’s Empire and European Absolutism

Charles V inherited Spain, its American colonies, parts of Italy, and territory in
Austria and the Netherlands in the early 16th century. He controlled much of Germany
as the chosen Holy Roman Emperor. It was the first time a European king had so
much land since Charlemagne.

Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the lesson, you are expected to:
a. identify the roles of king Charles V as a Holy Roman
Emperor; and
b. explain how the theory of absolutism changed the views of
the European Royals.

A Powerful Spanish Empire

Charles, a fervent Catholic, disliked not just Muslims but also Lutherans. In
1555, he reluctantly consented to the Peace of Augsburg, which granted German
monarchs the right to select the religion of their domain. Charles V split his vast
dominion and retreated to a convent the next year. He abandoned Austria and the Holy
Roman Empire for his brother Ferdinand. Philip II inherited Spain, the Spanish
Netherlands, and the American colonies from his father.

Philip II’s Empire

The King of Portugal died without an heir in 1580. Philip took the Portuguese
kingdom because he was the king's nephew. With Portuguese bases in Africa, India,
and the East Indies, he now possessed a global empire.

Philip's reign rewarded him with enormous riches. American mines had given
Spain an estimated 339,000 pounds of gold by 1600. Approximately 16,000 tons of
silver bullion were unloaded from Spanish galleons or ships between 1550 and 1650.
As his royal portion, the monarch of Spain claimed between a fourth and a fifth of every
shipload of wealth. With these riches, Spain could sustain a strong standing army of
around 50,000 men.
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Figure 29. King Philip II of

Spain, often known as “Philip the
Prudent”, reigned over one of the
world's most powerful empires. His
tenure as King of Spain marked the
beginning of the Golden Age, a
period of enormous cultural
expansion in literature, music, and
the artistic arts.

Source: https://www.biography.com

Defender of Catholicism

When Philip took the throne, Europe was in the midst of religious conflicts
triggered by the Reformation. Religious strife, on the other hand, was not new to Spain.
The Reconquista, or battle to expel Muslims from Spain, had only taken 64 years to
accomplish. Furthermore, Philip's great-grandparents, Isabella and Ferdinand, had
utilized the Inquisition to examine suspected heretics or non-Christians.

Philip saw it as his responsibility to protect Catholicism against the Ottoman

Empire's Muslims and Europe's Protestants. In 1571, the Pope exhorted all Catholic
rulers to take up war against the Ottoman Empire's growing strength. Philip replied
with the zeal of a real crusader. In a violent battle at Lepanto, more than 200 Spanish
and Venetian ships destroyed a huge Ottoman force. In an attempt to punish
Protestant England and its queen, Elizabeth I, Philip launched the Spanish Armada in
1588. Elizabeth had backed Protestant subjects in their rebellion against Philip. His
fleet, however, was defeated.

The Dutch Revolt

To keep his subjects under control in the Spanish Netherlands, Philip had to
maintain an army. The Dutch had few things in common with their Spanish overlords.
While Spain was predominantly Catholic, the Netherlands had a large number of
Calvinist congregations. Furthermore, Spain's economy was slow, but the Dutch had
a thriving middle class. In the Netherlands, Philip increased taxes and took measures
to suppress Protestantism. In response, furious Protestant mobs stormed into Catholic
churches in 1566. To punish the rebels, Philip dispatched an army led by the Spanish
duke of Alva. In 1568, the duke murdered 1,500 Protestants and suspected insurgents
on a single day.

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For another 11 years, the Dutch fought the Spanish. Finally, in 1579, the seven
northern provinces of the Netherlands, which were predominantly Protestant, united
and declared their independence from Spain. They were renamed the United
Provinces of the Netherlands. The eleven southern provinces (present-day Belgium)
were Catholic and remained under Spanish authority.

Absolutism in Europe

Although Philip II lost his Dutch lands, he was a strong ruler in many respects.
He attempted to exert control over every element of his empire's operations. Many
European kings would claim the authority to govern without limitations during the
following few centuries.

The Theory of Absolutism

These rulers desired to be absolute monarchs, kings, or queens with

complete control over their nations. Their objective was to have complete control over
society. Absolute kings believed in divine right, which held that God established the
monarchy and that the monarch served as God's representative on Earth. An absolute
ruler owed allegiance to God alone, not to his or her subjects.

Figure 30. In
European history, the divine
right of kings was used to
assert that kings obtained their
authority from God and hence
could not be held responsible
for their conduct by any earthly
authority such as a parliament.

Source: https:// www. newera.news.com

Did you know?

The concept of the divine right of kings was not
new. In fact, in ancient China, emperors imposed that
Who do you think
they are legitimate rulers who had the blessings of the
should choose our
gods. This was a philosophy called the “Mandate of
leaders?
Heaven.” While in Egypt, the pharaohs were thought to
be a god on earth, an intermediate between the gods
and the people.

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Growing Power of Europe’s Monarchs

Monarchs rose in authority as Europe emerged from the Middle Ages. The fall
of feudalism, the emergence of cities, and the expansion of national kingdoms all
contributed to the centralization of authority. Furthermore, the expanding middle class
typically supported monarchs because they offered a tranquil, business-friendly
environment. Monarchs exploited colonial money to fund their aspirations. During the
late Middle Ages and the Reformation, church power crumbled as well. This paved the
path for kings to wield even more power.

Assessment:
Answer the following questions comprehensively. (5 points each)
1. What were the expected roles from King Charles V as the Holy
Roman Emperor?
2. Why did the Spanish kings defend Catholicism?
3. How did the concept of absolutism change the perspective of
kings and queens on power?

Lesson 2. The Reign of Louis XIV

King Henry II of France died in 1559, leaving four young boys. Three of them
reigned, one after the other, but they were all inept. During this time, their mother,
Catherine de Médicis, wielded considerable influence over the crown. Catherine
attempted to maintain royal power, but rising tensions between Catholics and
Huguenots (French Protestants) shook the kingdom. Huguenots and Catholics fought
eight religious conflicts between 1562 and 1598. France was engulfed in chaos.

Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the lesson, you are expected to:
a. describe how Louis XIV rose to power in France; and
b. explain the significant contributions of Louis XIV.

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Religious Wars and Power Struggles

The St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre in Paris in 1572 triggered a six-week

countrywide murder of Huguenots. The slaughter occurred during a period when many
Huguenot nobility were in Paris. They were in attendance for Catherine's daughter's
wedding to a Huguenot prince, Henry of Navarre. The majority of this nobility was
killed, but Henry survived.

Henry of Navarre

Henry was a strong, athletic, and beautiful descendant of the famed medieval
monarch Louis IX. When Catherine and her final son died in 1589, Prince Henry
inherited the kingdom. He rose to become Henry IV, the first king of France's Bourbon
dynasty. As king, he demonstrated decisiveness, bravery in combat, and political
acumen. Henry opted to abandon Protestantism and become a Catholic for the benefit
of his war-weary homeland.

Henry took another step toward mending France's wounds in 1598. He ruled
that the Huguenots might live in peace in France and build their churches in several
cities. The Edict of Nantes was a statement of religious tolerance.

Louis XIII and Cardinal Richelieu

Following Henry IV's death, his son Louis XIII ruled. Louis was a weak
monarch; therefore, in 1624 he selected a powerful minister to compensate for all of
his flaws.

Cardinal Richelieu effectively became France's king. He had been a

hardworking leader of the Catholic Church in France for many years. Richelieu made
two steps to strengthen the Bourbon monarchy. First, he made a move against the
Huguenots. He felt that Protestantism was frequently used to justify political plots
against the Catholic ruler. He did not want them to resist the king just to retreat behind
fortified walls.

Louis XIV Comes to Power

Henry IV and Richelieu's attempts to establish the French monarchy set the
stage for the most powerful king in French history, Louis XIV. In Louis' opinion, he and
the state were the same. He allegedly bragged, "L'état, c'est moi," which translates as
"I am the state." Despite being the most powerful monarch of his time, Louis XIV began
his reign as a four-year-old kid.

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Figure 31. The reign of

France's Louis XIV (1638-1715),
regarded as the Sun King,
lasted for 72 years, the longest
of any known European
monarch.

Source: https:// www. history.com

Did you know?

Louis saw himself as God's representative on
Earth. He made a point of connecting himself with the Do you believe
Greek and Roman sun deity Apollo, adopting the sun as that Louis XIV
his symbol and even appearing in a royal ballet as Apollo. had the healing
Louis XIV, like many previous kings, claimed to have skills?
supernatural healing skills. On significant holidays, he
walked about touching people who had scrofula (also known as tuberculosis of
the neck).

