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The document provides an overview of information systems, detailing their types, development life cycle, and the roles of professionals involved in creating and maintaining these systems. It highlights the importance of information systems in various applications, such as banking and manufacturing, and discusses the complexity and planning required for their development. Additionally, it outlines the various jobs within an information systems department and the tools and programming languages used in the field.
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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
13 viewsComputer Applications
The document provides an overview of information systems, detailing their types, development life cycle, and the roles of professionals involved in creating and maintaining these systems. It highlights the importance of information systems in various applications, such as banking and manufacturing, and discusses the complexity and planning required for their development. Additionally, it outlines the various jobs within an information systems department and the tools and programming languages used in the field.
Uploaded by
maqboolCopyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
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/ 30
“CONTENTS
What Is an Information
System?
_ Types of Information
Systems
_ The Systems Development
Life Cycle
_ Creating Computer
Programs
_ Two Approaches to
Programming
~ The Evolution of
Programming Languages
~_ The Process of Programming
_What to Expect in the Future
_ Visual Summary
*
402 a
Deve
ormation Systems
lopment of
OBJECTIVES
When you complete this chapter, you wil be able
10 do the folowing
1m List at least six jobs that exist In an
information systems department.
'm Name the five different types of infor-
mation systems,
@ List the five different phases In the
systems development life cycle
(spc).
1 Define the term “computer program”
and name five categories of computer
programs.
1m List the two types of programming.
1 List the three major phases of program
contrat flow.
Name at least four major programming
languages.
1m List four tools that make programming
more productive, “rien
Uhimavely the information system is computer technol
.0/' teason for being, Because there are so many types of ifor-
‘mation—and uses for it—many kinds of information systems
have been developed. For example, if youink of a bank's
database of customers and accounts as an informatio system,
You are correct, But would you think ofa factory's computer
Controlled machining system, or the system NASA uses to launch
and control the space shuttle? I so, you would be corect again.
Information ‘systems do much more than store and retrieve data,
They help people use information in countless ways, whether
that involves sorting lists, printing reports, matching a single
fingerprint against a national database of milions of print, or
tracking the locations of planes in the night sky.
Information systems also help us derive greater value from data
‘y applying it to different purposes. For example, an engineer
can use a CAD system to design a mechanical par, such as an
engine block. The data from the CAD system canbe wsed oper
form cost analyses, stress tests, and other test. It can also be
used to control a computerized machining system, which cuts
the finished product rom a block of aw mater
‘A great deal of planning goes into te craton of any information
‘system; a complex system can take months t0 develop and draw
(on the talents of dozens of skilled professionals.
In this chapter, you will learn first about the people who create
‘and maintain these systems. You will ead about the different
types of systems that businesses implement andthe systams
development te cyl Because sotwaressuch ac
part of any information system, you wil eam cet
program and how worsYouaso wa war WEE
programs are created and the maior progr
used to create programs. | AT AS Al PATON SYSiE
Information systems are not new. Long bel
Panies were collecting, st
| course of doing
| ofthep
inan organization. Differ
rent people rec
the
| jobs, and the rules of the syste
distributed to whom, whe
| 1m, Ww
Working with m
ion systems is time-intensive, even fo
that you have ay
companies, Imagine, for exampl
200 clients for a flower shop, You
each card, writing the name, address, and f
‘When you finish, you sort the cards alphabeti
However
ite flower choice of a client
lly by the client
‘ww plencoe.com/nortovontine
luous, this
ial step of
ting the card database is not nearly
&s difficult as maintaining it. To provide timely and accurate information ig
| the store owner, the list must be continually updated, For any ple, clients
clients pay, others change names or addresses, New clients are ndded, ora
| client preference changes from yellow roses to dahlias, Soon many of your
{ards will be dog cared and covered with crossed-out informathn, You need
to identify these cards, create new ones, and then sort then again. To figure
Out the quantities of a specific flower to orden, you thumis through all 209
index cards, every day, counting how many clients prefer ther flower,
Now consider the following sc
computer system for the'store.
tomer, such as name, address,
customers call for flow:
and each floral arrangement purchased. When
‘FS, you can tell them instantly what they sent to their
Parents last year for their anniversary, or
what kind of flowers their aunt in
Colorado likes. Every week you tun a
Feport to determine which flowers sold
well that week. Eventually you have
enough information to predict how many
flowers of each type to buy each month,
Due to the improved service, the customer
base increases until the store expands into
three locations. The employees of the
other stores enter data regarding the flow-
ers sold, so you can continue to improve
your trends analysis on flower preferences
at different times of the year: In addition,
You set up a system so that you can check
on the availability of flowers at the differ-
ent stores by checking the database.
