INFORMATION SYSTEMS

DEVELOPMENT

By Salome Mwangi
The Cooperative University of Kenya
Chapter outline
 Why new/upgrade Systems?
 Factors affecting system development
 Traditional Systems Development Life Cycle
 Alternative Methods and Tools for System
Development
 Prototyping
 End User Development
 Application Software Packages
 Outsourcing
 CASE Tools
 RAP

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Overview of Systems Development

 Systems development includes every resource and

every step that goes into producing an information
system that solves a problem or helps the organization
take advantage of new opportunities.

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Factors affecting system development

Factors that help to ensure successful system

development
 Clearly defined organizational goals
 Support of top management
 Involvement of all users at all stages
 Use of proven system development approach
 Creating or aligning incremental system benefits with normal
user work activities so as to provide incentive for effective system
interaction
 Managing change:- ability to recognize existing or potential
problems (particular the concerns of users) and deal with them
before it become a serous threat to the success of the system
 Good training programs for all involved.
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Factors have been identified as contributing to the
failure of a particular systems development projects
 Solving the wrong problem
 Poor problem definition and analysis
 Poor communication
 A project that is too ambitious
 A lack of top management support
 Failure to use a standard system development
approach
 Inadequate or improper system design
 Poor testing and implementation
 A lack of concern for maintenance
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Sourcing Information Systems
 In house development
 Purchasing – off shelf packages/Proprietary
software
 Lease -
 Outsource

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INFORMATION SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT APPROACHES
 Traditional systems lifecycle method
(SDLC)
 Prototyping,
 End-user development, and
 Rapid application development
 Joint application development

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Traditional Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC)

 This is the traditional systems development method

that organizations use for large-scale IT projects.
 The lifecycle methodology has a very formal division of
labor between end users and information systems
specialists.
 Technical specialists such as systems analysts and
programmers are responsible for much of the systems
analysis, design, and implementation work; end users
are limited to providing information requirements and
reviewing the technical staff's work.
 Formal agreements between end users and technical
specialists are required as each stage is completed.

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Traditional Systems Development Life Cycle
 Majors Steps/Phases
 Systems investigation,
 Systems analysis,
 Systems design,
 Implementation, and
 Review and Maintenance.

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SDLC – Systems Investigation
 Begins with the business problem (or opportunity)
followed by a feasibility analysis.
 Feasibility study
 Technical feasibility
 Economic feasibility
 Organizational feasibility
 Behavioral feasibility
 Go/No-Go Decision

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SDLC – Systems Investigation
 The feasibility study is the main task of the
Systems Investigation phase.
 The feasibility study helps the organization choose
between 3 options:
 Do nothing and continue to use the existing
system unchanged.
 Modify or enhance the existing system.
 Develop a new system.

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SDLC – System Analysis
 Is the examination of the business problem that the
organization plans to solve with an information system.
 Main purpose is to gather information about existing
system to determine requirements for the new or improved
system.
 System analysis includes:
 Organizational Analysis
 Analysis of the Present System
 Functional Requirements- user information
requirements
 Deliverable is a set of system requirements.

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SDLC – Systems Design
 Systems analysis describes what a system should do to
meet the information needs of users.
 Systems design specifies how the system will
accomplish this objective. Systems design consists of
design activities that produce system specifications
satisfying the functional requirements developed in
the systems analysis stage.

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SDLC – Systems Design
 Deliverable is a technical design that specifies:
 System outputs, inputs, user interfaces.
 Hardware, software, databases, telecommunications,
personnel & procedures.
 Blueprint of how these components are integrated. It
comprises of the following:
 User interface design

 Process design

 Data design

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SDLC – Systems Design
1. User Interface Design. The user interface design activity
focuses on supporting the interactions between end users
and their computer-based applications. Designers
concentrate on the design of attractive and efficient forms
of user input and output, such as easy-to-use Internet or
intranet Web pages
2. Process Design: The process design activity focuses on
the design of software resources, that is the programs and
procedures needed by the proposed information systems.
3. Data Design. The data design activity focuses on the
design of the structure of databases and files to be used
by proposed information system
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Systems Implementation
Involves several set of activities
 Coding/actual development
 Testing of systems – programs and procedures
 Acquisition of hardware and software (software
might be developed)
 Performance of a variety of installation activities
 Training people to operate and use systems
 Development of documentation
 Converting to new system
 The product is operational system.
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System Conversion strategies