Louis, the Boy King

When Louis succeeded his father, Louis XIII, asking in 1643, the actual ruler of
France was Richelieu's successor, Cardinal Mazarin. Mazarin's crowning
achievement occurred in 1648, with the end of the Thirty Years' War.

Many French citizens, notably the aristocrats, despised Mazarin since he

raised taxes and expanded the central authority. From 1648 until 1653, France was
torn apart by deadly anti-Mazarin riots. The lords who spearheaded the rioting
endangered the young king's life at times. Louis never forgot his terror or his rage at
the nobles, even after the fighting had stopped. He was resolved to become so
powerful that they would never be able to attack him again.

Louis Weakens the Nobles’ Authority

When Cardinal Mazarin died in 1661, Louis, at 22, assumed leadership of the
government. He undermined the nobility' influence by removing them from his councils.
In contrast, he expanded the authority of government agents known as intendants,
who collected taxes and administered justice. To maintain power under his grip, he
made sure that local authorities interacted with him regularly.

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Economic Growth

Louis committed his life to assist France in achieving economic, political, and
cultural greatness. Jean Baptiste Colbert, his minister of finance, helped him achieve
his objectives more than. Colbert was a firm believer in the notion of mercantilism.
Colbert attempted to make France self-sufficient to prevent money from fleeing the
nation. He desired that it be able to create what it needs rather than rely on imports.

Following Colbert's death, Louis instituted policies that hindered France's

economic development. In 1685, he revoked the Edict of Nantes, which had
safeguarded Huguenot religious freedom. Thousands of Huguenot artisans and
business owners fled the nation as a result. Because of Louis' policies, France lost
many skilled employees.

Louis Fights Disastrous Wars

France was the most powerful country in Europe during Louis' reign. France
had a population of around 20 million people in 1660. This was four times more than
England and 10 times more than the Dutch republic. In terms of strength, training, and
weapons, the French army was far ahead of the forces of other countries.

Attempts to Expand France’s Boundaries

Louis attacked the Spanish Netherlands in 1667, barely six years after
Mazarin's death, to increase France's borders. He gained 12 towns because of this
campaign. In 1672, buoyed by his triumph, he led an army into the Dutch Netherlands.

Louis wanted to fight more conflicts, but his good fortune had run out. To stop
France, a European-wide alliance was developed by the end of the 1680s. Weaker
countries might match France's power if they banded together. This defensive strategy
was intended to establish a power equilibrium in which no single nation or group of
countries could control others.

Louis’s Death and Legacy

Louis' last years were more tragic than brilliant. Recognizing that his wars had
destroyed France, he was sorry for the misery he had caused his people. In 1715, he
died in his bed. The news of his death sparked joy across France. The people had had
enough with the Sun King.

Louis left a troubling legacy for his nation. On the plus side, France was a force
to be reckoned with in Europe. During Louis' reign, France ranked first in art, literature,

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and diplomacy, surpassing all other European nations. Furthermore, France was seen
as Europe's military leader. This force might help France to build a powerful empire of
colonies that offered resources and products for commerce.

On the other hand, continuous fighting and the construction of the Palace of
Versailles bankrupted France. Furthermore, anger over the tax burden put on the poor,
as well as Louis' misuse of power, would haunt his descendants, finally leading to
revolt.

Assessment:
Answer the following questions comprehensively. (5 points each)
1. What policies did King Louis XIV implement to achieve
prosperity in France? How did it help him become a powerful
monarch in Europe?
2. How did French art and literature flourish in Europe during the
period of King Louis XIV?

Lesson 3. Absolute Rulers of Russia

Ivan III of Moscow, who governed Russia from 1462 until 1505, was a man of
many accomplishments. First, he seized control of most of the region surrounding
Moscow. Second, he drove the Mongols out of Russia. Third, he began the process of
centralizing the Russian government. Vasily, Ivan III's son, succeeded him and reigned
for 28 years. Vasily carried on his father's efforts of expanding Russia's boundaries.
He also expanded the central government's influence. His son, Ivan IV, who would
become an absolute monarch, carried on this pattern.

Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the lesson, you are expected to:
a. describe the good and bad periods of Czar Ivan IV; and
b. explain how Peter I applied westernization in Russia.

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The First Czar

Ivan IV, often known as Ivan the Terrible, ascended to the throne at the age
of three in 1533. His youth was interrupted by power conflicts among Russia's
landowning nobility, known as boyars. The boyars battled for custody of young Ivan.
At the age of 16, Ivan took control and crowned himself as tsar. Ivan was the first
Russian ruler to adopt this title, which signified "Caesar." He also married the lovely
Anastasia, who was connected to the Romanovs, an old boyar family.

The years 1547 to 1560 are commonly referred to be Ivan's "good period." He
achieved tremendous battles, added territory to Russia, established a legal system, and
governed justly.

Figure 32. Ivan the

Terrible was Russia's first tsar.
During his rule, he acquired vast
amounts of territory by cruel
tactics, establishing a
centralized authority.

Source: https:// www. biography.com

Rule by Terror

After Anastasia died in 1560, Ivan's "bad period" began. Ivan turned against
the boyars after accusing them of poisoning his wife. He formed a police squad whose
primary mission was to track down and assassinate anyone Ivan regarded disloyal.
Members of this police squad wore black suits and rode black horses.

Ivan killed numerous boyars, their families, and the peasants who farmed their
estates with this covert police force. Thousands of people were killed. Ivan took the
boyars' lands and transferred them to a new class of nobility who were forced to be
faithful to him or lose their land.

Ivan eventually committed a personal tragedy. During a heated fight in 1581,

he killed his oldest son and heir. When Ivan died three years later, his feeble second
son was the only one left to govern.

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Did you know?

Ivan was believed to have paranoia. In 1570, he
authorized an assault on the city of Novgorod, Who are other
suspecting that the city's officials, clergy, and most historical figures
notable citizens were conspiring against him. Priests and that have
monks were apprehended and beaten to death, while paranoia?
their churches and monasteries were looted. Prominent
businessmen, officials, and nobles were tortured and killed, and some were
burned alive in specially built frying pans.

The Rise of the Romanovs

Ivan's son demonstrated that he was both physically and psychologically

incapable of ruling. Russia went through a period of upheaval known as the Time of
Troubles when he died without an heir. Boyars fought for control, and successors of
czars died in strange circumstances. Several imposters attempted to seize the throne.

Finally, in 1613, representatives from numerous Russian towns convened to

elect the new czar. Michael Romanov, the grandson of Ivan the Terrible's bride,
Anastasia, was their candidate. The Romanov dynasty, which governed Russia for 300
years (1613–1917), was born.

Peter the Great Comes to Power

The Romanovs gradually restored order to Russia. They fortified the

government by enacting a legal code and putting down a rebellion. This opened the
path for Czar Peter I's autocratic control. Peter first shared the throne with his half-
brother. However, in 1696, Peter became Russia's only monarch. He is renowned as
Peter the Great because he was one of Russia's greatest reformers. He also
maintained the tendency of strengthening the czar's position.

Figure 33. Peter the

Great was a Russian czar in the
late 17th century, well
recognized for his massive
reforms aimed at establishing
Russia as a great nation.

Source: https:// www. biography.com

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Peter Rules Absolutely

After visiting the West, Peter made the decision that Russia would compete
with Europe on both military and commercial grounds. The objective of
westernization, of utilizing Western Europe as a model for change, was not an end in
itself for Peter. Peter regarded it as a means to strengthen Russia.

Peter’s Reforms

Although Peter thought that Russia needed to reform, he was aware that many
of his citizens disagreed. Peter expanded his powers as an absolute monarch to
impose change on his state. Peter established governmental control over the Russian
Orthodox Church. He eliminated the post of the patriarch or Church leader. He
established the Holy Synod to administer the Church under his authority.

Peter, like Ivan the Terrible, weakened the influence of the large landowners.
He enlisted the services of men from lower-status households. He then elevated them
to positions of power and rewarded them with land grants.

Peter employed European officers to train his men in European tactics with
European weaponry to modernize his army. Being a soldier became a full-time
occupation. The Russian army had 200,000 troops at the time of Peter's death. Peter
levied high levies to fund this massive army.

Establishing St. Petersburg

Peter desired a seaport to facilitate travel to the West to encourage education

and progress. As a result, Peter battled Sweden for a portion of the Baltic coast. After
21 years of war, Russia finally gained the "window to Europe" that Peter desired so
badly.

In 1703, he began construction on Swedish territory seized by Russian soldiers.

