DIFFERENT STRUCTURES OF RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

The respiratory system, also called the pulmonary system, consists of several organs that
function as a whole to oxygenate the body through the process of respiration (breathing). This
process involves inhaling air and conducting it to the lungs where gas exchange occurs, during
which oxygen is extracted from the air and carbon dioxide is expelled from the body. The
respiratory tract is divided into two sections at the level of the vocal cords; the upper and lower
respiratory tract.

Figure: Major Respiratory Structures.

 The upper respiratory tract includes the nasal cavity, paranasal sinuses, pharynx and the portion
of the larynx above the vocal cords.
 The lower respiratory tract includes the larynx below the vocal cords, the trachea, bronchi,
bronchioles and the lungs.
The lungs are most often considered as part of the lower respiratory tract, but are sometimes
described as a separate entity. They contain the respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar
sacs and alveoli.
Functions: Upper respiratory tract: conduction, filtration, humidification and warming of
inhaled air. Lower respiratory tract: conduction and gas exchange.

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Upper respiratory tract
The upper respiratory tract refers to the parts of the respiratory system that lie outside
the thorax, more specifically above the cricoid cartilage and vocal cords. It includes the nasal
cavity, paranasal sinuses, pharynx and the superior portion of the larynx. Most of the upper
respiratory tract is lined with the pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium, also known as
the respiratory epithelium. The exceptions are some parts of the pharynx and larynx.

Nasal cavity
The upper respiratory tract begins with the nasal cavity. The nasal cavity opens anteriorly on
the face through the two nares (nostril), and posteriorly into the nasopharynx through the two
choanae. The nares and anterior portion of the nasal cavity contain sebaceous glands and hair
follicles that serve to prevent any larger harmful particles from passing into the nasal cavity.
The nasal cavity receives the inhaled air and contributes to its humidifying and warming.

Figure: Nasal Cavity

The roof of the nasal cavity contains the olfactory epithelium which consists of specialized
sensory receptors. These receptors pick up airborne odorant molecules and transform them
into action potentials that travel via the olfactory nerve to the cerebral cortex, allowing
the brain to provide a sense of smell.

Paranasal sinuses
Several bones that form the walls of the nasal cavity contain air-filled spaces called the
paranasal sinuses, which are named after their associated
bones; maxillary, frontal, sphenoidal and ethmoidal sinuses.

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 Figure: Paranasal sinuses
Pharynx
After passing through the nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses, the inhaled air exits through the
choanae into the pharynx. The pharynx is a funnel-shaped muscular tube that contains three
parts; the nasopharynx, oropharynx and laryngopharynx.
 The nasopharynx is the first and superior most part of the pharynx, found posterior to the
nasal cavity. This part of the pharynx serves only as an airway. Inferiorly, the uvula and soft
palate swing upwards during swallowing to close off the nasopharynx and prevent food from
entering the nasal cavity.
 The oropharynx is a pathway for both the air incoming from the nasopharynx and the food
incoming from the oral cavity.
 The laryngopharynx (hypopharynx) is the most inferior part of the pharynx. It is the point at
which the digestive and respiratory systems diverge. Anteriorly, the laryngopharynx
continues into the larynx, whereas posteriorly it continues as the esophagus.

Figure: Pharynx and Larynx

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Larynx
Following the laryngopharynx, the next and last portion of the upper respiratory tract is
the superior part of the larynx. Its main function to conduct the air. The larynx also contains
the vocal cords that participate in voice production. The laryngeal opening is closed by
the epiglottis during swallowing to prevent food or liquid from entering the lower respiratory
tract. Glottis is the opening into the windpipe, which is responsible for the production of
sound. On the other hand, epiglottis is the cartilaginous flap on top of the glottis, which
prevents the entering of food into the larynx.

Lower respiratory tract

The lower respiratory tract refers to the parts of the respiratory system including the inferior
part of the larynx, tracheobronchial tree and lungs.

Tracheobronchial tree
TRACHEA
The trachea (windpipe) extends from the larynx toward the lungs. The trachea is formed by
16 to 20 stacked, C-shaped pieces of hyaline cartilage that are connected by dense connective
tissue and supported by trachealis muscle.

