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11.7 Ceramic Products Manufacturing

Disclaimer: Emission factors in AP-42 are neither EPA-recommended emission limits (e.g., best
available control technology or BACT, or lowest achievable emission rate or LAER) nor standards (e.g.,
National Emission Standard for Hazardous Air Pollutants or NESHAP, or New Source Performance
Standards or NSPS). Use of these factors as source-specific permit limits and/or as emission regulation
compliance determinations is NOT recommended by EPA. Because emission factors essentially
represent an average of a range of emission rates, approximately half of the subject sources are
expected to have emission rates greater than the emission factor, and the other half are expected to
have emission rates less than the emission factor. As such, EPA does not recommend using emission
factors as limits or standards. This could cause, for example, a permit limit using an AP-42 emission
factor resulting in approximately half of the sources being in noncompliance. We recommend source
testing be done for the best possible emission values. For more information on the use of emission
factors, please refer to the AP-42 Introduction.

11.7.1 General1-3

Ceramics are defined as a class of inorganic, nonmetallic solids that are subjected to high
temperature in manufacture and/or use. The most common ceramics are composed of oxides, carbides,
and nitrides. Silicides, borides, phosphides, tellurides, and selenides also are used to produce ceramics.
Ceramic processing generally involves high temperatures, and the resulting materials are heat resistant
or refractory.

Traditional ceramics refers to ceramic products that are produced from unrefined clay and
combinations of refined clay and powdered or granulated nonplastic minerals. Often, traditional
ceramics is used to refer to ceramics in which the clay content exceeds 20 percent. The general
classifications of traditional ceramics are described below.

Pottery is sometimes used as a generic term for ceramics that contain clay and are not used for
structural, technical, or refractory purposes.

Whiteware refers to ceramic ware that is white, ivory, or light gray in color after firing.
Whiteware is further classified as earthenware, stoneware, chinaware, porcelain, and technical
ceramics.

Earthenware is defined as glazed or unglazed nonvitreous (porous) clay-based ceramic ware.

Applications for earthenware include artware, kitchenware, ovenware, tableware, and tile.

Stoneware is vitreous or semivitreous ceramic ware of fine texture, made primarily from
nonrefractory fire clay or some combination of clays, fluxes, and silica that, when fired, has properties
similar to stoneware made from fire clay. Applications for stoneware include artware, chemicalware,
cookware, drainpipe, kitchenware, tableware, and tile.

Chinaware is vitreous ceramic ware of zero or low absorption after firing that are used for
nontechnical applications. Applications for chinaware include artware, ovenware, sanitaryware, and
tableware.

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Porcelain is defined as glazed or unglazed vitreous ceramic ware used primarily for technical
purposes. Applications for porcelain include artware, ball mill balls, ball mill liners, chemicalware,
insulators, and tableware.

Technical ceramics include vitreous ceramic whiteware used for such products as electrical
insulation, or for chemical, mechanical, structural, or thermal applications.

Ceramic products that are made from highly refined natural or synthetic compositions and
designed to have special properties are referred to as advanced ceramics. Advanced ceramics can be
classified according to application as electrical, magnetic, optical, chemical, thermal, mechanical,
biological, and nuclear.

Most ceramic products are clay-based and are made from a single clay or one or more clays
mixed with mineral modifiers such as quartz and feldspar. The types of commercial clays used for
ceramics are primarily kaolin and ball clay.

11.7.2 Process Description1,3-5

Figure 11.7-1 presents a general process flow diagram for ceramic products manufacturing. The
basic steps include raw material procurement, beneficiation, mixing, forming, green machining, drying,
presinter thermal processing, glazing, firing, final processing, and packaging. The following paragraphs
describe these operations in detail.

11.7.2.1 Raw Material Procurement

To begin the process, raw materials are transported and stored at the manufacturing facility.
The raw materials used in the manufacture of ceramics range from relatively impure clay materials
mined from natural deposits to ultrahigh purity powders prepared by chemical synthesis. Naturally
occurring raw materials used to manufacture ceramics include silica, sand, quartz, flint, silicates, and
aluminosilicates (e. g., clays and feldspar).

11.7.2.2 Beneficiation

The next step in the process is beneficiation. Although chemically synthesized ceramic powders
also require some beneficiation, the focus of this discussion is on the processes for beneficiating
naturally occurring raw materials. The basic beneficiation processes include comminution, purification,
sizing, classification, calcining, liquid dispersion, and granulation. Naturally occurring raw materials
often undergo some beneficiation at the mining site or at an intermediate processing facility prior to
being transported to the ceramic manufacturing facility.

Comminution entails reducing the particle size of the raw material by crushing, grinding, and
milling or fine grinding. The purpose of comminution is to liberate impurities, break up aggregates,
modify particle morphology and size distribution, facilitate mixing and forming, and produce a more
reactive material for firing. Primary crushing generally reduces material up to 0.3 meter (m) (1 foot [ft])
in diameter down to 1 centimeter (cm) (0.40 inch [in.]) in diameter. Secondary crushing reduces particle
size down to approximately 1 millimeter (mm) (0.04 in.) in diameter. Fine grinding or milling reduces

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the particle size down to as low as 1.0 micrometer (μm) (4 x 10-5 in.) in diameter. Ball mills are the most
commonly used piece of equipment for milling. However, vibratory mills, attrition mills, and fluid
energy mills also are used. Crushing and grinding typically are dry processes; milling may be a wet or dry
process. In wet milling, water or alcohol commonly is used as the milling liquid.