Although the marshy location was unhealthy, Peter thought it was wonderful. Ships
could navigate the Neva River into the Baltic Sea and then to Western Europe. Peter
named the city after his patron saint, St. Petersburg.

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Assessment:
Answer the following questions comprehensively. (5 points each)
1. What made Ivan IV’s good and bad periods?
2. Why did Peter I pursue to westernize Russia?
3. How did the westernization of Russia benefit the country?

II. Enlightenment and Revolution

Lesson 1. The Scientific Revolution

The Renaissance, a revival of learning and the arts, sparked a spirit of inquiry
in a variety of areas. Scholars began to call into question beliefs that had been widely
accepted for hundreds of years. Meanwhile, the theological movement known as the
Reformation pushed adherents to question long-held beliefs about God and salvation.
During the Reformation, another revolution in European thought began one that would
forever transform how people perceived the physical world.

Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the lesson, you are expected to:
a. explain how the Scientific Revolution became the
foundation of modern science; and
b. discuss the great discoveries and inventions during the
Scientific Revolution.

The Roots of Modern Science

Before 1500, academics usually judged what was true or incorrect by

consulting an ancient Greek or Roman source or the Bible. Few European intellectuals
questioned ancient philosophers' or the church's scientific beliefs by closely examining
nature for themselves.

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The Medieval View

Most scholars during the Middle Ages thought that the earth was an immovable
entity at the center of the cosmos. The moon, sun, and planets all traveled in precisely
round orbits around the earth, according to that religion. This viewpoint appeared to be
supported by common sense. After all, when it rose in the morning and set in the
evening, the sun looked to move around the globe.

The geocentric theory was named after this earth-centered view of the
universe. The concept originated with Aristotle, a Greek philosopher who lived around
the fourth century B.C. In the second century A.D., the Greek astronomer Ptolemy
elaborated on the theory. Furthermore, Christianity claimed that God purposefully put
the earth at the center of the universe. As a result, Earth was a unique setting for the
grand drama of life to play out.

A New Way of Thinking

Beginning in the mid-1500s, a few scholars wrote works that questioned the
ancient philosophers' and the church's views. As these researchers replaced old
assumptions with new ideas, they precipitated a shift in European thought known as
the Scientific Revolution. The Scientific Revolution introduced a new way of looking at
the natural world. That path was founded on diligent observation and a willingness to
challenge commonly held ideas.

A combination of discoveries and events precipitated the Scientific Revolution

and aided in its development. European explorers ventured to Africa, Asia, and the
Americas during the Renaissance. People and animals previously unknown in Europe
inhabited such areas. These findings piqued Europeans' interest in the potential of
discovering new truths.

The period of European adventure also fostered a significant amount of

scientific study, particularly in astronomy and mathematics. Better equipment and
geographic measures, for example, were required by navigators to establish their
location in the open sea.

A Revolutionary Model of the Universe

Astronomy provided an early challenge to established scientific thought. It all

started when a tiny number of researchers began to call the geocentric hypothesis into
doubt.

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The Heliocentric Theory

Despite being supported by authority and common sense, the geocentric

hypothesis failed to explain the movements of the sun, moon, and planets. This
confounded Nicolaus Copernicus, a Polish priest, and astronomer. Copernicus got
interested in an old Greek notion that the sun was at the center of the universe in the
early 1500s. Copernicus reasoned, after observing planetary movements for more
than 25 years, that the stars, earth, and other planets did indeed rotate around the sun.

Copernicus' heliocentric (sun-centered) theory did not fully explain why the
planets orbited in the way they did. He also understood that the majority of intellectuals
would reject his idea and clergy since it violated their religious beliefs. Copernicus did
not publish his discoveries until 1543, the final year of his life, for fear of scorn or
punishment. On his deathbed, he was given a copy of his work, On the Revolutions of
the Heavenly Bodies.

Figure 34. Nicolaus

Copernicus, a Polish
astronomer, was renowned as
the "Father of Modern
Astronomy.”

Source: https:// www. history.com

Galileo’s Discoveries

Galileo Galilei, an Italian scientist, built on the new astronomical ideas. Galileo
learned as a young man that a Dutch lens manufacturer had created a device that
could magnify distant things. In 1609, Galileo created his telescope and utilized it to
study the skies.

Figure 35. Galileo Galilei

(1564-1642) is regarded as the
father of modern science, having
made significant contributions to
physics, astronomy, cosmology,
mathematics, and philosophy.

Source: https:// www.history.com

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Then, in 1610, he released Starry Messenger, a tiny book that detailed his
amazing observations. Galileo discovered Jupiter had four moons and the sun had
black patches. He also saw that the surface of the Earth's moon was rough and
uneven.

Did you know?

In 1632, Galileo released his book "Dialogue of
the Two Principal Systems of the World.” The book was
Do you think
widely seen as a support to the Copernican model of the
Galileo was guilty
world which was against the view of the church. As a
of heresy?
result, Galileo was summoned to stand trial before the
Inquisition in Rome the following year. Galileo was
judged guilty of heresy and sentenced to life in jail after being compelled to
publicly recant. And in 1979, Pope John Paul II opened an investigation of the
Catholic Church's condemnation of Galileo. Thirteen years later, and 359 years
after Galileo was prosecuted by the Inquisition, the Pope formally closed the
investigation and issued a formal apology in the matter, admitting that the
judges committed errors during the trial.

The Scientific Method

Copernicus and Galileo's revolution in scientific thought eventually led to the

development of a new approach to research known as the scientific method. A
scientific method is a systematic approach to acquiring and testing ideas. It starts with
an issue or query that arises from an observation. Scientists will next develop a
hypothesis or unproven assumption. The hypothesis is subsequently tested in an
experiment or through data analysis. Finally, scientists evaluate and interpret their
findings to arrive at a new conclusion. This result either verifies or refutes the theory.

Bacon and Descartes

The scientific method did not emerge from out of anything. The work of two
prominent 1600s intellectuals, Francis Bacon and René Descartes, aided in the
advancement of the new method.

Francis Bacon, an English statesman, and writer that thought that scientists
would create useful knowledge that would enhance people's lives by better
comprehending the world. In his works, Bacon chastised medieval scholars for leaning
too much on Aristotle and other ancient philosophers' findings. Rather of reasoning

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from abstract ideas, he pushed scientists to do experiments and then draw

conclusions. This strategy is known as empiricism or the experimental method.

René Descartes, who lived in France, was likewise interested in science. He

created analytical geometry, which connected algebra and geometry. This resulted in
the creation of an essentially new instrument for scientific study. He employed
experiments based on mathematics and reasoning as a mathematician. He thought
that everything should be questioned unless proven otherwise by logic. He only knew
he existed because, as he put it, "I think, therefore I am.”

Newton Explains the Law of Gravity

Copernicus and Galileo's achievements had broken the traditional ideas of

astronomy and physics by the mid-1600s. Later, the renowned English scientist Isaac
Newton assisted in bringing their discoveries together under a single theory of motion.

Figure 36. Sir Isaac

Newton is known for his law of
gravity, yet his "Principia
Mathematica" (1686), with its
three laws of motion, had a great
effect on the European
Enlightenment.

Source: https:// www.history.com

His big finding was that the same force governed the motion of the planets and
all matter on Earth and in space. The Law of Universal Gravitation was the central
concept that connected motion in the sky to motion on Earth. According to this rule,
everything in the universe attracts every other object. The degree of attraction is
determined by the mass of the objects and their distance from one another.

Assessment:
Answer the following questions comprehensively. (5 points each)
1. What were the significant contributions of European people to
science during the Scientific Revolution? Tabulate your answer
and indicate the contributors.

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2. How did the Scientific Revolution pave the way to modern

science?
3. How did the heliocentric theory of the universe differ from the
geocentric theory?

Lesson 2. The Enlightenment in Europe

Scholars and philosophers began to re-evaluate previous beliefs about other

elements of society in the aftermath of the Scientific Revolution and new ways of
thinking are encouraged. They were looking for fresh insights into fundamental ideas
about governance, religion, economics, and education. Their efforts fueled the
Enlightenment, a new intellectual movement that emphasized reason and thought,
as well as people's ability to solve issues. The movement, often known as the Age of
Reason, peaked in the mid-1700s and brought significant change to many elements of
Western culture.

Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the lesson, you are expected to:
a. differentiate the two views of government by Hobbes and
Locke;
b. describe the five core beliefs of the French philosophes; and
c. assess the contributions of the enlightenment in the modern
period.

Two Views on Government

The Enlightenment began with certain important concepts advanced by two

English political theorists of the 1600s, Thomas Hobbes and John Locke. Both men
saw England's political upheaval in the early twentieth century. However, they reached
quite divergent conclusions on governance and human nature.