The Information Systems Department
systems. Initially, these department
were isolated from the rest of a
Cuweren 11 seating systems U the operations level a
ariemation for managers. Then, the tise of the PC
no ‘changed these departments alon
nd turned it into
and its nearly univergad
systems they serviced. A
ion worker
wears
ope nc
te of the business Operation.
with the
ier than managers became inform
the information sys
entire organizations anc
| became integral
tts
se size of « company’s information systems department ty
ically correlates
si thesize of the company it supports. In very large compar
nies, these depart. Sg
a eo
Feats may employ hundreds or even thousands of people. The tie st
fomes ofthese departments vary as well as their size, The organi Ste
‘tion chart of one company may include an Information Systems
js) department, for example, while another company may use the
fame Management Information Systems (MIS), Information
Jehnology (IT), or even Data Processing (DP). In this chapter, the
Jepartment responsible for creating and mainta
jsems in a company is called the IS department
information
iiding and supporting computer systems is complex work,
ring a wide range of skilled professionals:
Computer scientists study the theory of computers by undertaking research,
veloping new computer designs, and attempting to achieve the next tech.
‘ological leap in the industry. They apply their high level of theoretical exper-
‘ise to complex problems. Within academia, computer scientists undertake
‘projects such as designing new hardware or developing new languages.
‘They also work on multidisciplinary projects such as artificial intelligence.
Inprivate industry, computer scientists apply theory, develop specialized lan.
‘guages, and design knowledge-based systems (such as the
‘pert systems you will read about later in this chapter).
‘Systems analysts are responsible for thinking of possible
‘oktions when an information system needs to be updated,
‘odified, or completely revamped. After users or managers
‘dentify a need, systems analysts discuss the business, sci-
‘ntifc, or engineering problem with them. Systems analysts
‘pend a significant amount of time at the beginning of pro-
‘cts defining the goals and issues of a new information
‘stom, With the goals and issues defined, the systems
‘alysts, somatimas working with computer scientists, start
fae solutions. They must provide entough deta ih the
10 that other members ofthe projéct tam cam pet- i
‘eho work. For example, systems analysts typically ae responsible for spocitying tre exeet
‘es nd records that must be accessed by the system andthe format oftheinfermationpro-
by the system,
create computor progranis, either as coinmercial products or as part of @ com-
52/6 nformation systom. In some information system projects, programmers are called on
{=i or exand existing programs. In these stations, the programms must anshize
9 wistng code bofore ‘making any modifications. In other projects, programmers create 4
‘sat from scratch. Due tothe complet of information systems, this works usu
in toams, with each team responsible for specific components.
‘sistance architects determine the organization of documentation and its stucture,
$4 th instructional materials bafre tho tctnical writers wie the content. Inthe ast
was distributed on paper. Now, much of the information on systems Online
formate on
Nei: authoring sttwae,
ai bos Wad ta
rn gloncoe.convnortvonine
User assistanc architects
‘esign and develop Help
‘ystems fr users,
onlng, in Help systems or tutorials. The challonge in devel.
‘oping a Help system is to ensure that users can find the
information they seek with minimal effort. Meeting that
challenge requires an understanding of how users look
Sr SatUeS EEESSSSSTI TTY for information onino. Usor assistance architects also
[aE] tee iets 0r7 at “| decide how material shouldbe presented in class os pat
Graphs show date or the post: “Sainutes >] of shor presentation, or inthe onine help.
