INTRODUCTION TO

PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
SECOND EDITION
Carmelo Rico S.Bihasa
INTRODUCTION TO
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
Carmelo Rico S. Bihasa

Second Edition
 INTRODUCTION TO
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
Carmelo Rico S.Bihasa

Second Edition

ISBN 978-621-409-192-8

COPYRIGHT © 2022
Carmelo Rico S. Bihasa

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 -FOREWORD

The field of public administration, whether as a profession or a field of study, is replete with

theories and practices that have enabled the reach the level where it is rignt
discipline to

now. While it may be seen as a shadows

field of political science, public
that started from the

administration has remarkably weathered several challenges along the way. The field, however,
into a rich and dynamic
persisted despite the insurmountable odds and metamorphosed
that is comparable with the other existing fields ofstudy.As a manifestation of its strong
discipline
which include "Politics
foundation, public administration has survived several paradigm shifts
"New Public Administration"" "New Public Management", and
and Administration Dichotomy",
"Good Governance":.These paradigm shifts exhibited a profound history of public administration

and the nuances which only the discipline could have. Today, public administration is a model to
other fields of study and will remain to be so as the discipline continues to evolve.

Understanding the discipline of public administration may not be an easy job in the beginning.

The students,as well as the practitioners of the discipline, must be able to read the appropriate

materials so that an excellent foundation can be established. Unfortunately, only

introductory
a handful of local books are available in the market for beginning students and practitioners
Some of these locally authored books have not reflected recent
of public administration.
developments in the field of public administration and have fallen short to include a prescription

This book of Professor Carmelo Rico S. Bihasa fills the need for
on the future of the discipline.

the of public administration in the

a local reference that tackles the basic introduction to field

the oftopics from a Western

country. The book is exceptional as it establishes fluidity in transition

perspective of public administration to a local understanding that constitutes the essential part

of the discussions.Anyonewho reads the book will be enthused by the contents as the topics are

carefully selected and thought of.

and practitioners should

This book contains the basic theories and concepts that the students
parts that delineate
know about public administration. It is generally divided into three main
in the book. The first part is
the major divisions of the different topics as they are presented
of the three chapters that introduce the students to the basic topics in the study of
composed
to understand the succeeding
public administration. The first three chapters are essential in order
that constitute the bulk of the book.
topics in the book. The second part consists of six chapters
to understand the
The second part presents to the students and practitioners the opportunity
most complex part of the the second part of the book are the specialized
discipline. The topics in
areas of public administration which are normally taken
by the students as individual subjects in
iv

chapter which provides the students

The third part is composed of the final with
higher studies. For an evolving field like
of public administration. public:administration, a
the future of the
field
feature of any book
on the discipline
is an essential
discussion of its future

publicadministration motivate an individual to.

The theories and concepts of the field of

This book provides a means

on how such intellectual
about the discipline.
more knowledge
topics in the discipline and
this bonl
All the necessary
curiosity can be complemented. public adminict
and tradition inthe field of
a welcomeaddition to the
literature
definitely

Dr(fenjamin G.Jayabas
 PREFACE

The book, lntroduction to Public Administration,is a modest attempt to provide the students with
a useful and practical discussion ofthe theories and concepts in the field ofpublic administration.
While it is a common knowledge that the discipline is already replete with rich and diverse
collection of literature, this book provides a unique framework on how the field of public
administration can be approached. The book is divided into ten equally important chapters but
is generally grouped into three broad categoriesthat facilitate the process of understanding the
evolving field of public administration. The first three chapters introduce the students with the
basic topics of the discipline including the meaning, nature, scope, and evolution of the field of
public administration. The other chapters emphasize the important areas or specializations
of the discipline including that of ethics and accountabilitywhich are often neglected in most
discussions about the field of public administration.The remaining chapter underlines the need
to look into the future of the discipline of public administration. Its discussions commence with
the present condition of the discipline followed by a discussion on how selected scholars of
the discipline perceive public administration in the future. The chapter is punctuated with the
discussion on how see public administration in the future, both as a field of study and as a
I
practice.

The book is intended to provide the students of public administration as well as the students of

political science with the basic yet informative introduction on the management of the public
sector. With the topics logically distributed, it is expected that the students would be able to

achieve a proper background regarding the field of public administration. The topics from
chapters 1 to 10 are carefully selected and logically phased so that the students would be able
to grasp the basic ideas enough to understand the entire gamut of the discipline. Unlike other

references, the book features comprehensive topics and down-to-earth explanations of the
different theories and concepts that would make it easier for the students to digest all of the

discussions. The book also features some questions at the end of the chapter as study guides so
that the students would be directed accordingly on the topics that should be emphasized in each
chapter. These questions are comprehensive in nature and would require the students to think

critically on each ofthe question that is provided. The book also includes selected websites which

the students can visit in order to enhance their knowledge on the topics that are presented in

every chapter. The additional websites are important because of the unlimited information that
can be found on the internet.

The Author
 vii

-ACKNOVWLEDGMENT

I wish to express my appreciation to all the people who helped me accomplished this book,
"Introduction to Public Administration'", which I consider as one of my important achievements
in the field of public administration.The influence of these outstanding individuals deserves all

the acknowledgment because without them I would not be able to accomplish this feat. I would
like to acknowledge Dr. Benjamin G. Tayabas for encouraging me to write this book and all the
opportunities that he gave me in the past and for writing the foreword of this book which gives
a special kind of introduction to the field of public administration. Likewise, I also would like to
acknowledge Congressman EricL. Olivarez for the motivation that he extended in making this

book a reality. The prodding which he provided in writing this book is a manifestation of a public
servant's true commitmentto the government service.