Four major conversion strategies ;

 Direct conversion. Implementation process in which
the old system is cut-off and the new system turned on
at a certain point in time.
 Pilot conversion. Implementation process that
introduces the new system in one part of the
organization on a trial basis, when new system is
working properly, it is introduced in other parts of the
organization.
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System Conversion
strategies
 Phased conversion. Implementation process that
introduces components of the new system in stages,
until the entire new system is operational.
 Parallel conversion. Implementation process in
which the old system and the new system operate
simultaneously for a period of time. Rarely used today
if at all.

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A combination of the approaches could be used, the
choice being based on a number of factors which include:

 Risks involved in the approach

 Costs expected
 Size of the system
 Extent of the systems tests
 Extent of expected user knowledge of the new
system and ability to use it
 Complexity of system

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SDLC– Review & Maintenance
 Audits/Review are performed to assess the system’s
capabilities and to determine if it is being used
correctly.
 Systems need several types of maintenance.
 Debugging- corrective maintenance; A process that
continues throughout the life of the system.
 Updating: Updating the system to accommodate
changes in business conditions.
 Preventive Maintenance: That adds new functionally
to the system –adding new features to the existing
system without disturbing its operation.
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 Alternative Methods & Tools for
Systems Development

 Prototyping
 Software Package Acquisition
 End-user development
 Outsourcing

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Prototyping
 A prototype is a working version of an information
system or part of the system, but it is meant to be only
a preliminary model.
 Prototyping consists of building an experimental
system rapidly and inexpensively for end users to
evaluate.
 By interacting with the prototype, users can get a
better idea of their information requirements.
 The prototype endorsed by the users can be used as a
template to create the final system.
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Steps in Prototyping

 Step 1: Identify the user's basic requirements.

 Step 2: Develop an initial prototype.
 Step 3: Use the prototype.
 Step 4: Revise and enhance the prototype.

NB: After the prototype has been revised, the cycle

returns to step 3. Steps 3 and 4 are repeated until the
user is satisfied.

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 Step 1: Identify the user's basic requirements. The
system designer (usually an information systems
specialist) works with the user only long enough to
capture his or her basic information needs.

 Step 2: Develop an initial prototype. The system

designer creates a working prototype quickly, using
fourth-generation software, interactive multimedia, or
computer-aided software engineering (CASE) tools.

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 Step 3: Use the prototype. The user is encouraged to
work with the system in order to determine how well
the prototype meets his or her needs and to make
suggestions for improving the prototype.

 Step 4: Revise and enhance the prototype. The system

builder notes all changes the user requests and refines
the prototype accordingly.
After the prototype has been revised, the cycle returns
to step 3.
 Steps 3 and 4 are repeated until the user is satisfied.

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Application Software Packages
 An application software package is a set of prewritten,
preceded application software programs that are
commercially available for sale or lease.
 Packaged Software includes
 Word processors
 Electronic spreadsheets
 Database management systems
 Accounting software
 HR systems
 ERPs
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Advantages and disadvantages
Packages Software

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Disadvantages of proprietary S/W

 Integration Difficulties
 The effects of upgrades
 Lack of available source code
 Supplier Problems

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Vendor & Software Selection
 Step 1: Identify potential vendors.
 Step 2: Determine the evaluation criteria.
 Request for proposal (RFP) is a document sent to
potential vendors to submit a proposal describing their
software package and explain how it would meet the
company’s needs.
 Step 3: Evaluate vendors and packages.

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Software Evaluation Factors
 Efficiency :Is the software a well-written system of computer instructions
that does not use much memory capacity or CPU time?
 Flexibility Can it handle its processing assignment easily without major
modification?
 Security Does it provide control procedures for errors, malfunctions, and
improper use?
 Language Is it written in a programming language that is used by our
computer programmers and users
 Documentation Is the software well documented? Does it include helpful
user instructions?
 Hardware Does existing, hardware have the feature required to best use
this software?
 Other factors What are its performance, cost, reliability, availability,
compatibility, technology, ergonomics, and support characteristics?
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 End User Development
 Refers the phenomenon where end users develop
information systems with little or no formal assistance
from technical specialists.