Hobbes’s Social Contract

Thomas Hobbes stated his thoughts in his book the Leviathan (1651). The
atrocities of the English Civil War convinced him that humans were inherently greedy

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and evil. Hobbes claimed that people's rights had to be ceded to a powerful ruler. They
received law and order in exchange. Hobbes referred to the agreement by which
individuals formed a government as the social contract. Hobbes said that because
individuals behaved in their self-interest, the monarch required absolute authority to
keep subjects under control. The finest government was one that wielded the terrifying
power of a leviathan (sea monster). According to Hobbes, such a government was an
absolute monarchy that could establish order and compel obedience.

Figure 37. Thomas

Hobbes was a 17th-century
English philosopher best known
for his work 'Leviathan' (1651) and
his political ideas on society.

Source: https:// www.biography.com

Locke’s Natural Rights

The philosopher John Locke had a more optimistic view of human nature. He
thought that individuals might better themselves by learning from their mistakes. They
had the inherent capacity to control their affairs and care for the welfare of society
since they were rational people. Locke opposed absolute monarchy and advocated for
self-government.

Figure 38. The works of

English philosopher John Locke
provide the cornerstone of
contemporary philosophical
empiricism and political liberalism.

Source: https:// www.biography.com

All persons, according to Locke, are born free and equal, with three natural
rights: life, liberty, and property. The aim of government, argued Locke, is to preserve

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these rights. Citizens have the right to overthrow a government if it fails to do so.
Locke's thesis has a significant impact on modern political thought. His notion that a
government's authority stems from popular consent is the cornerstone of contemporary
democracy.

The Philosophes Advocate Reason

In France, the Enlightenment reached its pinnacle in the mid-1700s. Paris

became a gathering point for those interested in politics and ideas. In France at the
time, social critics were referred to as philosophes, the French term for philosophers.
The philosophes thought that individuals might apply reason to all parts of life in the
same way that Isaac Newton applied reason to science. Their principles were founded
on five concepts:

1. Reason. Reason or logical reasoning may discover the truth, according to

enlightened philosophes.

2. Nature. What was natural, according to the philosophes, was also good and
rational.

3. Happiness. The philosophes opposed the medieval concept that individuals

should seek happiness in the afterlife and instead push people to pursue
happiness on earth.

4. Progress. The philosophes emphasized that society and humanity might

develop.

5. Liberty. The philosophes advocated for the rights secured by the English
people in the Glorious Revolution and the Bill of Rights.

Voltaire Combats Intolerance

Francois Marie Arouet was one of the most talented and prominent
philosophes. He authored almost 70 works under the pen name Voltaire, including
political writings, philosophy, and theater.

Voltaire sometimes used satire to attack his opponents. He frequently attacked

the clergy, the nobility, and the government. His caustic tongue earned him enemies
at the French court, and he was imprisoned twice.

Voltaire, despite making strong adversaries, never ceased battling for

tolerance, reason, religious freedom, and free speech. He used his quill pen as if it
were a lethal weapon in the thinker's fight against humanity's most vexing foes: bigotry,
prejudice, and superstition.

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Figure 39. Voltaire, author

of the satirical novella 'Candide,' is
widely regarded as one of
France's finest Enlightenment
writers.

Source: https:// www.biography.com

Did you know?

Voltaire's writings were frequently censored by
the French authorities as they criticized everything from Does the censor-
organized religion to the legal system. A large ship of works violate

percentage of his work was repressed, and the our freedom of

expression?
authorities even ordered that specific volumes be burnt
by the state executioner. To avoid censorship, Voltaire
had most of his work printed abroad and released under a guise of assumed
identities and pseudonyms. His classic book "Candide" was initially assigned
to a "Dr. Ralph," and he deliberately attempted to dissociate himself from it for
several years after both the government and the church denounced it.

Montesquieu and the Separation of Powers

Baron de Montesquieu, another prominent French scholar, dedicated himself

to the study of political liberty. Montesquieu claimed in his work, On the Spirit of Laws
(1748), that division of powers would prevent any man or party from obtaining absolute
control of the government. He wrote, "Power should be a check on power", a concept
that would subsequently be known as checks and balances.

Ruling leaders in North America's British colonies appreciated Montesquieu's

work. His concepts of separation of powers and checks and balances were the
foundation of the United States Constitution.

Rousseau: Champion of Freedom

Jean Jacques Rousseau, a third great philosophe, was fervently dedicated to

individual liberty. Rousseau, the son of a poor Swiss watchmaker, rose to prominence

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as an essayist. Rousseau was a weird, intelligent, and controversial individual who

vehemently clashed with other Enlightenment intellectuals on many issues. The
majority of philosophes thought that reason, science, and art would enhance people's
lives. Rousseau, on the other hand, said that civilization tainted people's innate
goodness.

Rousseau thought that the only good government was freely established by the
people and directed by society's "general will"—a direct democracy. People agree to
give up part of their freedom in the name of the common good under such a regime.
In 1762, he published The Social Contract, a treatise in which he articulated his
political theory.

Figure 40. Jean-Jacques

Rousseau is particularly known as
an important 18th-century
philosopher who authored 'A
Discourse on the Arts and
Sciences.'

Source: https:// www.biography.com

Rousseau's understanding of the social compact diverged considerably from
Hobbes'. It was an agreement among free individuals to form a society and a
government, according to Rousseau. He contended that all individuals were equal and
that aristocratic titles should be eliminated. Many of the leaders of the French
Revolution who toppled the monarchy in 1789 were influenced by Rousseau's views.

Beccaria Promotes Criminal Justice

Cesare Bonesana Beccaria, an Italian philosophe, contemplated the judicial

system. He felt that laws were in place to maintain social order, not to avenge
misdeeds. Beccaria was a frequent opponent of common judicial abuses. Torturing of
witnesses and suspects, irregular judicial procedures, and arbitrary or severe penalties
were among them. He maintained that anybody accused of a crime should be tried as
soon as possible and that torture should never be utilized. He also felt that the death
penalty should be abolished.

Legacy of the Enlightenment

Over a few decades, Enlightenment writers questioned long-held social beliefs.

They investigated ideas such as monarchy's divine right, the unity of church and state,

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and the existence of unequal social classes. They examined these ideas in the light of
reason and discovered that they needed to be revised.

Philosophes primarily existed in the domain of ideas. They developed and

disseminated new theories. Their beliefs eventually influenced the American and
French revolutions, as well as other revolutionary movements in the 1800s. Three
further long-term impacts of Enlightenment philosophy helped build Western
civilization.

Belief in Progress

The first result was a sense of progress. In the 1500s and 1600s, pioneers such
as Galileo and Newton found the key to unlocking nature's secrets. With the door thus
opened, the expansion of scientific knowledge appeared to accelerate in the 1700s.
Scientists made key discoveries in chemistry, physics, biology, and mechanics. The
accomplishments of the Scientific Revolution instilled faith in the ability of human
reason to address societal issues. Philosophers and reformers advocated for the
abolition of slavery as well as greater social equality and a more democratic form of
governance.

A More Secular Outlook

A second result was the emergence of a more secular, or non-religious,

perspective. During the Enlightenment, individuals began to publicly challenge their
religious beliefs and church doctrines. Before the Scientific Revolution, people
understood the universe's mysteries as the workings of God. Scientists gradually
realized that these riddles could be solved mathematically. Newton was a genuinely
devout man who tried to express the majesty of God through his work. However, his
discoveries frequently led people to reconsider their beliefs about God.

Importance of the Individual

The third result of faith in science and development was the growth of
individualism. People began to seek themselves for guidance as they began to move
away from the church and aristocracy.

The philosophes urged people to use their reasoning abilities to determine what
was good and wrong. They also highlighted the individual's significance in society.
Individuals, they claimed, established government to promote their benefit.

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Assessment:
Answer the following questions comprehensively. (5 points each)
1. What were the significant contributions of European people to
science during the Scientific Revolution? Tabulate your answer
and indicate the contributors.
2. What were the core beliefs of the French philosophes?
3. How did the views of Hobbes and Locke on government differ?
4. How did the Scientific Revolution pave the way to modern
science?

Lesson 3. The American Revolution

Philosophes like Voltaire thought England's government was the most

progressive in Europe. The Glorious Revolution of 1688 established a constitutional
monarchy in England. In essence, this meant that different laws curtailed the English
king's power. Despite the philosophes' views, an increasing number of England's
colonists in North America accused England of tyranny. Emboldened by Enlightenment
ideas, they would seek to topple the world's mightiest state and establish their nation.

Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the lesson, you are expected to:
a. describe the cause of the Boston Tea Party;
b. explain the effect of the enlightenment on the American
revolution; and
c. discuss how the constitution provided rights for the people.

Americans Win Independence

War broke out between the English and the French on the North American
continent in 1754. Throughout the 1600s and 1700s, the French colonized areas of
North America. The French and Indian War was the name given to the fight. (The term
comes from the fact that the French engaged several Native American tribes to fight

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with them.) The war lasted until 1763 when Britain and her colonies triumphed and
conquered virtually all of the French territory in North America.

The triumph, on the other hand, exacerbated tensions between Britain and its
colonies. Great Britain has racked up massive debt to fight the war. Because American
colonists profited from Britain's triumph, Britain expected colonists to contribute to the
war's expenditures. The Stamp Act was approved by Parliament in 1765. This
legislation required colonists to pay a charge to have an official stamp placed on wills,
deeds, newspapers, and other written documents.

Figure 41. The Stamp

Act of 1765 was the first time
the British Parliament imposed
an internal tax directly on
American colonies.

Source: https:// www.history.com

Growing Hostility Leads to War

Hostilities between the two sides escalated for the next decade. Some colonial
authorities advocated for independence from the United Kingdom. To protest a tea
import tax, a group of colonists dumped a huge quantity of British tea into Boston
Harbor in 1773. Infuriated by the "Boston Tea Party", as it was dubbed, George III
ordered the British naval to block the port of Boston.

The British's aggressive methods upset many moderate colonists.

Representatives from every province except Georgia convened in Philadelphia in
September 1774 to create the First Continental Congress. This group was formed to
oppose the treatment of Boston. When the monarch ignored their objections, the
colonies resolved to convene the Second Continental Congress to discuss their future
steps.

The Second Continental Congress agreed to create an army and mobilize for
combat under the direction of George Washington, a Virginian. The American
Revolution was in full swing.

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Did you know?

The Boston Tea Party happened in 1773, but the
phrase "Boston Tea Party" first appeared in print in 1825, What were the

and in most of those early uses, the term "party" referred effects of the

to a party of men rather than a festive occasion with Boston Tea

cakes and balloons. Nicholas Campbell's obituary in Party?

1829 mentions him as "one of the ever-memorable

Boston Tea Party."

The Influence of the Enlightenment

To justify independence, colonial authorities exploited Enlightenment

principles. They said that the colonists had sought the same political rights as those in
Britain, but that the king had steadfastly refused. As a result, the colonists were justified
in revolting against a dictator who had violated the social compact.

The Second Continental Congress issued the Declaration of Independence

in July 1776. This paper was produced by political leader Thomas Jefferson and was
strongly founded on John Locke's and the Enlightenment's beliefs. These concepts
were reflected in the Declaration's impassioned case for natural rights.

Figure 42. Thomas

Jefferson was the Founding
Father of the United States who
drafted the Declaration of
Independence. He completed the
Louisiana Purchase as President
of the US.

Source: https:// www.biography.com

Success for the Colonists

The British were not about to let their colonies go quietly. The two sides went
to battle shortly after the Declaration of Independence was published. At first look, the
colonists were doomed to succumb to defeat. Washington's motley, poorly trained
army was pitted against the well-equipped soldiers of the world's most powerful
government. However, in the end, the Americans triumphed in their battle for freedom.

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Americans Create a Republic

The 13 independent republics realized the necessity for a national government

soon after proclaiming their independence. In 1781, when victory seemed inevitable,
all 13 states approved a constitution. The Articles of Confederation were the name
given to this form of governance. The Articles of Confederation established the United
States as a republic, a government in which citizens rule via representatives elected
by the people.

A Weak National Government

To safeguard their dominance, the 13 states formed a loose confederation in

which they wielded the majority of power. As a result, the Articles of Confederation
purposefully established a weak national government. There were no executive or
judicial branches of government. These constraints on the national government quickly
created a slew of issues.

A New Constitution

Colonial officials ultimately acknowledged the necessity for a strong national

government. Congress authorized a Constitutional Convention to rewrite the Articles
of Confederation in February 1787. On May 25, 1787, the Constitutional Convention
convened for the first time. The 55 delegates were seasoned statesmen who were
conversant with Locke, Montesquieu, and Rousseau's political ideas.

Although the delegates agreed on the fundamentals of governance, they

disagreed on how to put them into action. The delegates' discussions resulted not just
in concessions, but also in new governance methods. The delegates established a
new form of governance based on Enlightenment political principles.

The Federal System

They formed three distinct departments of government: legislative, executive,

and judiciary. This configuration had a built-in system of checks and balances, with
each branch scrutinizing the activities of the other two. The president, for example,
was given the authority to veto legislation enacted by Congress. With the consent of
two-thirds of its members, Congress may overturn a presidential veto.

Although the Constitution established a powerful central authority, it did not

abolish local administrations. The Constitution, on the other hand, established a
federal system in which authority was shared between national and state governments.

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The Bill of Rights

On September 17, 1787, the delegates signed the new Constitution. However,
to become law, the Constitution needed to be approved by conventions in at least 9 of
the 13 states. Federalists were supporters of the Constitution. In their renowned book,
the Federalist Papers, they claimed that the new government would create a better
balance of national and state powers. The Antifederalists, their opponents, felt that
the Constitution gave the central government too much authority. They also want a bill
of rights to safeguard individual citizens' rights.

The Federalists pledged to include a bill of rights to the Constitution to garner

support. This assurance paved the path for approval. Congress formally adopted the
10 amendments known as the Bill of Rights to the Constitution. These amendments
safeguarded fundamental liberties such as free speech, press, assembly, and religion.

Assessment:
Answer the following questions comprehensively. (5 points each)
1. What caused the Boston Tea Party?
2. How did the philosophical ideas from the enlightenment inspire
the American Revolution?
3. How did the Constitution ensure the protection of the rights of
every American citizen?

III. The French Revolution and Napoleon

Lesson 1. The French Revolution Begins

France was regarded as Europe's most advanced country in the 1700s. It had
a sizable population and a thriving international trade. It was the epicenter of the
Enlightenment, and the rest of the world admired and copied French culture. The
outward look of prosperity, however, was false. There was widespread dissatisfaction

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in France because of poor harvests, high prices, and high taxes, as well as troubling
problems posed by the Enlightenment concepts of Locke, Rousseau, and Voltaire.

Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the lesson, you are expected to:
a. explain the different factors that led to the start of the French
Revolution; and
b. discuss the effects of the French Revolution.

The Old Order

The French social and political structure, known as the Old Regime, remained
in force in the 1770s. The French people were split into three broad social strata, or
estates, under this system.

The Privileged Estates

Two of the estates possessed advantages, such as access to high posts and
tax exemptions, that the members of the third did not have. The Roman Catholic
Church, whose clergy comprised the First Estate, held 10% of France's territory. It
provided education and humanitarian services to the underprivileged and gave the
government roughly 2% of its earnings.

The Second Estate was comprised of wealthy nobility. Despite accounting for
only 2% of the population, the nobility held 20% of the land and paid nearly no taxes.

The Third Estate

The Third Estate comprised around 97 percent of the population. The three
groups who comprised this land had vastly different economic circumstances. The
bourgeoisie, or middle class, consisted of bankers, factory owners, merchants,
professionals, and skilled craftsmen. Although some bourgeoisie were as wealthy as
nobles, they were subject to severe taxes and, like the rest of the Third Estate, lacked
privileges.

The laborers of France's cities were the Third Estate's second and lowest
category. Tradespeople, apprentices, laborers, and domestic staff were among the
urban workforce.

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Peasants made up the majority of the Third Estate, accounting for more than
80% of France's 26 million people. Peasants paid almost half of their income in noble
dues, tithes to the Church, and taxes to the king's agents.

The Forces of Change

Other reasons, in addition to rising dissatisfaction among the lower classes,

contributed to France's revolutionary attitude. New notions about governance, major
economic issues, and indecisive leadership all contributed to the demand for change.

Enlightenment Ideas

The Third Estate was gaining new perspectives on power and authority in
government. The triumph of the American Revolution encouraged members of the
Third Estate. They began to examine long-held beliefs about the social order. They
began to demand equality, liberty, and democracy, quoting Rousseau and Voltaire.

Economic Troubles

France's government was significantly in debt during the 1770s and 1780s. The
lavish spending of Louis XVI and his queen, Marie Antoinette, contributed to the
situation. Louis inherited a large debt from past kings as well. And he borrowed lavishly
to aid American rebels in their fight against Great Britain, France's main adversary.
The government's debt nearly quadrupled as a result of this. Louis faced major troubles
in 1786 when financiers refused to give the government any more money.