en earas etverkartasny: icoox | Technical writers cxplin in writing how an information
eters otra Peseta system works. Typical technical writers produce a stot
" " ) documentation fora system, which can be avait in
onan cron printed form or as part ofan online Help system. This doc
| H umentation includes materials intended forthe difarnt
aia aa eee: auiences who use or support the information stam,
including vd users, network managers, and system
administrator
These router statistics show
Hardwar: 0 software purchasing agents choose sup-
‘data hes boen roated around pliers !or sytem components and negotiate the neces-
sary terns, Companies rely on agents because informa-
tion systems are created from a variety of components,
including hardware and software. Because some per-
‘centage of these components will be bought rather than
built from scratch, IS departments need purchasing
agents to bring all the pieces together within a certain
time-frame,
M Systm managers or network managers are responsible for keeping an information system up
‘and running. Individual systems ara linkedin networks. Companies maintain their owm internal
networks, with inks to outside networks such as the Internet. Today, practically every sk
‘ness and organization, from the Fortune 500 to very small companies, relies heavily on ANS
Although most PC-based LANs do nat requir fulltime attention, they do need occasional
‘maintenance, and any problems that arise must be solved by someone who knows what i 49
‘when things go wrong. In organizations with multiple LANs, wide area networks (WANS
‘ridges, and gateways to other systems, the system or network manager typically has» sal
of full-time technicians, analysts, and programmers. Some of the key concemms of network
‘managers include controling unauthorized access, protecting the intagrty of data on the ne
‘work, and recovering data after computer disasters.
— i
cane oe a
\ aM rb a
om age canpne
seen
can a \ ’
nt Mey
how wat ntrmation
eg, betore they oven before is putin place, | Mande mattnanes act
Sea gg PS Taner: cv sors the coporuniy ince a SP0o doth ver Tron | Stine nt
ela commen asks IS personnel also provide dayaaa en 82:28 Guess and by | Seen a
s Usersmay forget procedure thayleumey gee 800% Suet vsysemevann, | hemextehm enter
exerts Staring clessorencouneraprobom theydo | mate aniar
2 information
roduce est
be avaiateis A Ch techni-
ee however, can be far more ser
ms are required for upgrading PCs with new peripherals, diagnosing
x the let problems with PCs and servers, and maintaning te networt ro fe
al ge that IS departments may not employ individuals in all these different
Large companies often hire other companies or indixitbeats20 provide
ized skills, such as the development of a HelpsystentThis approach to
cee work done, in which freelance workers or outside companies are hired
ge themes PS contractors to do specific jobs, is called outsourcing. In addition, a single
puss nko employee may provide more than one
compos set, especially in a small company. A
ce some writer, for example, may be able
develop the Help system for a program,
@ systems analyst may undertake a
ming role in a project.
usta sec epee
ter po taka orc a
er peo
ter oan bn ates
Serer om
Deemer oF beowurmt Sevas 407
a wa ame + Tse
wer teas $e) fae
system may be needed to send mail
bsystems
© considered components oF su
Types of specialized infor
vidual systems
overall information system,
Include a
15 Ofice automation systems Routine office tass, such as sending eters or tracking scheces
| 20% atone y compar yuma infmaon wore se range oe cans,
including word processors, spreadsheets, and communications programs, to help them wae,
these tasks. To a large extent, ofce automation systems can be bul from ofthe aie
‘apeictions, ike those foundin any computer store rather than from customized appliatane
Figure 11.1 | Customers and Compton and
Deion spp oyster ra eas ‘jal mara
con =
External data sources
Input and
feedback
DeCSiON SUPPORT — 5
sore |
Miter mate sf
Dastse marape
Interaction
Manage or staf specaist
Query, mode
‘and analysis
Sw hy
Online respense Charts and gees
were 11 into a series of stops. Aftr
smarderhes been taken for example the activity quired is to full the order. Todo so, the
«ede mustbe passed fo the appropriate department, he items must be taken from inventory,
sssing items must be back-ordered, and then the materials must be shipped tothe client
‘Processing business transactions means filing, retrieving, and tracking data about events
= z Figure 11.3
decison ipprtsytam or
‘snalying mark earch,
nan
apes
ES
: & by Figure 11.4
om Pato econ ppt ss
oo for anaaing een wn paste.