Several procedures are used to purify the ceramic material. Water soluble impurities can be
removed by washing with deionized or distilled water and filtering, and organic solvents may be used for
removing water-insoluble impurities. Acid leaching sometimes is employed to remove metal
contaminants. Magnetic separation is used to extract magnetic impurities from either dry powders or
wet slurries. Froth flotation also is used to separate undesirable materials.

Sizing and classification separate the material into size ranges. Sizing is most often
accomplished using fixed or vibrating screens. Dry screening can be used to sizes down to 44 μm
(0.0017 in., 325 mesh). Dry forced-air sieving and sonic sizing can be used to size dry powders down to
37 μm (0.0015 in., 400 mesh), and wet sieving can be used for particles down to 25 μm (0.00098 in., 500
mesh). Air classifiers generally are effective in the range of 420 μm to 37 μm (0.017 to 0.0015 in., 40 to
400 mesh). However, special air classifiers are available for isolating particles down to 10 μm (0.00039
in.).

Calcining consists of heating a ceramic material to a temperature well below its melting point to
liberate undesirable gases or other material and to bring about structural transformation to produce the
desired composition and phase product. Calcining typically is carried out in rotary calciners, heated
fluidized beds, or by heating a static bed of ceramic powder in a refractory crucible.

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Figure 11.7-1. Process flow diagram for ceramic products manufacturing.

(Source Classification Codes in parentheses.)

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Liquid dispersion of ceramic powders sometimes is used to make slurries. Slurry processing
facilitates mixing and minimizes particle agglomeration. The primary disadvantage of slurry processing
is that the liquid must be removed prior to firing the ceramic.

Dry powders often are granulated to improve flow, handling, packing, and compaction.
Granulation is accomplished by direct mixing, which consists of introducing a binder solution during
powder mixing, or by spray drying. Spray dryers generally are gas-fired and operate at temperatures of
110° to 130°C (230° to 270°F).

11.7.2.3 Mixing

The purpose of mixing or blunging is to combine the constituents of a ceramic powder to

produce a more chemically and physically homogenous material for forming. Pug mills often are used
for mixing ceramic materials. Several processing aids may be added to the ceramic mix during the
mixing stage. Binders and plasticizers are used in dry powder and plastic forming; in slurry processing,
deflocculants, surfactants, and antifoaming agents are added to improve processing. Liquids also are
added in plastic and slurry processing.

Binders are polymers or colloids that are used to impart strength to green or unfired ceramic
bodies. For dry forming and extrusion, binders amount to 3 percent by weight of the ceramic mixture.
Plasticizers and lubricants are used with some types of binders. Plasticizers increase the flexibility of the
ceramic mix. Lubricants lower frictional forces between particles and reduce wear on equipment.
Water is the most commonly used liquid in plastic and slurry processing. Organic liquids such as
alcohols may also be used in some cases. Deflocculants also are used in slurry processing to improve
dispersion and dispersion stability. Surfactants are used in slurry processing to aid dispersion, and
antifoams are used to remove trapped gas bubbles from the slurry.

11.7.2.4 Forming

In the forming step, dry powders, plastic bodies, pastes, or slurries are consolidated and molded
to produce a cohesive body of the desired shape and size. Dry forming consists of the simultaneous
compacting and shaping of dry ceramic powders in a rigid die or flexible mold. Dry forming can be
accomplished by dry pressing, isostatic compaction, and vibratory compaction.

Plastic molding is accomplished by extrusion, jiggering, or powder injection molding. Extrusion

is used in manufacturing structural clay products and some refractory products. Jiggering is widely used
in the manufacture of small, simple, axially symmetrical whiteware ceramic such as cookware, fine
china, and electrical porcelain. Powder injection molding is used for making small complex shapes.

Paste forming consists of applying a thick film of ceramic paste on a substrate. Ceramic pastes
are used for decorating ceramic tableware, and forming capacitors and dielectric layers on rigid
substrates for microelectronics.

Slurry forming of ceramics generally is accomplished using slip casting, gelcasting, or tape
casting. In slip casting, a ceramic slurry, which has a moisture content of 20 to 35 percent, is poured into
a porous mold. Capillary suction of the mold draws the liquid from the mold, thereby consolidating the
cast ceramic material. After a fixed time, the excess slurry is drained, and the cast is dried. Slip casting

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is widely used in the manufacture of sinks and other sanitaryware, figurines, porous thermal insulation,
fine china, and structural ceramics with complex shapes. Gelcasting uses in situ polymerization of
organic monomers to produce a gel that binds ceramic particles together into complex shapes such as
turbine rotors. Tape casting consists of forming a thin film of ceramic slurry of controlled thickness onto
a support surface using a knife edge. Tape casting is used to produce thin ceramic sheets or tape, which
can be cut and stacked to form multilayer ceramics for capacitors and dielectric insulator substrates.

11.7.2.5 Green Machining

After forming, the ceramic shape often is machined to eliminate rough surfaces and seams or to
modify the shape. The methods used to machine green ceramics include surface grinding to smooth
surfaces, blanking and punching to cut the shape and create holes or cavities, and laminating for
multilayer ceramics.

11.7.2.6 Drying

After forming, ceramics must be dried. Drying must be carefully controlled to strike a balance
between minimizing drying time and avoiding differential shrinkage, warping, and distortion. The most
commonly used method of drying ceramics is by convection, in which heated air is circulated around the
ceramics. Air drying often is performed in tunnel kilns, which typically use heat recovered from the
cooling zone of the kiln. Periodic kilns or dryers operating in batch mode also are used. Convection
drying also is carried out in divided tunnel dryers, which include separate sections with independent
temperature and humidity controls. An alternative to air drying is radiation drying in which microwave
or infrared radiation is used to enhance drying.