Figure 43. Louis XVI was

the last of the Bourbon kings to
rule France before the French
Revolution of 1789. He married
Marie Antoinette and was killed by
guillotine for treason in 1793.

Source: https:// www.biography.com

A Weak Leader

These and other issues may have been resolved with strong leadership. Louis
XVI, on the other hand, was unable to make a decision and allowed the situation to
deteriorate. He paid little heed to his government advisers and had little patience for
the minutiae of running a country. The queen simply exacerbated Louis's troubles. She
constantly meddled in administration and provided lousy advice to Louis. Her actions

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exacerbated the problem. As queen, she squandered so much money on clothes,

diamonds, gambling, and presents that she earned the moniker "Madame Deficit."

Figure 44. Marie

Antoinette contributed to the
public dissatisfaction of the
monarch that led to the French
Revolution and the monarchy's
collapse in August 1792.

Source: https:// www.biography.com

Dawn of the Revolution

Throughout the Middle Ages, the clergy and nobles controlled the Estates-
General, and this was anticipated to continue in the 1789 gathering. Each estate's
representatives assembled in a separate chamber to vote under the assembly's
medieval procedures, and each estate got one vote. The First and Second Estates
may always outvote the Third Estate.

The National Assembly

The Third Estate representatives, largely members of the bourgeoisie whose

opinions had been formed by the Enlightenment, were keen to influence government
policy. They insisted on a joint meeting of all three estates and a vote for each delegate.
This would benefit the Third Estate, which had more delegates than the other two
estates combined.

A cleric sympathetic to their cause called Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès was a

key advocate for the Third State. In a speech, Sieyès proposed renaming the Third
Estate delegates the National Assembly and passing legislation and reforms in the
name of the French people.

After a lengthy night of heated debate, the delegates of the Third Estate
overwhelmingly supported Sieyès' proposal. They decided to form the National
Assembly on June 17, 1789, thereby declaring the end of absolute monarchy and the
commencement of representative governance.

Storming the Bastille

Rumors spread like wildfire in Paris. Some speculated that Louis intended to
use military action to depose the National Assembly. Others said that the foreign

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armies were coming to murder French residents in Paris. People began to amass
weapons in preparation for an attack on the city. A crowd looking for gunpowder and
weapons attacked the Bastille, a Paris jail, on July 14. The mob overpowered the
guard and took over the building.

Did you know?

Bread shortages contributed to the monarchy's
unpopularity. The legendary phrase attributed to Marie
How did bread
Antoinette upon discovering that her peasants lacked
become a staple
bread: “Qu’ils mangent de la brioche!” ("Let them eat
food in France?
cake!") symbolizes how food may become a flashpoint
in French history. When Parisians stormed the Bastille in
1789, they were not only searching for weaponry, but also for more grain—to
produce bread.

A Great Fear Sweeps France

Soon after, the insurrection spread from Paris to the countryside. Wild rumors
spread from village to village that the aristocrats were recruiting bandits to terrify the
people. The Great Fear, a wave of mindless terror, swept over France. The peasants
quickly turned into outlaws. They broke into aristocrats' manor residences, armed with
pitchforks and other agricultural implements, and destroyed the ancient legal papers
that obligated them to pay feudal dues.

Assessment:
Answer the following questions comprehensively. (5 points each)
1. What were the significant contributions of European people to
science during the Scientific Revolution? Tabulate your answer
and indicate the contributors.
2. How did the Scientific Revolution pave the way to modern
science?

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 World History II

3. How did the heliocentric theory of the universe differ from the
geocentric theory?

Lesson 2. Napoleon Forges an Empire

Napoleon Bonaparte was a small person, at only five feet three inches tall.
However, he did leave a lasting shadow on modern history. Along with Alexander the
Great of Macedonia, Hannibal of Carthage, and Julius Caesar of Rome, he would
come to be one of the world's finest military minds. Napoleon came from obscurity as
a lieutenant in the French army to become lord of France in under four years, from
1795 to 1799.

Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the lesson, you are expected to:
a. explain how Napoleon succeed as a French Emperor;
b. analyze the influence of the Napoleonic code on modern
laws; and
c. summarize the success of Napoleon’s campaign in
conquering Europe.

Napoleon Rules France

At first, Napoleon pretended to be the duly elected leader of a free republic. A

plebiscite, or popular vote, was held in 1800 to ratify a new constitution. The people,
desperate for strong leadership, overwhelmingly supported the constitution. Napoleon
was given complete power as the first consul as a result of this.

Restoring Order at Home

Napoleon did not attempt to restore the country to the days of Louis XVI.
Rather, he preserved many of the reforms brought about by the Revolution. In general,
he favored legislation that would strengthen the central authority while still achieving
some of the Revolution's aims.

Napoleon took attempts to eliminate government corruption and inefficiency.

He fired corrupt officials and established lycées, or government-run public schools, to

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offer skilled officials to the government. These lycées were available to male students
from all occupations. Graduates were selected for public service based on merit rather
than familial ties.

Napoleon considered his most important effort to be his comprehensive legal

system, known as the Napoleonic Code. This provided the country with a consistent
set of laws and eradicated numerous inequities. It, on the other hand, curtailed liberty
while promoting order and authority above individual rights. The code, for example,
limited the freedom of expression and the press, which had been created during the
Revolution. The legislation also reinstated slavery in the French Caribbean territories.

Napoleon Crowned as Emperor

Napoleon declared himself Emperor in 1804, and the French people backed
him. Napoleon marched down the long aisle of Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris on
December 2, 1804, clad in a magnificent purple velvet robe. The pope awaited him
with a gleaming crown. As hundreds of people looked on, the new emperor seized the
pope's crown and put it on his head. Napoleon's gesture demonstrated that he was
more powerful than the Church, which had historically crowned France's kings.

Figure 45. Napoleon

Bonaparte was a French military
general who became the
country's first emperor. His
Napoleonic Code is still used as a
model by governments across the
world.

Source: https:// www.biography.com

Did you know?

It is widely regarded that Napoleon was small in
stature and constantly surrounded himself with tall Do you believe that
Napoleon was just
troops. According to reports, he was maybe 5 feet 3
trying to look brave
inches tall at the time of his death. He was, in fact, of
because he was
normal height, at 5 feet 7 inches tall. Back then, the
“short”?
measurement scale employed French units, which were
smaller than what is now used. His supposed small stature inspired the

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“Napoleon Complex”, a widely held concept that small men compensate for
their lack of height by displaying dominating conduct and hostility.

Napoleon Creates an Empire

Napoleon was not satisfied with merely being the ruler of France. He desired
to re-establish French hegemony in the Americas and to govern the rest of Europe. He
imagined a western empire that included Louisiana, Florida, French Guiana, and the
French West Indies. He was well aware that the key to this area lay in the sugar-
producing colony of Saint Domingue (now known as Haiti) on the island of Hispaniola.

Conquering Europe

Napoleon had annexed Austria, the Netherlands, and sections of Italy to

France, and had installed a puppet government in Switzerland. He was now looking to
broaden his influence. Fearing his aspirations, the British persuaded Russia, Austria,
and Sweden to join them in their fight against France.

Napoleon's war victories eventually compelled the rulers of Austria, Prussia,

and Russia to sign peace treaties. These victories also enabled him to establish the
biggest European empire since the Romans. The great naval force, Britain, was
France's sole significant adversary who remained unbeaten.

The Battle of Trafalgar

Napoleon lost only one important war in his quest for a European empire, the
Battle of Trafalgar. This naval setback, however, was more significant than all of his
land wins combined. The conflict took place in 1805 off the coast of Spain's southwest.
Horatio Nelson, the British commander, was as accomplished in naval combat as
Napoleon was on land. He divided the bigger French force in a daring move, capturing
numerous ships.

Source: https://www.historyextra.com Source: https://www.historytoday.com

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 World History II

Figures 46-47. Before being killed at the decisive Battle of

Trafalgar (left), Horatio Nelson (right), the English Admiral was able
to overpower the French fleets using a rigid naval tactic. The
annihilation of the French fleet had two significant consequences. For starters, it
assured the British navy's dominance for the following 100 years. Second, it compelled
Napoleon to abandon his intentions to invade Britain.

The French Empire

Napoleon's successes in the first decade of the 1800s gave him control over
most of Europe. By 1812, the only parts of Europe not under Napoleon's power were
the United Kingdom, Portugal, Sweden, and the Ottoman Empire. Napoleon ruled over
some ostensibly autonomous entities in addition to the regions of the French Empire.
Spain, the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, and some German kingdoms in Central Europe
were among them. These countries' monarchs were Napoleon's puppets, and some
were even members of his family. Furthermore, through alliances, the great countries
of Russia, Prussia, and Austria were loosely linked to Napoleon's empire.

