Module 2A: Processes

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009
 Syllabus

Introduction to Process – Scheduling – Operations-

Interprocess Communication. Synchronization: Critical
Section-Hardware- Mutex- Semaphore –Monitors.
Threads: Multithreading Models- Thread Library- Issues

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 Outline
Process Concept
Process Scheduling
Operations on Processes
Interprocess Communication
Examples of IPC Systems
Communication in Client-Server Systems

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 Objectives
To introduce the notion of a process -- a program in execution, which forms the basis of all
computation

To describe the various features of processes, including scheduling, creation and termination,
and communication

To describe communication in client-server systems

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 Process Concept
An operating system executes a variety of programs:
Batch system – jobs
Time-shared systems – user programs or tasks

The terms job and process are almost interchangeably

Process – a program in execution; process execution must progress in sequential fashion

A process includes:
program counter
stack
data section

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 The Process
Multiple parts
The program code, also called text section
Current activity including program counter, processor registers
Stack containing temporary data
 Function parameters, return addresses, local variables
Data section containing global variables
Heap containing memory dynamically allocated during run time
Program is passive entity, process is active
Program becomes process when executable file loaded into memory
Execution of program started via GUI mouse clicks, command line entry of its name, etc
One program can be several processes
Consider multiple users executing the same program

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 Process in Memory

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 Process State
As a process executes, it changes state
new: The process is being created
running: Instructions are being executed
waiting: The process is waiting for some event to occur
ready: The process is waiting to be assigned to a processor
terminated: The process has finished execution

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 Diagram of Process State

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 Process Control Block (PCB)
Information associated with each process
Process state
Program counter
CPU registers
CPU scheduling information
Memory-management information
Accounting information
I/O status information

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 Process Control Block (PCB)

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 CPU Switch From Process to Process

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 Process Scheduling

Maximize CPU use, quickly switch processes onto CPU for time sharing
Process scheduler selects among available processes for next execution on CPU
Maintains scheduling queues of processes
Job queue – set of all processes in the system
Ready queue – set of all processes residing in main memory, ready and waiting to execute
Device queues – set of processes waiting for an I/O device
Processes migrate among the various queues

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 Ready Queue And Various
I/O Device Queues

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 Representation of Process Scheduling

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 Schedulers

Long-term scheduler (or job scheduler) – selects which processes should be brought into the
ready queue
Short-term scheduler (or CPU scheduler) – selects which process should be executed next and
allocates CPU
Sometimes the only scheduler in a system

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 Schedulers (Cont.)
Short-term scheduler is invoked very frequently (milliseconds) ⇒ (must be fast)

Long-term scheduler is invoked very infrequently (seconds, minutes) ⇒ (may be slow)

The long-term scheduler controls the degree of multiprogramming

Processes can be described as either:

I/O-bound process – spends more time doing I/O than computations, many short CPU bursts
CPU-bound process – spends more time doing computations; few very long CPU bursts

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 Process Scheduling Diagram

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 Long Term Scheduler
-Long-term scheduler controls the programs that are selected within the system for processing. In this,
programs are found during a queue and therefore the best job is chosen as per the need it selects the
processes from the job pool and these processes are loaded into memory so as to execute.
- It provides restraint on the degree of multi-programming.
* If the amount of memory is too limited, the degree of multiprogramming will be limited because fewer processes
will t in memory.
Advantages of Long-term Scheduler:
• Better system performance: Long-term scheduling allows the operating system to select the best process to be
executed, which can improve overall system performance.
• Better resource utilisation: By selecting the most e cient processes, long-term scheduling can help maximize
the use of system resources.
• Improved response time: Long-term scheduling can help reduce the response time of the system by selecting the
best process to be executed.
Disadvantages of Long-term Scheduler:
• Delayed execution: Long-term scheduling can delay the execution of a process, as it must wait until a suitable
process is available.
• Increased overhead: The long-term scheduler can increase the overhead of the system, as it requires additional
processing power and resources to select the best process.