a
i ial el xielalais
"Decision support systems. As shown in Figure 11.1, decision
‘Npport systems often give managers direct access to data in
‘companys transaction processing sytem. In addition these
ean include or a¢cess other types of general data (see
Five 112), suchas stock market reports or geological data,
{cision support systems are spreadsheet applications
“athave been customized for specifi businesses. Two exam-
ths of decision support systems buit using spreedsheets are
patminFaues 13 and 114. Marketing manager, fr exan-
pS re
Hi ——
8 '8® spreadsheets to analyze market research data, to size
peecotetion anda pln elective srtaistorponetat
by 410
Subjout expert
4
Omer databases Customers, competes,
ft supers
te
| Managemont information systoms. These systems are designed
‘0 support the needs ofthe diffrent categories of managery
‘xocutves, middle managers, and front-line managers. These
N ‘ystoms typically produce range of standardized reports. The
‘ Vavityis necessary because diferent catagories of manag
‘ I th ‘requir itfrent types of information, A good managementinen.
‘mation sytem ean summarize vast amount of business dy
int information that is useful to oach type of manager As
example, ont-ne managers aod reports thet provide a ty
‘otal about operations.
Facts, definitions, am
andes 1 port systems An expert systom automates he decison may
Fes ing process ina spciic area, such as medica diagnoses g
Po ‘eviow of credit histories for loan approvals. These sytem
BASE ‘analyze data and then produce a ecommendation for 3 oun
- of ation. A modical expert system, for example, night prove
the most kay diagnosis ofa ations condition. A foanci
‘expert system might recommend that 8 particular chant bg
FERENCE ) Puan ca ug sivon a requested credit rise, Creating an exper sym
Recommendations Knowledge Baso requires tha large collation of human expertise ina specie
Diagnostics atva be entered into igh detailed database ale aww
‘edge base. A piace of software called an infaronce engin than
nsecaes eee ‘examines available data in light of that knowledge base an
_ selects the most appropriate responce. The data maybe om
from a ransaction processing system, solicited fromthe usta.
the systom, or collated from external databases.
ENGINE 1 MiSFIFING
\ISIENGINE MISFIRINGS Questions trom the
‘Ane [PLUG WIRES WORMORERAYEDA ee
Hen
1 TURN OFF ENaNE
2, REPLACE PLva Wines,
3. TURNON ENGINE
4 LISTEN AGAN FOR MISFRING ENGWE
1S ENGINE MiseiRING?
coe a
18 THE DISTRIBUTOR. cAPSCRACKEDA
Ne. Answers from the
1s a BpARKPLUGLeAMTYA
YES
THEN
4, TAN OFF ENGINE
2, REPLACE SPARK PLUG Instructions from
9. TURN ON ENGINE ‘exper system
4, LISTEN AGAIN FOR MISFIRING ENGINE. —
‘8 IeNGREMIsRANGd
NO
THEN
‘Tho srctue of an expr y=
ad et pepe
(a database) and an infer-
Be ence sain (0990 of BMS).
Guvren 11 om the use
us updating of company datahenn, wePM
Sain iia secure th iter
yf ronet) over the Internot. These remote yee PatY Internal nator
mertners, or customers. By setting nee
Intranets and Exty
‘Mets: p,
* Private w,
les
up an ext pe eee el
male customers to access inv
tn, for instance,
internal server
within
rewall while also maintaining security of sensitive nt
oth intranets and extranets use the
1e Same tools andl tec
products drawing heavily on the standard compare tees
\ (rcPAP—Transmission Control P
(Hypertext Markup Languag
‘rotocoV/Internet Prot, 2
lo, The
Je) programming met aia
} pages are used to create man eres
! ny of the interfaces to intranets and extrenes
‘Sand extranets,
Internet
Often a company
intranet is a main means
of intra-office commun-
cation, Updates to busi-
ness policies and proce-
dures can be posted,
‘as can job openings,
information on health
insurance and other
benefits, profiles of vari-
ous employees, the
company’s organiza-
tional structure, as well
4s in-house training for
merivan, avian te
Not Your Father's Netscape
employees.