The French Empire was vast yet volatile. Napoleon was only able to keep it at
its most powerful for five years, from 1807 to 1812.

Assessment:
Answer the following questions comprehensively. (5 points each)
1. How did Napoleon become a French Emperor?
2. How did the Napoleonic code influence our modern civic laws?
3. How did Napoleon become successful during his campaign in
conquering Europe?

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 World History II

Lesson 3. The Collapse of Napoleon’s Empire

Napoleon was concerned about the fate of his huge empire after his death. He
was afraid it would crumble unless he had an heir whose title to replace him was
uncontested. Josephine, his wife, had failed to bear him a child. As a result, he divorced
her and married Marie Louise, Marie Antoinette's grandniece, to ally with the Austrian
royal family. Marie Louise gave birth to a son, Napoleon II, in 1811, and Napoleon
dubbed him King of Rome.

Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the lesson, you are expected to:
a. examine Napoleon’s mistakes that led to his downfall; and
b. analyze the motives of Napoleon in the war against Britain.
Napoleon’s Costly Mistakes

Napoleon's personality proved to be the biggest threat to his empire's destiny.

His quest for power had propelled him to tremendous heights, but it was also the
source of his downfall. Napoleon made three terrible blunders in his quest to expand
the French Empire and defeat Great Britain.

The Continental System

In November 1806, Napoleon erected a blockade—a coercive closure of

ports—to obstruct all trade and communication between the United Kingdom and the
rest of Europe. This approach was dubbed the Continental System by Napoleon
because it was intended to increase continental Europe's self-sufficiency. Napoleon
also sought to destroy the economic and industrial economies of the United Kingdom.

Britain retaliated by imposing its embargo; and, because the British had a
superior fleet, they were better able to keep the blockade in place than the French
were. To impose the embargo, the British navy intercepted neutral ships en route to
the continent and compelled them to sail to a British port where they were examined
and taxed. The British navy intercepted many American ships.

The Peninsular War

Napoleon made a second expensive blunder in 1808. He deployed an invading

force across Spain in an attempt to persuade Portugal to embrace the Continental
System. The Spanish people reacted angrily to this conduct. In retaliation, Napoleon

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deposed the Spanish king and installed his brother, Joseph, as a king. This infuriated
the Spanish people and fueled their nationalist sentiments.

For six years, groups of peasant warriors known as guerrillas in Spain

attacked French forces. The insurgents were not a force Napoleon could defeat in open
combat. Instead, they cooperated in small groups to ambush French forces before
fleeing into cover. The British exacerbated France's problems by sending soldiers to
help the Spanish. During the Peninsular War, Napoleon lost around 300,000 troops
since Spain is located on the Iberian Peninsula. The French Empire was weakened as
a result of these losses.

Figure 48. The Peninsular

War was part of the Napoleonic
Wars fought on the Iberian
Peninsula, when soldiers from
the United Kingdom, Spain,
and Portugal opposed the
French.

Source: https://www.britannica.com

The Invasion of Russia

Napoleon's most devastating blunder occurred in 1812. Despite becoming

Napoleon's friend, the Russian monarch refused to cease exporting grain to Britain.
Furthermore, the French and Russian monarchs suspected one other of having rival
plans for Poland. Napoleon chose to attack Russia as a result of the breakdown of
their partnership.

Napoleon and his Grand Army of about 420,000 men marched into Russia in
June 1812. Alexander withdrew his men as Napoleon neared, refusing to be drawn
into unequal combat. The Russians used a scorched-earth policy on this withdrawal.
This entailed destroying grain fields and murdering cattle so that the adversary would
have nothing to eat.

The two forces ultimately collided on September 7, 1812, in the Battle of

Borodino. After many hours of stalemate, the Russians withdrew, allowing Napoleon
to advance on Moscow. When Napoleon arrived in Moscow seven days later, the city
was engulfed in flames. Alexander had demolished Russia's "holy city" rather than

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surrendering it to the French. Napoleon remained among the ruins of the city until the
middle of October when he chose to return to France.

Figure 49. During

Napoleon's invasion of
Russia, the Battle of Borodino
took place. It was the
deadliest day of the
Napoleonic Wars, and
Russians regard it as a
symbol of national bravery.

Source: https://hekint.org

Napoleon’s Downfall

Napoleon's adversaries were ready to exploit his vulnerability. Britain, Russia,

Prussia, and Sweden banded together to oppose him. Despite Napoleon's marriage to
Marie Louise, Austria also declared war on him. All of Europe's major powers were
now at odds with France.

Napoleon Suffers Defeat

Napoleon was able to recruit another army in a few months. However, the
majority of his men were inexperienced and ill-equipped for war. In October 1813, he
encountered the joint troops of European nations outside the German city of Leipzig.
Coalition forces swiftly overwhelmed his inexperienced army, and French resistance
broke rapidly. By January 1814, the allied troops had made steady progress toward
Paris.

He accepted the conditions of capitulation and abdicated the crown in April

1814. The conquerors granted Napoleon a meager stipend and exiled him to Elba, a
little island off the coast of Italy.

The Hundred Days

Louis XVIII, Louis XVI's brother, ascended to the throne. However, the new
monarch immediately fell out of favor with his subjects, particularly the peasantry. They
suspected him of attempting to reverse the Revolution's land reforms.

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The news of Louis's misfortunes provided Napoleon with all the motivation he
needed to try to reclaim power. He escaped from Elba and arrived in France on
March 1, 1815. On the march to Paris, jubilant crowds greeted him, and hundreds of
volunteers bolstered his army's ranks. Napoleon was re-crowned Emperor of France
in a matter of days.

The European allies promptly marshaled their forces in retaliation. The British
army, headed by the Duke of Wellington, was preparing for combat near the Belgian
hamlet of Waterloo. Napoleon launched an invasion on June 18, 1815. The Prussian
troops arrived late in the afternoon. The British and Prussian soldiers joined forces to
combat the French. Napoleon's weary army surrendered two days later and the British
and Prussian armies drove them from the field. This battle became known in history
as the Battle of Waterloo.

Napoleon's final effort for dominance, known as the Hundred Days, ended with
this setback. Taking no chances this time, the British sent Napoleon to St. Helena, a
desolate South Atlantic island. For six years, he lived in solitary exile, penning his
memoirs. In 1821, he died of a stomach disease, believed to be cancer.

Assessment:
Answer the following questions comprehensively. (5 points each)
1. What were the blunders committed by Napoleon that cost him
his reign?
2. Why did Napoleon plan to regain his throne as French Emperor?
3. How did the loss in the Battle of Waterloo influence the legacy
of Napoleon as a military leader?

IV. Nationalist Revolutions Sweep the West

Lesson 1. Latin America Wins Independence

The victorious American Revolution, French Revolution, and Enlightenment all

altered notions about who should run the government. Liberty, equality, and
democratic governance made their way across the oceans to European colonies. The
majority of Latin Americans despised European colonial powers' dominance. The

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timing looked ideal for the locals to sweep away old colonial overlords and seize control
of the country.

Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the lesson, you are expected to:
a. discuss the impact of revolutionary leaders to liberate their
countries; and
b. analyze the reason for the creoles’ participation against the
colonial rule.

Colonial Society Divided

Class determined people's social status and employment in Latin American

colonial society. The peninsulares, persons born in Spain, which is located on the
Iberian peninsula, were at the pinnacle of Spanish-American society. They made up a
very small proportion of the population. Only peninsulares were allowed to assume
important positions in the Spanish colonial government. Creoles, Spaniards born in
Latin America, were ranked lower than peninsulares. Creoles could not occupy high-
level governmental positions, but they may ascend through the ranks of the Spanish
colonial military. Together, these two classes dominated the Spanish colonies in terms
of land, income, and power.

Mestizos, people of mixed European and Indian heritage, lived under the
peninsulares and creoles. Mulattos, people of mixed European and African descent,
and enslaved Africans came next. Indians were at the bottom of the social hierarchy.

Revolutions in the Americas

By the late 1700s, colonists in Latin America, who were already familiar with
Enlightenment concepts, were enthralled by news of the American and French
Revolutions. The victory of the American Revolution inspired them to seek
independence from their European overlords.

Revolution in Haiti

Saint Domingue, a French colony, was the first Latin American province to
break away from European authority. The colony, now known as Haiti, occupied the
western part of the Caribbean island of Hispaniola.