I would like to thank Dr. Erlinda A. Cayao for convincing me to write this book during her
incumbency as the Vice President for Academic Affairs of Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila.
Likewise, acknowledgments
go to Dr.Alex B. Brillantes, Dr. Joel V. Mangahas, Dr. Marjorie R. Rola
and Dr. NeriS. Pescadera, my best professors in the graduate school, for putting up the challenge
of producing this book as my greatest contribution to the evolving field ofpublic administration;
to my colleagues,Professors Christopher E. Bandojo, Gilbert A. Apas, and Albert S. Dela Cruz, for
sharing their valuable insights which contributed significantly to the comprehensive discussion
ofthe different topics of this book. I alsowish to thank my other colleagues,Professors Eleonor N.
Sibal 0.Pena for helping me to find one of the best publishers of books in
and Regina the country.
The commitmentto make quality books available to the students corresponds with the interest

of the publisher,Books Atbp. Publishing Corporation. Finally, wish to thank the Pamantasanng
I

Lungsod ng Maynila for the inspiration it has given me.The brand of excellence which is valued
by our dear university is more than an inspirationto make this book a reality.

The Author
 -DEDICATION

Charo C. Bihasa and Joaquin Iñigo C. Bihasa,

whose presence and guidance provided the best inspiration
on this endeavor, Ihumbly dedicate this work.
 xi

Table of Contents

iii
Foreword
Preface
vii
Acknowledgement
Dedication

CHAPTER 1: UNDERSTANDING PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

What is Public Administration?

2
3
Why Public Administration is Important?
Classical and Modern Approaches to Public Administration
5
Nature of Public Administration 8
Scope of Public Administration 10
Public and Private Administration 10
Peculiarities of Public Administration 13
Is Public Administration an Art or a Science? 15

CHAPTER 2: THE STUDY OF PUBLICADMINISTRATION

Emergence of Administration 22
Distinct Functions of Government 23
Evolution of Public Administration 24
Is There a Philippine Public Administration?
28
Overview of Public Administration in the Philippines 30
The Current Face of Public Administration in the Philippines 32
Sub-Fields of Public Administration 34

CHAPTER 3: GOVERNMENT AND BUREAUCRACY

42
Concept of Bureaucracy
Characteristics of Bureaucracy 43
Evolution of the Philippine Bureaucracy
46
the Philippines 48
Characteristics of Bureaucracy in

50
Regulating and Controlling the Bureaucracy
xii

the Philippines 51
Ecology of Bureaucracy in

of the Philippine Bureaucracy

53
The Evolving Field

CHAPTER 4: ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT

Government as an Organization
62
63
Organization Theories
ManagementFunctions 66
Organizational Design and Structure
69
Managemnent Techniques
71
Leadership and Decision Making 73
Organizational Culture
76
Organizational Environment 78

CHAPTER 5: LOCAL GOVERNMENT, AUTONOMY, AND

DECENTRALIZATION

Understanding Local Government 86

What is Local Governance 87
Conceptual Perspectives on Local Governance 88
Evolution of Local Government in the Philippines 90
Nature and Attributes of Local Government 92
Local Government Structure in the Philippines 93
Policymaking in the Local Government Units 97
Personnel Administration the Local GovernmentUnits
in
99
Fiscal Administration in the Local Government Units 100
Decentralization and Local Autonomy
103
Imperatives for Decentralizationto Work 105
Decentralization and Local Autonomy in the Philippines
106

CHAPTER 6: CIVIL SOCIETY AND' NON-GOVERNMENTAL

ORGANIZATIONS
What is Civil Society?
114
Civil Society and Good Governance
115
Characteristics of Civil Society
117
What Composes Civil Society?
119
Civil Society in the Philippines
121
Non-Governmental Organizations inthe Philippines
122
 xii

Emerging Roles of Non-Governmental 124

Organizations
Issues and Challenges Facing Non-Governmental
125
Organizations

CHAPTER 7: PERSONNEL ADMINISTRATION IN THE

GOVERNMENT

What is Personnel Administration? 134

Personnel Administration and Human Resource Management 136
Scope of Personnel Administration 139
Civil Service System in the Philippines 140
The Civil Service Commission 141

Personnel Administration and National Development 143

Personnel Administration and Its Political Dimension 145

CHAPTER 8: MANAGING FINANCIAL RESOURCES IN THE

GOVERNMENT

What is Fiscal Administration? 154

Government Expenditures 155
Revenue Generation in the Government 157
Government Budgeting and Its Processes 160
Government Accounting and Auditing 164
Government Borrowings 166

CHAPTER 9: ETHICS AND ACCOUNTABILTY IN THE

GOVERNMENT

Ethics and Accountability 174

Oversight Institutions: Maintaining Ethics and Accountability 176

Code of Conduct for Public Officials and Employees 178
the Government 181
Graft and Corruption in

Corruption and the Philippine Experience

184
What Constitutes Graft and Corruption? 187

CHAPTER 10: PUBLIC POLICY AND POLICYMAKING PROCESS

194
What is Public Policy?
195
Why Study Public Policy?
 xiY

196
Categoriesof Public Policy
199
n the Study of Public Policy
Models and Approaches 202
Which Model is the Best? 203
Policy Makers and Their Environment
205
How Policy is Made in the Government
209
Why Policymakng Matters?
209
Policymakng in the Philippines
211
Emergng Context of Public Policy
212
The Dfferent Policy Areas
216
Understanding Policy Analysis
217
Types of Policy Analysis
218
Policy Analysis for Beginners
219
The Policy Analysis Process

CHAPTER 11: ELECTRONIC GOVERNANCE AND PUBLIC

ADMINISTRATION

Understanding Electronic Governance 230

The Rise of Information Society 230
Electronic Governance and New Public Management 232
Reinventing Government Through Modern Technologies 233
What is Electronic Governance? 234
Features and Phases of Electronic Governance 236
Core Relations in Electronic Governance 238
Electronic Governance in the Philippines 240
Addressing the Concerns of Electronic Governance 242
The Downside of ElectronicGovernance 244
The Future of Electronic Governance
246

CHAPTER 12: THE FUTURE OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

Present Day PublicAdministration

254
Divergent Views on the Future Direction of Public
Administration 257
Public Administration and Beyond
261

Glossary
269
References
Index 279
285
 UNDERSTANDING PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION /1

1 UNDERSTANDING
CHAPTER
PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATION
Learning Objectives
At the end of the chapter, the students are expected to:
Define the concept of public administration.
Discuss the importance of public administration.
Describe the nature and scope of public administration.
Differentiate public administration from private administration.
Discuss the peculiarities of public administration.