11.7.2.7 Presinter Thermal Processing

Prior to firing, ceramics often are heat-treated at temperatures well below firing temperatures.
The purpose of this thermal processing is to provide additional drying, to vaporize or decompose organic
additives and other impurities, and to remove residual, crystalline, and chemically bound water.
Presinter thermal processing can be applied as a separate step, which is referred to as bisque firing, or
by gradually raising and holding the temperature in several stages.

11.7.2.8 Glazing

For traditional ceramics, glaze coatings often are applied to dried or bisque-fired ceramic ware
prior to sintering. Glazes consist primarily of oxides and can be classified as raw glazes or frit glazes. In
raw glazes, the oxides are in the form of minerals or compounds that melt readily and act as solvents for
the other ingredients. Some of the more commonly used raw materials for glazes are quartz, feldspars,
carbonates, borates, and zircon. A frit is a prereacted glass. Frit manufacturing is addressed in AP-42
Section 11.14.

To prepare glazes, the raw materials are ground in a ball mill or attrition mill. Glazes generally
are applied by spraying or dipping. Depending on their constituents, glazes mature at temperatures of
600° to 1500°C (1110° to 2730°F).

11.7.2.9 Firing

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Firing is the process by which ceramics are thermally consolidated into a dense, cohesive body
comprised of fine, uniform grains. This process also is referred to as sintering or densification. In
general: (1) ceramics with fine particle size fire quickly and require lower firing temperatures; (2) dense
unfired ceramics fire quickly and remain dense after firing with lower shrinkage; and (3) irregular shaped
ceramics fire quickly. Other material properties that affect firing include material surface energy,
diffusion coefficients, fluid viscosity, and bond strength.

Parameters that affect firing include firing temperature, time, pressure, and atmosphere. A
short firing time results in a product that is porous and has a low density; a short to intermediate firing
time results in fine-grained (i. e., having particles not larger than 0.2 millimeters), high-strength
products; and long firing times result in a coarse-grained products that are more creep resistant.
Applying pressure decreases firing time and makes it possible to fire materials that are difficult to fire
using conventional methods. Oxidizing or inert atmospheres are used to fire oxide ceramics to avoid
reducing transition metals and degrading the finish of the product.

In addition to conventional firing, other methods used include pressure firing, hot forging,
plasma firing, microwave firing, and infrared firing. The following paragraphs describe conventional and
pressure firing, which are the methods used often.

Conventional firing is accomplished by heating the green ceramic to approximately two-thirds of

the melting point of the material at ambient pressure and holding it for a specified time in a periodic or
tunnel kiln. Periodic kilns are heated and cooled according to prescribed schedules. The heat for
periodic kilns generally is provided by electrical element or by firing with gas or oil.

Tunnel kilns generally have separate zones for cooling, firing, and preheating or drying. The
kilns may be designed so that (1) the air heated in the cooling zone moves into the firing zone and the
combustion gases in the firing zone are conveyed to the preheat/drying zone then exhausted, or (2) the
air heated in the cooling zone is conveyed to the preheat/drying zone and the firing zone gases are
exhausted separately. The most commonly used tunnel kiln design is the roller hearth (roller) kiln. In
conventional firing, tunnel kilns generally are fired with gas, oil, coal, or wood. Following firing and
cooling, ceramics are sometimes refired after the application of decals, paint, or ink.

Advanced ceramics often are fired in electric resistance-heated furnaces with controlled
atmospheres. For some products, separate furnaces may be needed to eliminate organic lubricants and
binders prior to firing.

Ceramic products also are manufactured by pressure firing, which is similar to the forming
process of dry pressing except that the pressing is conducted at the firing temperature. Because of its
higher costs, pressure firing is usually reserved for manufacturing ceramics that are difficult to fire to
high density by conventional firing.

11.7.2.10 Final Processing

Following firing, some ceramic products are processed further to enhance their characteristics
or to meet dimensional tolerances. Ceramics can be machined by abrasive grinding, chemical polishing,
electrical discharge machining, or laser machining. Annealing at high temperature, followed by gradual

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cooling can relieve internal stresses within the ceramic and surface stresses due to machining. In
addition, surface coatings are applied to many fired ceramics. Surface coatings are applied to traditional
clay ceramics to create a stronger, impermeable surface and for decoration. Coatings also may be
applied to improve strength, and resistance to abrasion and corrosion. Coatings can be applied dry, as
slurries, by spraying, or by vapor deposition.

11.7.3 Emissions And Controls1,3,5,12-31

The primary pollutants associated with raw material beneficiation are particulate matter (PM)
and PM less than 10μm in aerodynamic diameter (PM-10). Filterable PM and PM-10 are emitted from
comminution, sizing, classifying, handling, transfer, and storage. In addition, raw material calciners emit
filterable and condensible PM, which may include metals and other inorganic pollutants. Calciners also
emit products of combustion such as nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulfur oxides (SOx), carbon monoxide (CO),
carbon dioxide (CO2), and volatile organic compounds (VOC). Emissions of SOx are a function of the
sulfur content of the fuel used to fire the calciners and the sulfur content of the raw materials used to
manufacture ceramics. Emissions of VOC result from incomplete combustion and volatilization of the
organic material associated with the raw material. Other beneficiation processes that are associated
with emissions include acid leaching and granulation. Emissions of hydrochloric acid (HCl) or other acids
may arise from leaching. In addition, PM and products of combustion are emitted from spray dryers
used for granulation.