Riss menmpleot an Extranets difrfrom intranets the way users aces them
eat Empires ca" ith an extranet, a user's ff-site—in a remate locaton ~and
feat infeenes’ must access the Internet first and then gain entry into the
fomteidranet. intranet. Some or all of the same privileges given n\ranet
_ For example, a sales engineer may work out
Coe name Choe ace
‘main office with a modem and incurring long distance charges,
connects to the Internet via his local area network (LAN), enters
er , te organize
The man goa of intranets and exranos i to organianand desiA0e :
tonal intelligence. This intelligence can include projet Secon
data, budgets, and so forth. Although intranets and ex!
the engineer simply
the URL for the
pportuities, and goa
‘Companies have more
sroployee become
Involved in econ
By connecting intranets ant
‘extranet to decion
suppor applications or
example, a manager om
acres raw data rom
transaction system and
summarize the data no
reports. The repors can
then be distbited to key
employees, constants,
‘and other colleagues va the
Intranet or extranet fr bu
ness decison obe mod
fied accordingly. Because
the intone and extranet
offer a common envio
rent forall ser, reports
can be constructed sing
template to crest»
ook ad feel
‘Gmong el documents A,
‘with searching tools added
tothe intranet and extranet,
vers can queey nd tbe
they need (rather
than sift through long Paes
of information)
ait Figure 11.5 4
Phase 1 |
Needs anatysis |
I
Phase 2:
‘Systom design
Phase 3: Dovelopment
2a
19.) Henle Frais
1.1 | Prolter Dati. ea
“14 | Gale GoDection ~~~ shar isn
14
1.8 | Best Alerative Decision a-May a-tiny
20 |” SystemDerign t
21 | DalaFon Diagam ——~ May2iay,
22 | baa i2May2eMay|
23} 24May Veciun|
THE SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE
n system can be a complex task, 1 in
ach of which
To help create su
life eyele (SH
ten must be completed before a subwers
developm
.C) was developed. SDLC Is an ory
‘o build an information system. A an see from Figure 11
Imposed of a se .
a series of five pha
dr tether the phases are called a ife cycle because they cover the entire"
Figure nearnation system, as illustrated by the phased approach shown
Figure 11.6
Phase 1: Needs Anatysis
plating needs analysis, the first phase of the SDLC, teams focU8 on com,
pleting three task:
1_Detining the problom and deciding whether to proceed
3 Analog the current system in depth and developing possible solutions tothe piign
'3__Solecting the best solution and defining its functionality
Phase I begins when a need is identified for a new or modifeg
system. Users may complain, for example, that the current sy
tem is difficult to use. Simple procedures require too m,
steps, and the system crashes repeatedly,
data. Alternatively
requ
‘any
resulting in a loss gf
anager may approach the IS departimen,
ting a report that is not currently produced by the system,
Systems analysts then begin a preliminary investigation, talking
with users and the managers of the departments that are to te
Allected, The fist challenge is to define the problem accurately,
With the problem accurately defined, the IS department cay
decide whether to undertake the project (the “go/no go" decison),
~ BEGIN Eno] Tal
DATE DATE a ansaea nears snueed enn
9_|_Andysis of Curent System 22:Mar 29-A9r)
Develop Aterrative Soluion#oMar 30-Apr|
|
he Customer
soles | Ackrowiedg
| | vebereny ‘database
© sus |
Vanstctons —} ee vanaayy
Sales me
Transactions
& Process
varatene
When a decision to proceed
investigation of the curn
people directly involved wi
Ismade, systems
ith the problem to doc
Theknowledge gathered regarding the
Some analysts use data flow diagame woe
show the flow of data through system (see he st
alternatives and actions (see Figure 11.8), amotio
option isto present the actions taken under differ:
ent conditions in a decision tree (see Figure 11.9)
The graphical representation is easier to under.
stand than a list,
With this foundation, the analysts are ready to con-
sider various solutions to the problem. They may
call on computer scientists in the IS department to
help them identify different approaches.
Each is evaluated on the basis of project
constraints, primarily budget and
schedule, IFa solution must
te provided quickly,
the IS team may
consider solutions
‘hat are less than
ideal but have nk
teatanoeeal
‘wick turnaround.
‘vansacting
e
Now sles
‘atabase
analysts under
system an Undertake a thorough
the prob itaons. They work witht
iment how
|e sue ivicent received ransacton
INVOICE PAYMENT PROCESSING
—} Stes maha » saa
yo lase > amie yy
‘4 "epotng oan
ican be solved.