The study of public administration has long been a pre-occupation of several experts in the
field of management since it parted ways from the discipline of political science. In fact,
most of the experts of the discipline of public administration like Woodrow Wilson, Leonard
White, DwightWaldo,and George Frederickson have delivered scholarly papers and articles
that paved the way for an independent field of public administration. Their articles and other

writings are stillread these days and are considered as significant collections in the literature
ofpublic administration. Other experts in the field made and conducted
their contributions also

several studies which propelled public administration to an evenmore interesting field of study.
Like any other discipline in the social sciences, public administration may be divided in two

perspectives, one as a practice and the other as a field of study. The former started several
years back when early civilizations existed while the latter is rootedwhen Woodrow
Wilson, considered as the "Father of Public Administration", wrote his famous"The Study of
Administration' which called for a separate disciplineof Public Administration. n this chapter,
the meaning of public administration will be explored as well as its nature and peculiarities

and the difference betweenpublic and private administration.

 ADMINISTRATION
2 / UNDERSTANDINGPUBLIC

What is Public Administration?

Woodrow Wilson and Leonard White offered the

best
In studying public administration,
his article, "The Studyof Administration", Woodrow Wilee
definitions about the discipline. In

business which is removed from the

as "a field of
(1997) defined public administration hurry

from the debatable ground of constitutional sud

and strife of politics and stands apart
not a typical characteristic of the w

unlike politics is value-neutral and is

Administration
addition, Wilson also noted that the discipline of nuklss
"politics" in the governmentrealm. In

"a detailed and systematic execution of law. Every particular

administration is essentially

one of the complicated processes which

application of law is an act of administration". It is

subject to a greater degree of "politization". These definitions as expounded by Wilson

are often
field of its own. Politics which
the fact that public administration is an independent
point to

a province of any law making body is to be studied separately from the field of
is essentially

administration. The process which constitutes the application of government policies speaks

Thus, Wilson advocated for the separation

well of the province of the field of administration.

of administration from the field of politics which is often seen as a complicated realm of study

brought about by the significant actors of the discipline.

Pixabay. (2009). Books on Shelf. Retrieved from https://www.pexels.com/photo/books-on-shelf

On the other hand, Leonard White (1997) defined public administration as "the management or

men and materials in the accomplishment of the purposes of the state. It relates to the conduct

of governmentservices to the conduct of the affairs of any other social organization, commercial,

philanthropic, religious, or educational, in all of which good management is recognized as a

this definition, White was more specific than the definition that
element essential to success" In

was offered by Woodrow Wilson. The general idea of implementing or carrying out a defined
White
policy of the governmentby the administrative branch is in effect the point which

by White emphasizes the managerial side of the government

actually espouses. This definition
 UNDERSTANDING PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION / 3

machinery as a means of delivering the basic services to the public. This includes the manner
of handling policies by the managers in the executive department as well as the processes

involved in the lower level of the administrative agency. It is without doubt that the execution
of governmentplans and programs based on the approved public policy make up the process
of public administration. This, however, should not be construed strictly as to limit the scope of
the field of public administration. Its evolution attests to the breadth of the entire field of public
administration not to mention the ideas and practices that were incorporated in the process.

Another definition is that of Felix Nigro and Lloyd Nigro (2000) who defined public
administration as "a cooperative group effort in a public setting; covers all the three branches
- executive,legislative and judicial - and their inter-relationships; has an important role in the

formulation of public policy and is thus part of the political process; is different in significant

ways from private administration and is closely associated with numerous private groups and
individuals in providing services to the community". The definition of F.Nigro and L. Nigro is

encompassing in the sense that it practically governmentas

covered the three branches of the
part of the field of public administration. The three departments include among others all the
instrumentalitieswhich are relevant to the administration of specific programs and policies of
the public sector. In this definition, Nigro and L. Nigro also mentioned that the separation of
E.
politics from administration is not considered, instead, it focuses on the role of politics in the
process of administering the government. Administration in their opinion is thus part of the

political process which is normal in any government agency nowadays. They also noted the
partnership between the civil society and the government as well as the difference betweenthe
public and private administration.

Why Public Administration is Important?

The question regarding the importance of public administration weighs heavily among the
students of the discipline. Its significance is practically the same with that of the practitioners
in the field of public administration who value the discipline similarto their jobs. In answering
the question, however, it would require a careful look at the value of public administration in

today's governance. should be noted that the current system of managing the governmentis
It

the publicsector There are lots of

replete with several questions and complications that abound
But these complications
rules to follow that affect the delivery of the basic services to the public.
more and challenging. In a manual that
make modern governmentadministration interesting

the of public administration was

was anonymously published on-line, the importance of field

In today's governance, the state is not

emphasized as it provides a basis for the government.
for the people. These policies would mean nothing
just expected to create effective policies

public administration. By and large, it is public

unless the state considers the importance of
of public policies possible through the various
administration which makes the implementation
administration, the government, without a
instrumentalities of government. Without public

doubt, will be a failure.

 PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
4 / UNDERS TANDING

of Public Administration
Table 1: Importance
Description
Importance
The stote not just expected to create eftective policies for the
Provides o basis for the is

people. By and large,it is public administration which makes the

government.
implementotion of public policies possible through the various

instrumentalities of government.

as instrument of Public administration provides the initiative for positive developmenk

Acts
to happen. As one of the primary institutions, much is expected from
change in the society.
government to contribute to the development of the sociehy
the

the life Public administration comes closer to the people than the other
Ploys a vitol role in

departments of the government. touches the everyday life of the

It
of the people.
of basic services like education, social
people through the delivery

welfare, health, agriculture, and environment.

Acts as instrument for the Public odministration makes public policies responsive to the public

of policies and as it proceeds in the implementation of all programs and projects of

execution

the government. The enactment of policies is incomplete without them

programs.
being implemented in the process.

Acts as stabilizing force in Public gdministration provides for the continuity of the government
from one administration to the next.
the government.
sc-ll.
Source: Adapted from htp://www.mu.ac.in/myweb_test/SYBA%20Study%20Material/pol

important that acts

Another reason according to the manual on why public administration is is it

as an instrument of change in the society. Although change may be negative in some instances,
public administration should provide the initiative for positive developments to happen. As
one of the primary institutions, much is expected from the governmentto contribute to the

the The programs which the government initiates every year through
development of society.

careful planning matter a lot to the people and the entire nation as a whole. These programs
to

in the process introduce more developments touching on the economic and social concerns of

Moreover, public administration plays a vital role in the life of the people. It is public
the society.

administrationthat touches the everyday life of the people through the delivery ofbasic services
like education,social welfare, health, agriculture,
and environment. The public transacts with the
to be able to operate
government everyday requesting for licenses, permits, and even franchise
a business. They even transact personal matters like passports, driver's license, birth certificate,

and many more with the government.

Public administration is important in that it acts as an instrument for executing laws, pole
and programs of the state. Public administration makes public policies look good to the publ
programs and projects of the government. The enactment of policies B
as it implements all
a
incomplete without them beingimplemented in the process. While policy making is exclusively

province ofthe law making body of the government, the implementation is equally important
that it provides for the realization of these policies. Public administration is also important
that administrations
it acts as a stabilizing force in the continuity of government. is a reality
It
is essentially
in the government come and Once the term of an incumbent leader is done,
it
go.
 UNDERSTANDING PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION / 5

replaced by another through elections. However, such is normal in a democratic regime where
leadership always comes in transition. In this context, public administration provides for the
continuity of the government in that even after the end of one administration the government
continues to work until a new administration comes in. Finally, public administration acts as an
instrument of national integration to countries that are facing class wars. Its independence can
provide the warring groups with the opportunity of discussing their differencesand find a lasting
solution in the ed. Its leadership and network in the same manner can provide the warring

groups with a stable mediator in overcoming their irreconcilable positions.

TEACHERSs

Classical and Modern Approaches to Public Administration

Most of the experts in the field of public administration are of the opinion that the study of the

discipline may be divided into two major approaches that include the classical and modern
periods. The classical period covers the traditional theories of the discipline during its formative

Max Weber, Woodrow Wilson, and Frederick Taylor. Other

stage and includes the theorists like

theorists who may be subsumedunder the classical period albeit part ofthe neo-clasical period
include Henri Fayol, Luther Gulick, Elton Mayo, and Chestner Barnard. These theorists - the

neo-classical ones are noted for their significant contributions on how the administration
along the of the principles of the classical period.
of the governmentshould be pursued line

Weber, Wilson, and Taylor focused on the specific aspects of the administration while Fayol, Gulick,

Mayo, and Barnard approached the study of the organization in a more general and integrative

manner. On the other hand, the modern period deviated significantly from the principles of the
practices of the business sector and
classical period which focused primarily on the admirble
the influence of the civil society in general. The period centered largely on the clients and
 6/ UNDERSTANDING PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

of the market-type mechanisms,

outputs of the organization, application
decentralization,
in the public
to spur growth and development modern
sector. This
and competition periodin
of public administration came to be
known as "new public management" or "post-
the history

bureaucratic paradigm"

Hodge, K. (2020). Belfast City Hall. Retrieved from https://unsplash.com/photos/3el6e4pdVio

In his study ofthe classical and modern approaches of public administration, Polya Katsamunska
(2000) made a comprehensive discussion on the core principles of the classical period.

According to him, the classical or traditional period in public administration is generally

characterized as "an administration under the formal control of the political leadership,

based on a strictly hierarchical model of bureaucracy, staffed by permanent, neutral and

anonymous officials, motivated only by the public interest, serving and governing party equally,

and not contributing to policy but merely administering those policies decided by the politicians".
Such description of the classical approach in public administration depicts the principles which

Max Weber Woodrow Wilson, and Frederick Taylor portrayed in their respective theories.
Weber for his part related the method on how best public administration can be approached.
According to him, the governmentis essentially identical to the concept of "bureaucracy" which

is the ideal and rational way of doing business in the government. In explaining his "Theory or
present in all institutions
Bureaucracy" Weber identifiedseveral characteristicswhich should be
the government. These characteristicsinclude the following: a well defined hierarchy,
division
of

of work and functional specialization,a framework of fxed rules, employment of proper and
in the organization. These
scientific selection of individuals,and use of an impersonal approach

characteristicsit should be noted are ideal and prescriptive. They may or may not be present o

practiced in most institutions of the government. In the case of the Philippines, some of these

characteristics sad to say are not being observed as there are cases that are being reporteu
regarding the ineptitude of the government.
 UNDERSTANDING PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION I7