Mixing generally is a wet process. However, VOC emissions from this step may arise from the
volatilization of binders, plasticizers, and lubricants. Forming generally is performed in sealed containers
and often is a wet process; emissions from this step in the process are likely to be negligible. However,
tape casters are a source of VOC emissions. For ceramic bodies that are dry-formed, PM is likely to be
emitted from grinding, punching, and other green machining activities.

Particulate matter emissions consisting of metal and mineral oxides also arise from glaze
preparation, which includes mixing and grinding. Emissions of PM from glaze application also are likely
if the glaze is applied by spraying.

Emissions associated from green ceramic heat-treating processes, which include drying,
presinter thermal processing, and firing, include combustion products and filterable and condensible
PM. Particulate matter emissions consist in part of metals and the inorganic minerals associated with
the raw materials. Emissions of the products of combustion are a function of fuel type, raw material
constituents, process temperature, and other operating parameters.

Emissions of fluorine compounds also are associated with firing. Fluorine is present in ceramic
raw materials in the range of 0.01 to 0.2 percent. As the temperature of green ceramic bodies reaches
500° to 600° C (930° to 1110° F), the fluorine in the raw material forms hydrogen fluoride (HF) and other
fluorine compounds such as silicon tetrafluoride. Much of the fluorine is released as HF. However, if
lime is present in the ceramic body, HF reacts with the lime to form calcium fluoride (CaF2), thereby
reducing potential HF emissions.

Other emission sources associated with ceramics manufacturing include final processing
operations and fugitive dust sources. The final processing steps include grinding and polishing, which

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can emit PM and PM-10, and surface coating, annealing, and chemical treatment, which can emit VOC.
Fugitive dust sources, which consist of vehicular traffic, wind erosion of storage piles, and materials
handling and transfer, emit PM and PM-10.

Several techniques have been used to control PM emissions from the mechanical processing of
ceramic raw materials and finished products. Fabric filters are the most commonly used control device,
but wet scrubbers and electrostatic precipitators (ESPs) also are used. Fabric filters, wet scrubbers, and
ESPs also are used to control emissions from clay calciners and dryers. Venturi scrubbers and fabric
filters are used to control emissions from granulation (spray dryers) and from glaze preparation and
application. Afterburners have been used to control VOC emissions from tape casting operations.
Emissions from kilns generally are uncontrolled.

Emissions of HF from kilns can be reduced through process modifications such as increasing the
raw material lime content and reducing kiln draft, kiln exhaust temperature, and kiln residence time.
Dry sorption scrubbing also has been used to control HF emissions in the brick and ceramic industries in
Germany and in the brick industry in the United States. These devices use limestone as a sorption
medium to produce CaF2, which is removed by means of a rotating screen, drum, or fabric filter. Control
efficiencies of 95 to 99 percent have been reported for this type of scrubber.

Table 11.7-1 presents emission factors for PM and lead emissions from various ceramic products
manufacturing processes. Table 11.7.2 presents emission factors for SO2, NOx, CO, CO2, VOC, HF, HCl,
mercury and fluoride emissions from ceramic kilns and tape casters. Table 11.7.3 presents emission
factors for dioxin and furan emissions from natural gas fired ceramic kilns. The toxic equivalency (TEQ)
used the EPA recommended Toxicity Equivalence Factors (TEF) from the 2005 WHO consensus. 54 To
calculate the TEQ, the appropriate TEF is multiplied by the mass of each congener and then the 17
congener TEQs are summed for the Total TEQ.

References for this section can be found here:

https://gaftp.epa.gov/ap42/ch11/s07/reference/2024%20Draft%20References/.

11.7.4 Source Classification Codes

• 30500802-Industrial Processes, Mineral Products, Clay Ceramics Manufacture, Raw Material Crushing,
Grinding, and Milling
• 30500803-Industrial Processes, Mineral Products, Clay Ceramics Manufacture, Raw Material Storage
• 30500804-Industrial Processes, Mineral Products, Clay Ceramics Manufacture, Screening and Floating
• 30500805-Industrial Processes, Mineral Products, Clay Ceramics Manufacture, Mixing
• 30500806-Industrial Processes, Mineral Products, Clay Ceramics Manufacture, Raw Material Handling
and Transfer
• 30500810-Industrial Processes, Mineral Products, Clay Ceramics Manufacture, Spray Dryer: Natural
Gas-fired
• 30500811-Industrial Processes, Mineral Products, Clay Ceramics Manufacture, Infrared (IR) Dryer
• 30500813-Industrial Processes, Mineral Products, Clay Ceramics Manufacture, Convection Dryer
• 30500818-Industrial Processes, Mineral Products, Clay Ceramics Manufacture, Air Classifier
• 30500821-Industrial Processes, Mineral Products, Clay Ceramics Manufacture, Rotary Calciner: Natural
Gas-fired