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 Medium-Term Scheduler
A medium-term scheduler is called a process swapping scheduler as it is a part of swapping. Through this
scheduler, processes are removed from memory. Medium-term schedulers cut down the degree of multi-
programming. In this scheduler, if a process requests I/O, it can be suspended and it cannot make any progress toward
the completion of the suspended process. During this condition, to get rid of the method from memory and make space
for other processes, the suspended process is moved to the auxiliary storage. This process is named swapping, and
therefore the process is claimed to be swapped out or unrolled. Swapping could also be necessary to enhance the
process mix.
Advantages of Medium-term Scheduler:
• Improved resource utilization: Medium-term scheduling can improve resource utilization by temporarily removing
processes from memory when they are not needed.
• Better response time: Medium-term scheduling can improve response time by removing inactive or less critical
processes from memory.
Disadvantages of Medium-term Scheduler:
• Increased overhead: Medium-term scheduling can increase the overhead of the system, as it requires additional
processing power and resources to manage the swapping of processes in and out of memory.
• Reduced system performance: Medium-term scheduling can temporarily reduce system performance during the
swapping of processes in and out of memory

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 Short-Term Scheduling
Short-term scheduler’s major objective is to make sure that the CPU is constantly utilized e ectively and
e ciently.
-The short-term scheduler operates by continuously keeping track of the status of all the system’s processes. The
scheduler chooses a process from the ready queue when it is prepared to run and allows the CPU to do it. The process
then continues to operate until it either completes its work or runs into an I/O activity that blocks it.
The short-term scheduler can employ a variety of scheduling methods, each of which has advantages and
disadvantages of its own. Several well-liked algorithms include:
• First-Come, First-Served (FCFS): This method simply carries out the operations in the order in which the system
receives them.
• Shortest Job First (SJF): This algorithm chooses the process to run next based on its predicted runtime.
• Priority Scheduling: This algorithm gives each process a priority rating and chooses the process with the highest
rating to run next.
• Round Robin: This algorithm cycles around the ready queue, giving each process a chance to run, allotting each
process a xed time slice (referred to as a time quantum).

Advantage of STS
-Reduce process waiting time
-Improve CPU utilisation and system performance with the right scheduling algorithm and suitable time quantum.

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 Difference b/w Long-Term and Medium-Term

Long-Term Scheduler Medium-Term Scheduler

Whereas the medium-term scheduler is

Long-term scheduler is called a job scheduler.
called the process-swapping scheduler.

In a long-term scheduler, the process are selected from the While in this, process can be revived in the
job pool and these processes’ time-sharing are loaded into memory as well as process execution can
memory in order to execute. also be carried out.

Long-term scheduler is can be or can’t be a part of a time While the medium-term scheduler is
sharing system. if it is then it is nominal in the time-sharing always in a time-sharing medium-term
system. system.

While the speed of medium -term

The speed of long -term scheduler is less than medium-term
scheduler is comparatively higher than
scheduler.
longer-term scheduler.

While a medium-term scheduler cut down

Long-term scheduler provides the restraint on the
the degree of DOM(Degree of Multi-
DOM(Degree of Multi-programming).
programming).

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 Addition of Medium Term Scheduling

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 Context Switch
When CPU switches to another process, the system must save the state of the old process and load the
saved state for the new process via a context switch.

Context of a process represented in the PCB

Context-switch time is overhead; the system does no useful work while switching
The more complex the OS and the PCB -> longer the context switch

Time dependent on hardware support

Some hardware provides multiple sets of registers per CPU -> multiple contexts loaded at once

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 Process Creation
Parent process create children processes, which, in turn create other processes, forming a tree of
processes

Generally, process identified and managed via a process identifier (pid)

Resource sharing
Parent and children share all resources
Children share subset of parent’s resources
Parent and child share no resources

Execution
Parent and children execute concurrently
Parent waits until children terminate

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 Process Creation (Cont.)
Address space
Child duplicate of parent
Child has a program loaded into it

UNIX examples
fork system call creates new process
exec system call used after a fork to replace the process’ memory space with a new program

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 Process Creation

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 C Program Forking Separate Process
#include <sys/types.h>
#include <studio.h>
#include <unistd.h>
int main()
{
pid_t pid;
/* fork another process */
pid = fork();
if (pid < 0) { /* error occurred */
fprintf(stderr, "Fork Failed");
return 1;
}
else if (pid == 0) { /* child process */
execlp("/bin/ls", "ls", NULL);
}
else { /* parent process */
/* parent will wait for the child */
wait (NULL);
printf ("Child Complete");
}
return 0;
}