Woodrow Wilson, for his part, introduced the theory of "politics and administration dichotomy"
which signalled the separation of the field of public administration from political science. More
than the separation of these disciplines, he went on to assail even the separation of the practice
of "administration" and "politics". He based his idea in separating these practices on their
functionaldefinitionswhich look at "administration" as the "detailedand systematic
execution or
public law" and "politics" as the "complex process ofpassing of public law" (Katsamunska, 2000).
With the separation of the two practices, Wilson believed that corruption and other negative
bureaucratic behaviour can be avoided in the process. Another impressive theory of the classical

period of public administration is the "Scientific Management Theory" which was espoused by
Frederick Taylor who believed that there is "one best way of doing a job". The principles that

Taylor developed in his theory were not from the public sector but from the privatesector which
came to be the focus ofthe search ofthe American government for some general administrative
techniques during that time. Realizing the implications of the "Scientific Management Theory"
of Taylor, the American government adopted his principles in order to enhance the efficiency of
its operation. In the years that followed, the principles of Taylor became the same standards
which the American governmentimplemented throughout its administration.

Polya Katsamunska (2000) noted that the classical period of public administration persisted
for a very long time and many ways succeeded as most of its principles were adopted by
in

several governments in Europe and in the United States of America. Its replacement, however,
is unavoidable as new practices in the private sector became indispensable on the part of the

government. Unlike the classical period in public administration, the modern period is unique
in the sense that its characteristics are basically dependent on the prevailing practices and
movements of the time. As early as 1960s, the field of public administration witnessed the
emergence ofa new managerial approach in the public sector. This approach is popularly known
among the scholars of the discipline as "New Public Administration" and exhibited a profound
interest on the principles of participation, decentralization, and representative democracy. In the
1980s, another managerial approach succeeded the "New PublicAdministration" and prescribed
newer principles compared to the former:. This interesting managerial approach came to be

known as "New Public Management"that laid emphasis on the following principles: economy,
efficiency, effectiveness of government organizations, and higher quality service delivery
according to Katsamunska. This new managerial approach emerged in developed countries and
later adopted by several developing countries in various parts of the globe.

The "New Public Management" approach of the modern period was so popular that it was
considered practically by several countries in Europe and the member countries of the
Organization for EconomicCooperation and Development (OECD). It was also adopted by many
countries in different names like "new managerialism", "market-based public administration",

"post-bureaucratic paradigm, and entrepreneurial government" according to Polya Katsamunska

(2000).
The new approach also reiteratedthe following principles: emphasis on results, focus on
the client, focus on management by objectives, emphasis on competition, and focus on the aspect
ofdevolution. In the United Kingdom, the "New Public Management"was pursued by then Prime

Minister Margaret Thatcher through the implementation of the principles of economy, efficiency,
and effectiveness in all the levels of the governmentof Britain. In the United States, the new
 8/ UNDERSTANDING PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

approach was pursued by President the National

Bill Clinton through
Performance
the condition of theAmericangovernment. The
the review necessitated result Review on
af
the
to reinvent itself by focusing onthe following principles: cutting red Itape, government
cutting back to
basics,
putting customers first, and empoweringemployees to achieveresultss
accordingto
The move of the American governmentto consider reinventing its instrumentalities Katsamunska,
recal

favourable response from the general public.

The general theories of "New Public Administration" and "New Public Management were
complemented howeverwith specific management principles of the period which called for a
total overhaul of the entire discipline of public administration. These management principles
according to Christopher Thornhill and Gerda Van Dijk (2010) include the application of the
systems model, contingency approach, total quality management,learning organization, and
reengineering approach. The systems modelaccording to Thornhill andVan Dijk was developed
in1950 to replace the old concept of management and espoused the idea that the
organization
must be viewed as an interrelated The contingency approach is an off-sh0ot of the
system.
systems model and sees the management of the organization as something that is dependent on
the circumstances that surround rejected the idea that there
it. It is a "one best way of doing a
job" as organizations differ from one another. The total management on
quality the other hand
espouses the idea that everybody in the organization has each own function tofulfil and that

the role of the management is to look at the quality of performance of the individualfunctions.

The learning organization looks at the organization as composed primarily of individuals who
are inclined to learn new techniques and approaches in the process of administration, while
reengineering looks at the continuous apprising ofthe organization and discards those processes

which no longer work paving the way for reorganization. The concept of reengineering is best
typifed by the Americans when President Bill Clinton ordered then Vice-President Å Gore to
conduct a National Performance Review. The review in the end recommended that the American
governmentmust resort to reinvent or reengineer itself as some of its practiceswereno longer
feasible.

Nature of Public Administration

Like any other field, public administration is a unique discipline which encompasses even
some aspects of other related disciplines. Its nature attests to its comprehensiveness with two
contending views interestingly discussing public administration from two different positions.

According to Sri Jipson V. Paul (2011), Associate Professor at the University of Calicut, Kerala,

India, there are two contending views on the nature of public administration and these include
the "integral view" as well as the "managerial view". The integral view" perceives public
administration as a field which is comprehensive and encompasses several activities necessary
toaccomplish the objectives of the government. This means that public administration leaves

no room for doubt to exist but includes the managerial, technical, and clerical activities in thne,

government. In a simple office in the government, the integral view looks at all the processes
or actívities that the department performs as something which constitutes the entirety of the
 UNDERSTANDING PUBIC ADMINISTRATION / 9

field of public administration. There is no difference between managerial and clerical activities

and both are considered as primarily functions of public administration. The absence of one
will render public administration incomplete and biased against upper managerial positions.
Even in most developed countries public administration covers all the necessary levels in the
governnment.