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• 30500822-Industrial Processes, Mineral Products, Clay Ceramics Manufacture, Rotary Calciner: Fuel
Oil-fired
• 30500823-Industrial Processes, Mineral Products, Clay Ceramics Manufacture, Fluidized Bed Calciner:
Natural Gas-fired
• 30500824-Industrial Processes, Mineral Products, Clay Ceramics Manufacture, Fluidized Bed Calciner:
Fuel Oil-fired
• 30500830-Industrial Processes, Mineral Products, Clay Ceramics Manufacture, Forming: General
• 30500831-Industrial Processes, Mineral Products, Clay Ceramics Manufacture, Forming: Type Casters
• 30500835-Industrial Processes, Mineral Products, Clay Ceramics Manufacture, Green Machining
• 30500840-Industrial Processes, Mineral Products, Clay Ceramics Manufacture, Presinter Thermal
Processing: Natural Gas-fired Kiln
• 30500841-Industrial Processes, Mineral Products, Clay Ceramics Manufacture, Presinter Thermal
Processing: Fuel Oil-fired Kiln
• 30500843-Industrial Processes, Mineral Products, Clay Ceramics Manufacture, Glaze Preparation
• 30500845-Industrial Processes, Mineral Products, Clay Ceramics Manufacture, Glaze Spray Booth
• 30500846-Industrial Processes, Mineral Products, Clay Ceramics Manufacture, Glaze Spray Line
• 30500849-Industrial Processes, Mineral Products, Clay Ceramics Manufacture, Roller Kiln: Natural Gas-
fired
• 30500850-Industrial Processes, Mineral Products, Clay Ceramics Manufacture, Tunnel Kiln: Natural
Gas-fired
• 30500851-Industrial Processes, Mineral Products, Clay Ceramics Manufacture, Shuttle Kiln: Natural
Gas-fired
• 30500853-Industrial Processes, Mineral Products, Clay Ceramics Manufacture, Roller Kiln: Fuel Oil-
fired
• 30500854-Industrial Processes, Mineral Products, Clay Ceramics Manufacture, Tunnel Kiln: Fuel Oil-
fired
• 30500855-Industrial Processes, Mineral Products, Clay Ceramics Manufacture, Shuttle Kiln: Fuel Oil-
fired
• 30500856-Industrial Processes, Mineral Products, Clay Ceramics Manufacture, Refiring: Natural Gas-
fired Kiln
• 30500858-Industrial Processes, Mineral Products, Clay Ceramics Manufacture, Cooler
• 30500860-Industrial Processes, Mineral Products, Clay Ceramics Manufacture, Final Processing:
Grinding and Polishing
• 30500870-Industrial Processes, Mineral Products, Clay Ceramics Manufacture, Final Processing:
Annealing
• 30500880-Industrial Processes, Mineral Products, Clay Ceramics Manufacture, Final Processing:
Surface Coating
• 30500899-Industrial Processes, Mineral Products, Clay Ceramics Manufacture, Other Not Classified

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11.7.5 Major Updates Since the Fifth Edition

October 2024

• A disclaimer was added on the use of AP-42 emission factors.

• SCCs were updated for Figure 1 and the SCC list was added.
• PM, filterable emission factor was updated in Table 11.7-1.
• HF emission factor was updated and emission factors for HCl and mercury were added to Table
11.7-2.
• Dioxin Furan emission factors were added in Table 11.7-3.
• New quality ratings have been given to new/revised factors based on approaches contained
in the revised Emissions Factors Procedures Document (January 2023). Factors are given
quality ratings based on representativeness of factor (e.g., Highly, Moderately, or Minimally
Representative).

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Table 11.7-1. EMISSION FACTORS FOR CERAMIC PRODUCTS
MANUFACTURING OPERATIONSa
Filterable Emission
Source Emission Lead
PM Factor
Factor Rating (lb/ton)
(lb/ton)b Rating
Comminution--raw material crushing and
screening line with fabric filterc (SCC 0.12 D ND NA
30500802)
Dryerd (SCC 30500813) 2.3 E ND NA
d
Cooler (SCC 30500858) 0.11 E ND NA
Granulation--natural gas-fired spray dryer with 0.060 ND
E NA
fabric filtere (SCC 30500810)
Granulation--natural gas-fired spray dryer with
0.19 D ND NA
venturi scrubberf (SCC 30500810)
Firing--natural gas-fired kiln (SCC 30500850) 0.52g Moderatel ND NA
h
Refiring--natural gas-fired kiln (SCC 30500856) 0.067 E ND NA
Ceramic glaze spray booth - uncontrolledj
(SCC 30500845) 19 E 3.0 E
Ceramic glaze spray booth with wet scrubberk
1.8 D ND NA
(SCC 30500845)
a
Emission factor units are lb of pollutant per ton of fired ceramic produced, unless noted. To convert from lb/ton
to kg/Mg, multiply by 0.5. Factors represent uncontrolled emissions unless noted. SCC = Source Classification
Code. ND = no data. NA = not applicable.
b
Filterable PM is that PM collected on the front-half of an EPA Method 5 (or equivalent) sampling train. Although
condensible organic and inorganic PM emissions are expected from dryers and kilns, no data are available to
estimate these emissions.
c
References 12-13. Raw material processing for production of quarry tile, which is an unglazed tile product
similar to structural clay products. Emission factor units are lb of pollutant per ton of material processed.
d
Reference 15.
e
Reference 16. Emission factor units are lb of pollutant per ton of dry material produced.
f
References 26-29. Emission factor units are lb of pollutant per ton of dry material produced.
g
References 32. Emission factor units are lb of pollutant per ton of greenware fired.
h
Reference 6. Kiln is used for refiring tile after application of decals, paint, or ink screening.
j
Reference 30. Emission factor units are lb of pollutant per ton of glazed used. Glaze contains
about 24 percent lead oxide.
k
References 20-22. Emission factor units are lb of pollutant per ton of glaze used.
l
Emission factor is moderately representative of the population.