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 A Tree of Processes on Solaris

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 Process Termination
Process executes last statement and asks the operating system to delete it (exit)
Output data from child to parent (via wait)
Process’ resources are deallocated by operating system

Parent may terminate execution of children processes (abort)

Child has exceeded allocated resources
Task assigned to child is no longer required
If parent is exiting
 Some operating systems do not allow child to continue if its parent terminates
– All children terminated - cascading termination

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 Interprocess Communication
Processes within a system may be independent or cooperating
Cooperating process can affect or be affected by other processes, including sharing data
Reasons for cooperating processes:
Information sharing
Computation speedup
Modularity
Convenience
Cooperating processes need interprocess communication (IPC)
Two models of IPC
Shared memory
Message passing

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 Communications Models

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 Cooperating Processes
Independent process cannot affect or be affected by the execution of another process

Cooperating process can affect or be affected by the execution of another process

Advantages of process cooperation

Information sharing
Computation speed-up
Modularity
Convenience

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 Producer-Consumer Problem

Paradigm for cooperating processes, producer process produces information that is

consumed by a consumer process
unbounded-buffer places no practical limit on the size of the buffer
bounded-buffer assumes that there is a fixed buffer size

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 Bounded-Buffer –
Shared-Memory Solution

Shared data

#define BUFFER_SIZE 10
typedef struct {
...
} item;

item buffer[BUFFER_SIZE];
int in = 0;
int out = 0;
Solution is correct, but can only use BUFFER_SIZE-1 elements

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 Bounded-Buffer – Producer

while (true) {
/* Produce an item */
while (((in = (in + 1) % BUFFER SIZE count) ==
out)
; /* do nothing -- no free buffers */
buffer[in] = item;
in = (in + 1) % BUFFER SIZE;
}

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 Bounded Buffer – Consumer

while (true) {
while (in == out)
; // do nothing -- nothing
to consume

// remove an item from the buffer

item = buffer[out];
out = (out + 1) % BUFFER SIZE;
return item;
}

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 Interprocess Communication –
Message Passing

Mechanism for processes to communicate and to synchronize their actions

Message system – processes communicate with each other without resorting to shared variables
IPC facility provides two operations:
send(message) – message size fixed or variable
receive(message)
If P and Q wish to communicate, they need to:
establish a communication link between them
exchange messages via send/receive
Implementation of communication link
physical (e.g., shared memory, hardware bus)
logical (e.g., logical properties)

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 Implementation Questions
How are links established?
Can a link be associated with more than two processes?
How many links can there be between every pair of communicating processes?
What is the capacity of a link?
Is the size of a message that the link can accommodate fixed or variable?
Is a link unidirectional or bi-directional?

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 Direct Communication
Processes must name each other explicitly:
send (P, message) – send a message to process P
receive(Q, message) – receive a message from process Q

Properties of communication link

Links are established automatically
A link is associated with exactly one pair of communicating processes
Between each pair there exists exactly one link
The link may be unidirectional, but is usually bi-directional

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 Indirect Communication
Messages are directed and received from mailboxes (also referred to as ports)
Each mailbox has a unique id
Processes can communicate only if they share a mailbox

Properties of communication link

Link established only if processes share a common mailbox
A link may be associated with many processes
Each pair of processes may share several communication links
Link may be unidirectional or bi-directional

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 Indirect Communication
Operations
create a new mailbox
send and receive messages through mailbox
destroy a mailbox

Primitives are defined as:

send(A, message) – send a message to mailbox A
receive(A, message) – receive a message from mailbox A

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 Indirect Communication
Mailbox sharing
P1, P2, and P3 share mailbox A
P1, sends; P2 and P3 receive
Who gets the message?

Solutions
Allow a link to be associated with at most two processes
Allow only one process at a time to execute a receive operation
Allow the system to select arbitrarily the receiver. Sender is notified who the receiver was.

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 Thank you

Operating System Concepts – 8th Edition Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2009