LTO

APPLICATION
DRIVERS
LICENSE

The "managerial view'", on the other hand, is the exact opposite of the integralview. It perceives
public administration as a field which limits itself to managerial activities disregarding the
technical or clerical functions that form part of the discipline. It looks at the latter activities as

mere extensions which some experts would say as being necessary in the course ofadministering

the entire government. Unlike the integral view, managerial view is not as popular as the other
among thescholars ofthe discipline. It confines itselfwith managerial activities which in the first

place would not be able to function without the activities in the lower tiers of anygovernment
agency. The upper tier of any government agency is important because it guides and motivates

people to work efficiently. However, the upper tier would be useless unless the lower tier is

considered and takes the part which for a long time has made the government survived in the
process.Even as administrations come and go,the government stays because the people continue
to expect to be provided the needed public serviceswhich are not affected
by the usual transitions
the government. Not to include the other levels as an orientation in public administration will
in

delimit the perspective or the discipline.

10 / NDERSTANDING PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

Scope of Public Administration

The managerial and integral perspectives on the nature public

cadministration

of
define
thescope
ofthe disciplineewhich according to Sri Jipson Paul (2011)is either within the "subject

V.
view" or the "POSDCORB view". These contending views look at the functions and te matter
t

processes of public administration. With evolution, several experts conceptualized

its
the
perspectives which defined the scope of the field. The first perspective,"subject
matter view',
looks at the function ofpublic administration which
specific
concentrates on the purpose or basie
activity of a certain government agency. The subject
matter view lays emphasis on the services
rendered and the functions performed by a
particular governmentagency. One administrative
department is not exactly the same with another agency as the government
shuns duplication of
functions. The scope ofpublic administration depends on the function from
which a government
agency performs. Its scope is defined by the objectives which a particular agency pursues.An
ad-hoc committee created to work on specific or special function would be a good example of
the "subject matter view". In the Philippines, there are a lot of examples of these "subjectmatter
view" of the scope of public administration. Many of these temporary commitees are
created
by the executive department and the usual examples are the investigative bodies that are often
tasked to work on a particular case. These ad-hoc committees in the process are abolished

depending on the view of the next administration.

The "POSDCORB view" takes on a very technical matter which espouses the idea thatpublic
administration is a function of the said acronym. The POSDCORB acronym stands forplanning,

organizing, staffing, directing, coordinating, reporting, and budgeting which was developed by.

Luther Gulick (1997) to explain the basic processes that transpire in any particular office of

the government. These processes, according to Guick, are actually common to all organizaions
which enable them to function effectively and efficiently. There may be differences in terms
of the focus of every government agency but the same processes happen across all of these
departments. Planning for example is a very common yet considered as a critical undertaking
in all government agencies. It sets the tone for these offices to realize their objectives given the

existing policies of the government. Budgeting is another important process without which a
government agency would not be able to perform its functions. Budgeting according to Gerald

Caiden (as cited in Briones, 1996) is essential in that it provides the fuel for government agencies

to accomplish their plans. Organizing, on the other hand, is also imperative as a process in any
government agency. It gives the concerned agency an assurance that there would be people who
wouid conduct the implementation of the plans of the government. However, organizing must
be carefully done in order to put the right people in the right positions. Any miscalculation may
result in negative implications.

Public and Private Administration

With the development of public administration as a field of specialization, scholars began to

look into the difference between public and private administration.According to George
Frederickson (2008), public administration has evolved into an inter-disciplinary field that
 UNDERSTANDING PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION / 11

incorporates some of the processes of other disciplines. Its evolution has reflected much on the
principles and practices of the field of business administration compared to other disciplines.
The principles of efficiency and effectiveness somehow have caught the attention of publlc
administration that eventually saw their use in the discipline. These principles have been tne
buzzwords in the past decade which enabled public administration to focus on the aspect of
delivering basic services.Additional principles from the private administration emerged in thne
process which made the discipline more interesting and unique as afield of study. However, th1s
does not mean that public and private administrations are fundamentally the same in all aspects
of the word. There are still some differences that make public administration more unique than
private administration. Several scholars of public administration have provided these differences

and they were able to come up with a long list of variations. Their orientation alone will tell that
the former is essentially different from that ofthe latter. Other items like the prevailing practices
ofthe contemporary times would also provide the obvious difference betweenthese terms. Jose
Leveriza (2008), a notable writer
P. in the field of public administration has discussed these
differences in Table 2.

Table 2: Difference Between Public and Private Administration

Public Administration Private Administration

Broad field of administration Limited field of administrotion

Actions are based on public trust Not necessarily based on public trust

Routine decision making procedure Unlimited decision making process

Maintenance of status quo Dynamic entrepreneurship

Actions subject to public criticism Not normally subject to public criticism

Restricted by Fiscal AcCOUntability No such Restrictions

Source: Retrieved from Jose P Leveriza, Public Administration: The Business of Government (Mandaluyong:
National Bookstore, 2008), p. 12.

Perhaps the most obvious difference between public and private administration is that the

former is broader than the latter. This is evident in the fact that public administration can be
found anywhere in the community from the offices to the parks and even to other business
establishments. Its border is not just confined within the fences of most governmentoffices.
The presence of uniformed police officers along the streéts of most communities attests to the
fact that public administration is larger than private administration. Some even say that public

administration never sleeps due to the protection that is accorded to the general public. It may
hardly be felt by the public but the fact remains that public administration makes this public
service possible. Another difference is that the actions of officials within the governmentare
often based on public trust compared to privateadministration. Governmentofficials are in their

positions simply because the public temporarily entrusted upon them the responsibilities of
running the government. The public trusts these officials on the presumption that they would
uphold the interestof the people in general. And it is for this reason why there are times that the
public, for cause tries to remove those who are in the government through "people's initiative"

Another difference is that in public administration there is always a routine decision making
 / UNDERSTANDING PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
12

decision making process in private administration. The work in the

as against the unlmited
decide on the same occasions most of the time
P.
government is routinary allowing officials to

say that the work atmospherein the government is dry and

this should not be made as abasis to

tt creates a sense of service to work in the public sector.