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Table 11.7-2. EMISSION FACTORS FOR MERCURY AND GASEOUS POLLUTANT EMISSIONS FROM
CERAMIC PRODUCTS MANUFACTURINGa

EMISSION FACTOR RATING: E, unless otherwise noted

Source SO2 NOx CO CO2 VOCb HCl HFc Fluoridesd Mercury

Firing--natural gas-fired kiln
44·Se 0.54f 3.3g 780f 0.43g 0.025l 0.26h 0.56j 1.1E-04n
(SCC 30500850)
Refiring--natural gas-fired ND ND ND 97 ND ND ND 0.019 ND
kilnk (SCC 30500856)
Forming--tape castersm
ND ND ND ND 58 ND ND ND ND
(SCC 30500831)

a
Emission factor units are lb of pollutant per ton of ceramic product produced, unless noted. To convert from
lb/ton to kg/Mg, multiply by 0.5. Factors represent uncontrolled emissions unless noted. SCC = Source
Classification Code. ND = no data.
b
VOC reported on an "as propane" basis; measured using EPA Method 25A. Emission factor may include
nonphotochemically reactive compounds that are not considered VOC. No data are available to estimate
emissions of these non-VOC compounds.
c
Hydrogen fluoride measured using EPA Method 26A. This compound is listed as a hazardous air pollutant under
Section 112(b) of the Clean Air Act, as amended in November 1990. A mass balance on flouride will provide a
better estimate of HF emissions for individual facilities.
d
Total fluorides measured during EPA Method 13A or 13B. Measurements include HF and other fluorine
compounds. A mass balance on flouride will provide a better estimate of fluoride emissions for individual
facilities.
e
Reference 10. For facilities using raw material with a sulfur content greater than 0.07 percent. The variable S
represents the raw material sulfur content (percent). For facilities using raw material with a sulfur content less
than or equal to 0.07 percent, use 9.5·S lb/ton to estimate emissions (References 9,11). Emissions of SO2 are
dependent on the sulfur content of the raw material and the fuel used to fire the kiln.
f
References 9,11,15. EMISSION FACTOR RATING: D.
g
Reference 15. EMISSION FACTOR RATING: D.
h
Reference 33. EMISSION FACTOR RATING: Moderately representative of the population. Emission factor units
are in lb of pollutant per ton of greenware fired.
j
References 7,9-11, 23-25.
k
Reference 6.
l
Reference 34. EMISSION FACTOR RATING: Minimally representative of the population. Emission factor units are
in lb of pollutant per ton of greenware fired.
m
Reference 14. Emission factor units are lb of pollutant per ton of formed product. Emissions controlled by an
afterburner.
n
Reference 35. EMISSION FACTOR RATING: Moderately representative of the population. Emission factor units
are in lb of pollutant per ton of greenware fired.

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Table 11.7-3. EMISSION FACTORS FOR DIOXIN AND FURAN EMISSIONS FROM
CERAMIC PRODUCTS MANUFACTURINGa
SCC: 30500850
Emission
CAS
Pollutant Factor Emission Factor Rating
Number
(lb/ton)
2,3,7,8- Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin 1746-01-6 1.94E-10b Moderatet
c
1,2,3,7,8-Pentachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin 40321-76-4 7.91E-10 Moderatet
1,2,3,4,7,8-Hexachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin 39227-28-6 8.09E-10d Moderatet
e
1,2,3,6,7,8-Hexachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin 57653-85-7 8.40E-10 Moderatet
1,2,3,7,8,9-Hexachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin 19408-74-3 2.02E-09f Minimalu
g
1,2,3,4,6,7,8-Heptachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin 35822-46-9 1.35E-08 Minimalu
1,2,3,4,6,7,8,9-Octachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin 3268-87-9 1.13E-07h Minimalu
i
2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzofuran 51207-31-9 2.46E-11 Moderatet
1,2,3,7,8-Pentachlorodibenzofuran 57117-41-6 4.00E-11j Moderatet
k
2,3,4,7,8-Pentachlorodibenzofuran 57117-31-4 2.80E-11 Moderatet
1,2,3,4,7,8-Hexachlorodibenzofuran 70648-26-9 6.04E-11l Moderatet
m
1,2,3,6,7,8-Hexachlorodibenzofuran 57117-44-9 4.13E-11 Moderatet
n
1,2,3,7,8,9-Hexachlorodibenzofuran 72918-21-9 1.54E-11 Moderatet
2,3,4,6,7,8-Hexachlorodibenzofuran 60851-34-5 2.86E-11o Moderatet
p
1,2,3,4,6,7,8-Heptachlorodibenzofuran 67562-39-4 1.00E-10 Moderatet
1,2,3,4,7,8,9-Heptachlorodibenzofuran 55673-89-7 3.69E-11q Moderatet
r
1,2,3,4,6,7,8,9-Octachlorodibenzofuran 39001-02-0 3.25E-11 Moderatet
Total TEQ 1.84E-09s Minimalu
a
Emission factor units are lb of pollutant per ton of greenware fired. To convert from lb/ton to kg/Mg, multiply by
0.5. Factors represent uncontrolled emissions unless noted.
b
Reference 36.
c
Reference 37.
d
Reference 38.
e
Reference 39.
f
Reference 40.
g
Reference 41.
h
Reference 42.
i
Reference 43.
j
Reference 44.
k
Reference 45.
l
Reference 46.
m
Reference 47.
n
Reference 48.
o
Reference 49.
p
Reference 50.
q
Reference 51.
r
Reference 52.
s
Reference 53. Note that this factor is created based on data submitted to EPA, it is not the sum of the individual
congeners in this table.
t
Emission factor is moderately representative of the population.
u
Emission factor is minimally representative of the population

10/24 Mineral Products 11.7-14

 DRAFT – DO NOT CITE OR QUOTE
References For Section 11.7

1. Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia Of Chemical Technology, Fourth Edition, Volume 5, John Wiley & Sons,
New York, 1992.