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 Figure: trachea and bronchi

BRONCHIAL TREE
The trachea branches into the right and left primary bronchi (singular – bronchus) at the
carina. Rings of cartilage, similar to those of the trachea, support the structure of the bronchi
and prevent their collapse. The primary bronchi enter the lungs at the hilum, a concave region
where blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerves also enter the lungs. The bronchi continue
to branch into bronchial a tree. The main function of the bronchus is to provide a passageway
for air to move into and out of each lung. In addition, the mucous membrane traps debris and
pathogens.
The left main bronchus or primary bronchus divides into two secondary lobar bronchi,
while the right main bronchus divides into three secondary lobar bronchi that supply the
lobes of the left and right lung, respectively.
Each of the lobar bronchi further divides into tertiary segmental bronchi. The segmental
bronchi then give rise to intrasegmental (conducting) bronchioles, which end as terminal
bronchioles.
Functionally, the respiratory system can be divided into a conducting zone and a respiratory
zone. The conducting zone is from the nose upto the terminal bronchioles that conduct air
but not participate in gaseous exchange. The gas exchange occurs in the respiratory zone
which is from respiratory bronchioles to the alveoli. The respiratory zone begins where the
terminal bronchioles join a respiratory bronchiole, the smallest type of bronchiole which
then leads to an alveolar duct, opening into a cluster of alveoli.

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Primary bronchii or Main bronchii secondary lobar bronchi tertiary
segmental bronchi intrasegmental (conducting) bronchioles terminal
bronchioles respiratory bronchioles alveolar ducts alveoli

Figure: Alveoli

ALVEOLI
An alveolar duct is a tube composed of smooth muscle and connective tissue, which opens
into a cluster of alveoli. An alveolus (pleural – Alveoli) is one of the many small, grape-like
sacs that are attached to the alveolar ducts.
An alveolar sac is a cluster of many individual alveoli that are responsible for gas exchange.
An alveolus is approximately 200 μm in diameter with elastic walls that allow the alveolus to
stretch during air intake, which greatly increases the surface area available for gas exchange.
Alveoli are connected to their neighbors by alveolar pores, which help maintain equal air
pressure throughout the alveoli and lung
The alveolar wall consists of three major cell types: type I alveolar cells, type II alveolar
cells, and alveolar macrophages. A type I alveolar cell is a squamous epithelial cell of the
alveoli, which constitute up to 97 percent of the alveolar surface area. These cells are about
25 nm thick and are highly permeable to gases. A type II alveolar cell is interspersed among
the type I cells and secretes pulmonary surfactant, a substance composed of phospholipids
and proteins that reduces the surface tension of the alveoli. Roaming around the alveolar wall
is the alveolar macrophage, a phagocytic cell of the immune system that removes debris and
pathogens that have reached the alveoli.
The simple squamous epithelium formed by type I alveolar cells is attached to a thin, elastic
basement membrane. This epithelium is extremely thin and borders the endothelial membrane

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of capillaries. Taken together, the alveoli and capillary membranes form a respiratory
membrane that is approximately 0.5 mm thick. The respiratory membrane allows gases to
cross by simple diffusion, allowing oxygen to be picked up by the blood for transport and
CO2 to be released into the air of the alveoli.

Figure: Alveolar cells Figure: Respiratory membrane

LUNG
A major organ of the respiratory system, each lung houses structures of both the conducting
and respiratory zones. The main function of the lungs is to perform the exchange of oxygen
and carbon dioxide with air from the atmosphere.

ANATOMY OF THE LUNGS

The lungs are pyramid-shaped, paired organs that are connected to the trachea by the right
and left bronchi; on the inferior surface, the lungs are bordered by the diaphragm. The lungs
are enclosed by the pleurae, which are attached to the mediastinum. The right lung is wider
than the left lung, and the left lung occupies a smaller volume than the right. The cardiac
notch is an indentation on the surface of the left lung, and it allows space for the heart. Each
lung is composed of smaller units called lobes. Fissures separate these lobes from each other.
The right lung consists of three lobes: the superior, middle, and inferior lobes. The left lung
consists of two lobes: the superior and inferior lobes. Lobes subdivided into lobules. An
interlobular septum is a wall, composed of connective tissue, which separates lobules from
one another.

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FIGURE: LUNG ANATOMY

PLEURA OF THE LUNGS

Each lung is enclosed within a cavity that is surrounded by the pleura membrane. The pleurae
consist of two layers. The visceral pleura is the inner layer covering the internal structures of
the lung and the parietal pleura is the outer layer that connects to the thoracic wall, the
mediastinum, and the diaphragm. The visceral and parietal pleurae connect to each other at
the hilum. The pleural cavity is the space between the visceral and parietal layers.
Pleural fluid is secreted by mesothelial cells from both pleural layers and acts to lubricate
their surfaces. This lubrication reduces friction between the two layers to prevent trauma
during breathing, and creates surface tension that helps maintain the position of the lungs
against the thoracic wall. This adhesive characteristic of the pleural fluid causes the lungs to
enlarge when the thoracic wall expands during ventilation, allowing the lungs to fill with air.

Figure: pleural cavity Figure: mediastinum