boring. In fact,

eeden

Vebl
MAmu
Deakr
able

Mipum
Desro

the

TAKEAWAY

and Work. Retrieved from htps://unsplash.com/photos/RX OvwSPiWs

Distel, A. (2019). Business

Public administration espouses the idea of maintaining the status quo compared to a dynamic

entrepreneurship in private administration. It is not that the government shuns development

but the idea of not resorting to drastic measures could be the reason why the status quo is

often preferred in the public sector. The government does not resort to immediate game

that limit actions.As much as possible, the

changing decisions because of the existing policies its

governmentwould uphold the status quo before any drastic decision or action could be done. In

private administration, dynamic entrepreneurship is promoted. This is expected as one company

other companies in order to stay relevant in the business world. Life in
competes with several

the private administration is always in a fast pace since any moment could spark suddenchanges
public and private administration is that the
in its entire landscape. Another difference between
the former are always subject to public criticism compared to the latter. AS
actions of officials in

are temporarily appointed in their capacities as "care-taker" of the government, theT

officials

actions are always subject to public criticisms. Finally, the most obvious difference between the

two fields is that public administration is service oriented while private administration is often

directed to earn profits. Public administration is aimed to serve the public without thinking o

any profit in the process. Even in the olden time when the government was established throug

a social contract, the primary consideration ofthose who founded the institution was to promot
and protect the general welfare of the people.
 UNDERSTANDING PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION / 13

Peculiarities of Public Administration

What sets' public administration apart from other disciplines is that it has its own peculiarities

according to Gerald Caiden (1982),an expert and a professor in the field of public administration.
Inhis book, "The Study of Public Administration", Caiden enumerated some of the peculiarities
ofpublic administration. According to him, public administration is unavoidable, and the
public
could not simply discard or escape its processes. Public administration is simply everywhere as
individualstransactwith thegovernmentat any given time. Itdoes not take a time-offand provides
the general public with the necessary protection at all times. Others described the inevitability

of public administration as essentially present throughout the life of an individual from "womb
to tomb'. As an individual is born and even after his death, public administration provides for
the transactions of his immediate concerns. Another peculiarity of public administration is that

it expects nothing more than the obedience - or compliance - of every individual. As policies are
enacted and implemented, by the government, obedience is expected from the general public.
Unless the general public manifests its willingness to comply, these policies of the government
will not be as successful - as all other policies had been in the past - and effective in the course
of their implementation. More than the penalties that are attached in all the policies enacted by
the government, it is public administration that guarantees their application in the event of non
compliance.

In addition to the peculiarities that were mentioned in the preceding paragraph, public
administration has also a priority according to Caiden (1982). The work ofpublic administration
is undeniably important in that it should always be considered as absolutely necessary and a
priority of those who work in the government. Its concern includes the delivery of the basic
services which in all accounts should be treated the most. t is for this reason why several
governmentoffices would not want to see delays in the delivery of all the basic services. The
public cannot wait and that is a basic or a necessary policy on the part of the governmentto
treat public service as a priority above anything else. Another notable peculiarity of public
administration is that it has an exceptional size. It is not like any private company that operates

on a limited size and space. Public administration can be found anywherethrough its various
instrumentalities,entrenched either in the national or local level of the government. In the case

of the Philippines,public administration is absolutely anywhere but is more visible at the local
level. This is because most public services are being provided and delivered by the diferent
local governmentunits in the country. As the Philippines is crisscrossed by several islands, it is

natural for the country to rely on its local governments units and to continue to capacitate them
in order to provide the important services. The enactment ofthe Local GovernmentCode in 1991
is indeeda positive step in making the presence of the government felt at the local level. But this
transpired 30 years ago and the Local GovernmentCode needs an overhaul.

Another peculiarity of public administration is that its top management always

is political, and

this has been institutionalized in the country since it gained its independence from the Americans.

governmentagencies are appointed by

Even until the present time, the executives of the different
of
the president and this at times brings either negative or positive implications în the delivery
14 / UNDERSTANDING PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

basic services. ,
By experience,the outcome - whether it -
is negative or positive e-varies
depending
on the mood or inclinations of the president that runs the government. A good president wi

definitely see to it that his appointed executives will administer their respective government
agencies effectiveiy while a bad president will just simply leave everything to them. Foramore

matured governmentsuch as the Federal Governmentof the United States America, this set.an

of
is less likely to affect its performance. However, to a developing country whose government is

yet to be fully developed, the result will arguably be disastrous if not chaotic. Other than seing
itstop managementas basically political, another peculiarity of public administration is that ite
performance is often too difficult to measure. There may have been a number of institutional
methods of measuring the performance of the governmentbut they do not account for the
entirety of its practices or processes. There are currently some innovative means of measuring
the performance of the government but in the near future they will need to be revised and
improved.

NO To

Finally, more is expected of public administration as opposed to private administration. The

need for public administration is arguably unlimited and that compels the governmentto
provide more for the people. The governmentis basically the embodimnent of the people and they
-expect nothing more than the protection as well as the promotion of their numerous interests
at alltimes. Perhaps the rationale behind these
the only institution that represents
inflated expectations is that the government S
all the interests of the people and is
created to serve nal
particular purpose. Other than this, the
governmentis also provided - by the people - witn
the important resources in
order to achieve its objectives.
These resources are not infinite and
people will normally expect
substantial returns from their
investments. Another peculiarityof
 UNDERSTANDING PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION / 15

public administration is that it is unsurprisingly expose to several attacks from all sides. This
peculiarity pertains to the vulnerability of the government from the sarcastic remarks and
offensive actions of the people that may possibly influence its performance in the delivery of
basic services. In the case of the Philippines, this peculiarity is absolutely a truism and can be
observed in both the national andlocal levels. After every election, the opposition party normaly
proceeds to consolidate its members and create aformidable figure
in the political landscape or
the country. Other groups such as those in the civil society do the same and strengthen their
ranks in order to provide a
considerable opposition to the government.