2. 1987 Census Of Manufactures, U. S. Department of Commerce, Washington, D.C., May 1990.

3. Ullman's Encyclopedia Of Industrial Chemistry, Fifth Edition, Volume A6.

4. D. W. Richerson, Modern Ceramic Engineering: Properties Processing, And Use In Design, Marcel
Dekker, Inc., New York, NY, 1982.

5. P. Vincenzini (ed.), Fundamentals Of Ceramic Engineering, Elsevier Science Publishers, Ltd., New
York, 1991.

6. Particulate Emission Testing For Florida Tile Corporation, Lawrenceburg, Kentucky, March 7-8,
1989, Air Systems Testing, Inc., Marietta, GA, April 1989.

7. Particulate Emission Testing For Florida Tile Corporation, Lawrenceburg, Kentucky, April 19,
1989, Air Systems Testing, Inc., Marietta, GA, May 1989.

8. Source Emission Tests At Stark Ceramics, Inc., East Canton, Ohio, No. 3 Kiln Stack, September 16,
1993, Custom Stack Analysis Company, Alliance, OH, October 1993.

9. Metropolitan Ceramics, Canton, Ohio, Tunnel Kiln #3 Exhaust Stack, Particulate, SO2, NOx,
Hydrofluoric Acid Emission Evaluation, Conducted - November 17-18, 1993, Envisage
Environmental Incorporated, Richfield, OH, December 16, 1993.

10. Metropolitan Ceramics, Inc., Canton, Ohio, TK1, TK2, TK3 Exhausts, Particulate, Sulfur Dioxides, &
Fluorides Emission Evaluation, Conducted - March 30 & April 14, 1994, Envisage Environmental
Incorporated, Richfield, OH, May 9, 1994.

11. Source Evaluation Results, U. S. Ceramic Tile Company, East Sparta, Ohio, August 11, 1993,
Envisage Environmental Incorporated, Richfield, OH, September 1, 1993.

12. Particulate Emissions Test For American Olean Tile Company, Fayette, AL, Crushing And
Screening Line #1, October 15, 1991, Pensacola POC, Inc., Pensacola, FL, October 1991.

13. Particulate Emissions Test For American Olean Tile Company, Fayette, AL, Crushing And
Screening Line #2, October 16, 1991, Pensacola POC, Inc., Pensacola, FL, October 1991.

14. VOC Emission Test Report For GE Ceramics Tape Casters Fume Oxidizer, Chattanooga, TN,
September 13-15, 1989, IT-Air Quality Services Group, Knoxville, TN, October, 1989.

15. Exhaust Emission Sampling For Norton Company, Soddy-Daisy, TN, April 19-20, 1994, Armstrong
Environmental, Inc., Dallas, TX, April 1994.

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 DRAFT – DO NOT CITE OR QUOTE
16. Particulate Emission Evaluation For Steward, Inc., Chattanooga, TN, March 30, 1993, FBT
Engineering and Environmental Services, Chattanooga, TN, May 1993.

17. D. Brosnan, "Technology and Regulatory Consequences of Fluorine Emissions in Ceramic

Manufacturing", American Ceramic Industry Bulletin, 71 (12), pp 1798-1802, The American
Ceramic Society, Westerville, OH, December 1992.

18. Calciners And Dryers In The Mineral Industries--Background Information For Proposed Standards,
EPA-450/3-85-025a, U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, October
1985.

19. C. Palmonari and G. Timellini, Pollutant Emission Factors For The Ceramic Floor And Wall Tile
Industry, Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association, Volume 32, No. 10, Pittsburgh, PA,
October 1982.

20. Report To American Standard On Stack Particulate Samples Collected At Tiffin, OH (Test Date
August 18, 1992), Affiliated Environmental Services, Inc., Sandusky, OH, August 24, 1992.

21. Report To American Standard On Stack Particulate Samples Collected At Tiffin, OH (Test Date
August 19, 1992), Affiliated Environmental Services, Inc., Sandusky, OH, August 24, 1992.

22. Report To American Standard On Stack Particulate Samples Collected At Tiffin, OH (Test Date
February 8, 1994), Affiliated Environmental Services, Inc., Sandusky, OH, February 15, 1994.

23. Emission Test Report--Plant A, Roller Kiln, May 1994, Document No. 4602-01-02, Confidential
Business Information Files, Contract No 68-D2-0159, Assignment No. 2-01, U. S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, June 8, 1995.

24. Emission Test Report (Excerpts)--Plant A, Roller Kiln, June 1993, Document No. 4602-01-02,
Confidential Business Information Files, Contract No 68-D2-0159, Assignment No. 2-01, U. S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, June 8, 1995.

25. Emission Test Report (Excerpts)--Plant A, Roller Kiln, February 1992, Document No. 4602-01-02,
Confidential Business Information Files, Contract No 68-D2-0159, Assignment No. 2-01, U. S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, June 8, 1995.