 Made possible by the special 4Gs software tools. With

fourth-generation languages, graphics languages and
PC software tools, end users can access data, create
reports, and develop entire information systems on
their own, with little or no help from professional
systems analysts or programmers.

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Benefits of End User Computing
 Cost reductions: Organizations cut down on costs that would
have arisen if they were to use experienced programmers to
develop the applications.
 Improved decision making: Managers are able to improve the
quality of their decisions through timely information supplied by
management reporting systems developed through end user
computing.
 Increased user motivation: Because management trusts end-
users develop their own small systems, users feel motivated to be
innovative. Motivated users are capable of producing quality
systems.
 Acceptable systems: By letting users to develop their own
systems, an organization is guaranteed that its systems will be
acceptable to users since it’s the users who understand their needs
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best.
Benefits of End User
Computing
 Greater operational efficiency: Since end-user development is likely
to lead to acceptable systems being produced, employees who use the
systems they’ve developed are likely to have a greater job satisfaction
from using the developed systems. Increased job satisfaction leads to
employee motivation which may lead to improved organizational
efficiency.

 No user resistance: Adoption of end-user developed systems does not

face user resistance since users were involved with coming up with such
systems.

 Reduced application backlog: as users are no longer totally reliant

on overburdened information systems specialists.

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Risks of End User Computing

 Risks in problem analysis: Users may proceed to solving problems

without adequate problem specifications.
 Development risks: Persons who do not have systems development
training and experience are more susceptible to modelling errors. They
may fail to apply documentation standards and test their system
adequately.
 Redundancy: End users may spend time and effort developing
applications that have already been developed by commercial software
firms.
 Unprofitable expenditure of time and effort: It’s questionable
whether people with professional skills other than systems
development should spend time developing applications rather than
concentrate on their areas of expertise.

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
Risks of End User Computing
 Threats on privacy and security: Physical access,
custodianship controls, backup and recovery issues are
seldom addressed by end users.
 Lack of computing efficiency and effectiveness: Few
end users establish procedures for evaluation of their
systems or subject them to audits:
 Incompatibility of end users tools and devices: with
the rest of the organization’s systems. Standards are
required to overcome this.

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Outsourcing
Outsourcing means using an external vendor to build
or operate a firm's information systems. The system may
be custom built or may use a software package. In either
case, the work is done by the vendor rather than by the
organization's internal information systems staff.

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Outsourcing is appropriate for applications that are not
sources of competitive advantage or that require
technical expertise not available in the firm.
 Allows an organization to concentrate on their core
business
 Outsourcing often saves application development
costs and time
 Allows firms to develop applications without an
internal information system staff, but it can also mean
 a loss of control over their information systems,
 Overdependence on external vendors, and
 May involve unforeseen, hidden costs.
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Outsourcing & Application Service Providers
 Outsourcing is when an organization acquires IT
applications or services from outside contractors or
external organizations. (Partner Strategy).

• Two drivers
– focus
✓ on core business
– value
✓ shareholder

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When to Outsourcing?
 Which IS activities are strategic to our company's
business?
 Will outsourcing save us at least 15 percent?
 Does our firm have access to the needed technology
and expertise?
 If not, outsourcing may be the answer to acquiring
these resources.
 Does outsourcing increase our firm's flexibility?

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 Going Offshore for IS Development
 When the MIS organization uses contractor services, or even
builds its own data center in a distant land, it is engaged in
offshoring, which is short for outsourcing offshore.
 The types of tasks that are outsourced are usually those that
can be well-specified; however, nowdays, the functions sent
offshore range from routine IT transactions to increasingly
higher end, knowledge-based processes.
 Countries such as India, the Philippines, etc, offer
“offshoring”, an alternative to in-house systems development
 It raises the issue of what to send offshore, and what to keep
within your enterprise MIS organization.

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Summary: Factors driving outsourcing

1. Cost savings
2. Qualified IT staff are difficult to find and retain
3. By bringing in outside expertise, management needs to
focus less on IS operations and more on the information
itself.
4. Outsourcers are specialists, should understand how to
manage IS staff more effectively.
5. Outsourcers may have larger IS resources that provide
greater capacity on demand.
6. Outsourcing can help a company overcome inertia to
consolidate data centers that could not be consolidated
by an internal group, or following a merger or acquisition.

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