Is PublicAdministration an Art or a Science?

The question, "Is publicadministration an art ora science?" became one of the controversial
issues of the discipline - of public administration - after setting its foot in the United States of
America. Woodrow Wilson, the "Father of American Public Administration", underscored the
idea of public administration as a science by directly suggesting a new science of administration
that has eluded the American civil service system for over a century. While a number of
scholars throw their weight behind this perspective, others believed that the field of public
administration is yet to have the of a science. Their arguments
characteristics set rest upon a
of critical assumptions that include the absence of normative value, lack of
universal application
as well as unpredictability of behavior. Public administration according to these scholars
does
not own nor possess any normative value - unlike aesthetics or philosophy - as many people in

the governmentwork to pursue different norms. Other scholars think of public administration
as a discipline that lacks universal application in spite of the presence of several
long-standing
principles inthe government. Some scholars similarly look at the unpredictability of behavior as
an issue in the discipline of public administration as it is impossible to expect the differentofices
ofthe governmentto exhibitthe same administrative behavior.

A cursory look at the rich literature of public administration reveals that a number of its revered
scholars in the classical period supported the idea that the discipline is unquestionably a science
aside from being an art. After its phenomenalrise in the United States of America, Frederick

Taylor, Luther Gulick, Lyndall Urwick, and William Willoughby complemented the call of
Woodrow Wilson for a separate and indigenous science ofadministration. With the introduction
of the "Scientific Management Theory', Taylor reinforced the claim that management - whether
in the public or private organization - is also a science that is upon a carefully
anchored
choreographed set of rules and principles. Their application in the management of workers and
similar groups of people transcends other organizations and yields positive results. Aside from
Taylor, Gulick and Urwick also supported the idea of administration as a science by improving
on the management ideas of Henri Fayol. They developed the prominent POSDCORB acronym
that stands for the following processes: planning, organizing, staffing, directing, coordinating,
reporting and budgeting. These processes afterward saw their application in the public sector.

Willoughby in the same manner pointed out that administration is a practice that is common
16 / UNDERSTANDING PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

among the three branches of the

almost every institution of the

government.It is

governmentstarting from the

a science in the sense that

executive
it t.
also

to the legislative
and
judicial departments.

Public adninistration in the opinion of the author is both a science and an art. Since its for

introduction in the 19th century, public administration has evolved into an independent
discipline and has developed at the same time a list of plausible practices in the government A
a science, public administration is replete with a number of normative values and princinlee
whose application in the public sector has propelled the discipline into a widely recognized
science of administration. Public administration has also accumulated an extensive body
of knowledge - from the classical until the modern period - that allowed the discipline

to continuously enrich the practices in the public sector. Major contributions from other

related fields have also strengthened the characteristic of public administration as a science.

Economics, Business, Sociology, Psychology, and Political Science were just some of the

disciplines that have enriched public administration with their own theories and practices. As
an art, public administration has consistently provided the public sector with the important
knowledge in accomplishing its objectives. From planning, organizing, controlling to leading,

public administration the processes on how the public sector can accomplish
has expanded
its gargantuan moment, a decent number of scholars of public administration
tasks. At the
believed that the discipline is indeed an art and a science. The combination of both art and
science in the discipline makes public administration an interesting subject of discusion.

KEY CONCEPTS

Administration Legislative POSDCORB View

Art Managerial View Principle of Efficiency

Modern Period Private Administration

Bureaucracy
Period New Managerialism Public Administration
Classical

New Public Administration Public Policy

Entrepreneurial Government
New Public Management Science
Executive
Peoples Initiative State
Integral View
Politics Subject-Matter View
Judiciary

STUDY GUIDE QUESTIONS

of public administration? Differentiate public administration as
1 What is the meaning

practice and as a field of study.

How is public administration related to other disciplines? Discuss the scope of public
2.

administration in relation with other allied fields of study.

 UNDERSTANDING PUBLICADMINISTRATION 17

3. Differentiate public administration from private

administration: What makes public
administration
unique from private
administration?
4. ldentify the peculiarities of public administration. What makes the
top level of the
governmentpolitical?
5. Construct your own definition ofthe field of public administration. Relate
your definition of
the word with the current
development in the field of public
administration.

CLASS ACTIVITIES

1. Working in groups, discuss among your members the important definitions of public
administration that were identified in Chapter 1. Read these and
definitions
carefully
analyze howthe scholars of public administration
viewed the discipline in their respective
periods. After analyzing them, try to come
up or develop your own definition and present
it in the class. The definition that you are going to develop should
be approved by all the
members as this will reflect how the group sees the concept
of public administration - as a
field of study and as a field of
practice. In coming up with your
own definition, consider the
three important branches ofthé
government. You are free to elaborate on these departments
as you work with your own definition.
Remember that your definition will serve as your
"handle" or "guide" as you work or navigate in
all the chapters of this book.
Your definition
should reflect the perspective ofthe students
appropriate in your level.

2. Working in groups, identify the approaches in the study of

public administration. The
class may be divided further into sub-groups as there
are several theories in each of the
approaches that were discussedin Chapter 1. These approaches it should be noted classify
the different theories that have characterized the development of public administration
from its inception in 1887 up to the present timne. These approaches likewise provide how
the field of public administration has put somuch premium on the important theories that
have largely influenced its evolving dimensions or areas. Each group must be able to choose
a particular theory and present it in the class. The presentation must discuss the values and
characteristics of the theory andmust also include the setting when the theory emerged.
The presentation must also provide a briefbackground about the
scholars of the discipline
who developed and support these theories.