26. Emission Test Report--Plant A, Spray Dryer, October 1994, Document No. 4602-01-02,
Confidential Business Information Files, Contract No 68-D2-0159, Assignment No. 2-01, U. S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, June 8, 1995.

27. Emission Test Report (Excerpts)--Plant A, Spray Dryer, April 1994, Document No. 4602-01-02,
Confidential Business Information Files, Contract No 68-D2-0159, Assignment No. 2-01, U. S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, June 8, 1995.

28. Emission Test Report (Excerpts)--Plant A, Spray Dryer, January 1993, Document No. 4602-01-02,
Confidential Business Information Files, Contract No 68-D2-0159, Assignment No. 2-01, U. S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, June 8, 1995.

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 DRAFT – DO NOT CITE OR QUOTE

29. Emission Test Report (Excerpts)--Plant A, Spray Dryer, February 1992, Document No. 4602-01-02,
Confidential Business Information Files, Contract No 68-D2-0159, Assignment No. 2-01, U. S.
Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, NC, June 8, 1995.

30. Stationary Source Sampling Report Reference No. 6445, Lead And Particulate Emissions Testing,
Spray Booth 2A Stack, Entropy Environmentalists, Inc., Research Triangle Park, NC, September
20, 1989.

31. Emission Factor Documentation For AP-42 Section 11.7, Ceramic Products Manufacturing, Final
Report, EPA Contract No. 68-D2-0159, Midwest Research Institute, Cary, NC, June 1996.

32. PM, Filterable stack test data submitted to CEDRI for SCC/control device combination. Each
individual test report can be obtained via WebFIRE.

33. Hydrogen Fluoride stack test data submitted to CEDRI for SCC/control device combination. Each
individual test report can be obtained via WebFIRE.

34. Hydrogen Chloride stack test data submitted to CEDRI for SCC/control device combination. Each
individual test report can be obtained via WebFIRE.

35. Mercury stack test data submitted to CEDRI for SCC/control device combination. Each individual
test report can be obtained via WebFIRE.

36. 2,3,7,8- Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin stack test data submitted to CEDRI for SCC/control device
combination. Each individual test report can be obtained via WebFIRE.

37. 1,2,3,7,8-Pentachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin stack test data submitted to CEDRI for SCC/control device
combination. Each individual test report can be obtained via WebFIRE.

38. 1,2,3,4,7,8-Hexachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin stack test data submitted to CEDRI for SCC/control

device combination. Each individual test report can be obtained via WebFIRE.

39. 1,2,3,6,7,8-Hexachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin stack test data submitted to CEDRI for SCC/control

device combination. Each individual test report can be obtained via WebFIRE.

40. 1,2,3,7,8,9-Hexachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin stack test data submitted to CEDRI for SCC/control

device combination. Each individual test report can be obtained via WebFIRE.

41. 1,2,3,4,6,7,8-Heptachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin stack test data submitted to CEDRI for SCC/control

device combination. Each individual test report can be obtained via WebFIRE.

42. 1,2,3,4,6,7,8,9-Octachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin stack test data submitted to CEDRI for SCC/control

device combination. Each individual test report can be obtained via WebFIRE.

43. 2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzofuran stack test data submitted to CEDRI for SCC/control device
combination. Each individual test report can be obtained via WebFIRE.

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44. 1,2,3,7,8-Pentachlorodibenzofuran stack test data submitted to CEDRI for SCC/control device
combination. Each individual test report can be obtained via WebFIRE.

45. 2,3,4,7,8-Pentachlorodibenzofuran stack test data submitted to CEDRI for SCC/control device
combination. Each individual test report can be obtained via WebFIRE.

46. 1,2,3,4,7,8-Hexachlorodibenzofuran stack test data submitted to CEDRI for SCC/control device
combination. Each individual test report can be obtained via WebFIRE.

47. 1,2,3,6,7,8-Hexachlorodibenzofuran stack test data submitted to CEDRI for SCC/control device
combination. Each individual test report can be obtained via WebFIRE.

48. 1,2,3,7,8,9-Hexachlorodibenzofuran stack test data submitted to CEDRI for SCC/control device
combination. Each individual test report can be obtained via WebFIRE.

49. 2,3,4,6,7,8-Hexachlorodibenzofuran stack test data submitted to CEDRI for SCC/control device
combination. Each individual test report can be obtained via WebFIRE.

50. 1,2,3,4,6,7,8-Heptachlorodibenzofuran stack test data submitted to CEDRI for SCC/control

device combination. Each individual test report can be obtained via WebFIRE.

51. 1,2,3,4,7,8,9-Heptachlorodibenzofuran stack test data submitted to CEDRI for SCC/control

device combination. Each individual test report can be obtained via WebFIRE.

52. 1,2,3,4,6,7,8,9-Octachlorodibenzofuran stack test data submitted to CEDRI for SCC/control

device combination. Each individual test report can be obtained via WebFIRE.

53. Total TEQ stack test data submitted to CEDRI for SCC/control device combination. Each
individual test report can be obtained via WebFIRE.

54. U.S. EPA (Environmental Protection Agency). (2010) Recommended Toxicity Equivalence Factors
(TEFs) for Human Health Risk Assessments of 2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin and Dioxin-
Like Compounds. Risk Assessment Forum, Washington, DC. EPA/600/R-10/005.

References for this section can be found:

https://gaftp.epa.gov/ap42/ch11/s07/reference/2024%20Draft%20References/.

10/24 Mineral Products 11.7-18