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During the French Revolution, downtrodden people in the French colony of

Haiti rose out against their French overlords. One hundred thousand (100,000)
enslaved Africans stood up for an insurrection in August 1791. Toussaint L'Ouverture
quickly emerged as a leader. Toussaint, who had previously been enslaved, was
inexperienced with military and diplomatic concerns. Nonetheless, he ascended
through the ranks to become a brilliant general and diplomat. Toussaint had gained
control of the entire island by 1801, freeing all enslaved Africans.

Figure 50. During the

French Revolution, Toussaint
L'Ouverture led the Haitian
independence movement.

Source: https://www.biography.com

Haiti’s Independence

Jean-Jacques Dessalines, Toussaint's lieutenant, joined the battle for liberty.

General Dessalines declared the colony independent on January 1, 1804. It was the
first black colony to break away from European rule. Dessalines named the nation
Haiti, which means "mountainous land" in Arawak native language.

Figure 51. Jean-

Jacques Dessalines was a
military leader who partnered
with Toussaint L'Ouverture to
name Haiti.

Source: https://www.biography.com

Creoles Lead Independence

The invasion of Spain by Napoleon in 1808 sparked revolts across the Spanish
colonies. Napoleon deposed Spain's King Ferdinand VII and installed his brother
Joseph as King of Spain. Many Creoles may have backed a Spanish ruler. However,

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they did not feel devotion to a ruler imposed by the French. Creoles contended that
when the true king was deposed, authority was transferred to the people. The rebellion
erupted in numerous places in Latin America in 1810. The push for independence had
begun.

The exploits of two excellent creole generals were the foundation of South
America's independence battles. Simón Bolvar, a wealthy Venezuelan creole, was
one of them. José de San Martin, an Argentine, was the other great liberator.

Bolívar’s Route to Victory

Venezuela, Simón Bolivar's native country, achieved independence from Spain

in 1811. However, the fight for freedom had only just begun. Bolivar's voluntary army
of revolutionaries was defeated on multiple occasions. Bolivar was forced into exile
twice. In August 1819, a watershed moment occurred. Bolivar led over 2,000 men on
a perilous march across the Andes into what is now Colombia. Coming from this route,
he completely caught the Spanish army in Bogotá off guard and scored a resounding
victory.

Bolivar had achieved Venezuela's independence by 1821. He then marched

into Ecuador from the south. Bolivar eventually met José de San Martn in Ecuador.
They would decide the destiny of the Latin American revolutionary movement together.

San Martín Leads Southern Liberation Forces

Argentina, led by San Martin, declared independence in 1816. However,

Spanish soldiers in neighboring Chile and Peru remained a menace. San Martin led
his army on a hard march through the Andes to Chile in 1817.

San Martin planned to expel the remaining Spanish soldiers out of Lima, Peru,
in 1821. However, he required a considerably greater army to do so. When San Martin
and Bolivar met in Guayaquil, Ecuador, in 1822, they addressed this issue. Then San
Martin handed up command of his troops to Bolivar. Bolivar's army defeated the
Spanish at the Battle of Ayacucho in Peru on December 9, 1824, with unified
revolutionary troops. The Spanish colonies in Latin America earned their freedom in
this final decisive battle of the fight for independence. The union of the future countries
of Venezuela, Colombia, Panama, and Ecuador formed Gran Colombia.

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Figure 52. José de

San Martin, an Argentine
soldier, statesman, and
national hero, was a key
figure in the uprisings against
Spanish control in Argentina,
Chile, and Peru.

Source: https://www.biography.com

Assessment:
Answer the following questions comprehensively. (5 points each)
1. How did the revolutionary efforts of Toussaint L'Ouverture and
Jacques Dessalines led to the independence of Saint Domingue
(Haiti)?
2. Why did the creoles fight against the colonists?
3. How did the creoles contribute to achieving the independence
of the Latin American countries?

Lesson 2. Europe Faces Revolutions

As revolutions rocked Latin American colonies, Europe was also witnessing

tremendous changes. The Congress of Vienna, led by Prince Metternich of Austria,
attempted to reinstate the ancient kingdoms and geographical boundaries that existed
before the French Revolution. On a global scale, this endeavor to rewrite history was
successful. For the next century, European countries seldom used war to settle their

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disputes. However, the initiative failed inside countries. Between 1815 and 1848,
revolutions erupted across Europe.

Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the lesson, you are expected to:
a. examine the concept of nationalism;
b. distinguish the difference of nationalism to other
philosophical views; and
c. analyze the impact of nationalism on the surge of European
revolutions.

Clash of Philosophies

In European civilizations throughout the first half of the nineteenth century,

three schools of political thought competed for dominance. Each claimed that their
particular kind of governance would best benefit the people. Each drew a distinct group
of followers. The following list outlines the ideologies, aims, and adherents.

• Conservative: often affluent landowners and aristocrats. They

campaigned for the preservation of Europe's historic monarchs.
• Liberal: primarily middle-class business owners and merchants. They
sought to give elected legislatures more authority, but only the educated
and landowners would vote.
• Radical: advocated for extreme change to spread democracy to all
people. They thought that governments should uphold the French
Revolution's principles of liberty, equality, and fraternity.

Nationalism Develops

As conservatives, liberals, and radicals argued government concerns, a new

movement known as nationalism arose. Nationalism is the concept that people's
greatest devotion should be to a country of people who share a similar culture and
history, rather than to a monarch or an empire.

A nation-state is formed when a country has its autonomous government. A

nation-state protects its territory and way of life while also representing the country to
the rest of the world. Only France, England, and Spain could be designated nation-
states in Europe in 1815.

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The majority of nationalist supporters were either liberals or radicals. In most

cases, the movement for constitutional governance and the development of nation-
states was driven by the liberal middle class—teachers, attorneys, and entrepreneurs.

Figure 53.
Nationalism is an ideology
that holds that a person's
loyalty and commitment to
the nation-state outweighs
other individual or group
interests.

Source: https://www.nycpoliticalforum.org

Did you know?

Nationalism had a crucial influence on the
abolition of colonial rule in Europe during the mid-19th- What is the most
century. Nationalism extended to colonies, instilling in significant legacy of

their people a longing for independence. It also caused European

Nationalism?
citizens in metropolitan states (those that colonized
others) to accept other people's aspirations to rule
themselves more readily.

Nationalists Challenge Conservative Power

The Greeks were the first to achieve self-rule during this period. Greece has
been a part of the Ottoman Empire for centuries. The Ottomans ruled over the majority
of the Balkans. This region encompasses all or a portion of modern-day Greece,
Albania, Bulgaria, Romania, Turkey, and the former Yugoslavia. The Greeks, on the
other hand, had preserved the memories of their ancient history and culture. They
desired independence and rebelled against the Ottoman Turks in 1821, fueled by the
nationalist spirit.

Greeks Gain Independence

The most powerful European governments were staunchly opposed to

revolution. However, the cause of Greek independence was widely supported by

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people all across the world. Russians, for example, felt a bond with Greek Orthodox
Christians under Muslim Ottoman control. Furthermore, educated Europeans and
Americans admired and valued Greek culture.

As public support for Greece developed, Europe's powerful nations eventually

sided with the Greeks. At the Battle of Navarino in 1827, a combined British, French,
and Russian force annihilated the Ottoman fleet. In 1830, Britain, France, and Russia
signed a pact securing Greece's independence.

Radicals Change France

Radicals led many of the 1848 uprisings. However, only in France was the
extreme desire for democratic rule the primary purpose of revolution. In 1830, France's
King Charles X attempted to restore the absolute monarchy. The effort provoked
rioting, forcing Charles to flee to the United Kingdom. He was succeeded by Louis-
Philippe, a long-time supporter of liberal reforms in France.

France Accepts a Strong Ruler

Following Louis-tenure Philippe's in 1848, Louis-Napoleon, Napoleon

Bonaparte's nephew, won the presidential election the same year. Louis-Napoleon
Bonaparte has crowned Emperor Napoleon III four years later. The majority of French
voters were unconcerned about this action. The French were sick of insecurity. They
hoped for a strong king who might bring peace to France.

As Emperor of France, Louis-Napoleon developed railroads, supported

manufacturing, and championed an extensive public works program. Because of
Louis-initiatives, Napoleon's unemployment in France gradually dropped, and the
country saw genuine prosperity.

Assessment:
Answer the following questions comprehensively. (5 points each)
1. What is nationalism?
2. How does nationalism differ from the philosophies of liberalism,
conservatism, and radicalism?
3. How did the idea of nationalism influence European revolutions?

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