‘Miter is recalved and
‘he ole dat is rer 30 day lt
‘Wauppir ison payment hot tats
Indicate stats on ince
‘ssw pening payment rareacon
sa issu payment wucer transaction
Boe calculate ayant date
issve pending tre payment ransacion
sigue 118
p Seca Stem designers reauanty
ned meet th
‘manapers fhe departments
‘hat wb tected by
the rew stem
Phase 2: Systems Design
During the second phasc, systems design, the project team tackles the
“how” of the selected solution, For example, a database application must be
able to accept data from users and store it in a database. These are geneval
functions, but how will the team implement them? How many input screets
are necessary, for example, and what will they look like? What kind of men
options must there be? What kind of database will the system use? The
qhe analysts and pro,
Mery
MWD dey
the a
NS UhaL the gyaaa B® Pictu
KEP ACUVILies, Rac MUS fe
inthe neXt Phase OF the stg Ch of thee ™
afopslown and bout,
isla bs foam starts \wi
armajor func
sgnallerand small
in bottom-up design, the
ts to be produced by tha” Starts
re e wi |
(ihe major functions or proggss! St) and the, |
en users have S88¢S), This A
when users have specific pnt? Tl ape |
checks, Which must conta Fements,
loa we any tees
Throughout Phase 2, th tacmerann
project eam reviews progy
af diflerent system compone
af the phase, a larger revie
iypically involving the de
be affected and top management. If
design passes inspection, development
begins. In some instances, the review high.
lights problems with the overall solution,
and the team must return to analysis o
minate the project,
partment that will
Many tools are available to help teams
through the steps of system design. Most of
these tools also can be used during the
development phase (Phase 3), or even during
analysis (Phase 1). Many teams, for example, as
tse working models called prototypes explore the look and fc of sens
with users. They also use special software applications ee uae
Loypes quickly, as well as for building digrams, wong ods am Do
the development effort. These Soe teis (see Figure 11.10). In ol
aided software engineering (CASE) to ner compule software
words, computer software is being used
more quickly and reliably.
CET ‘the of these parts are 4
‘reated or acquired during
Phase 3.
Phase 3: Development
During the development phase, programmers play the key role, creating op
customizing the software for all the various parts of the system. Typically, the
Programmers on the team are assigned to specific components of the over.
all system. If a component is being built, the programmers write the neces,
sary code or use CASE. tools (if possible) to speed the development process
For purchased components, the programmers must customize the code ag
hecessary to make the component fit into the new system.
There are two alternative paths through Phase 3: the acquisition path or the
local development path, As early as Phase 1, needs analysis, the team
realize that some or all of the necessary system components are available as
off-the-shelf hardware or software and decide to acquire, rather than. .
these components. Acquiring off-the-shelf components means that the system
an be built faster and cheaper than if every component must be developed
from scratch. Another advantage of acquired components is that they have
already been tested and proven reliable, although they may need to be cus-
tomized to fit into the overall information system. In many cases, Project
teams buy (or acquire) some components and build (or develop) others. Thus,
they follow both acquisition and local development paths through the SDLC
at the same time.
aE RERTES ROUTER
Technical writers work with the programmers to produce the technical
documentation for the system. Technical documentation is vastly different
from the usér documentation, which describes to end users how to use the
system. The technical documentation includes information about software
features and programming, about the flow of data and processing through
‘the system, and about the design and layout of the necessary hardware.
These materials provide an overall view of the system and thus serve as a ret
erence for team members focused on individual components. In addition,
the technical documentation is vital for support personnel and programmers
in charge of the system during the maintenance phase.
Other writers begin work on the user documentation, and user assistance archi-
{ects start to lay out the architecture of the online Help system. These efforts are
Usually not finished until the early stages of the implementation phase.
‘Testing is an integral part of Phases 3 and 4 (development and implementa-
tion). The typical approach to testing is to move from the individual component —_
wt t0 the Stem as
testing) and then tests yp The joy
fine Ero are con yooh |
penn again. Next cgyect
pest environment ang! ns
fal acceptance ein
gem oma sure tha hg Pn
ject teams often test gyge *HCtteig
fossometines called ot
pandle the low of data expec S88” This
alin Programmers, hence 8 daily
a OF EXCEPLION COnditiony. ts PUld also
sisypes "133345" instead op sft happens, fog 2
qumerical data? These kinds ae 2 xa |
pally used to test the system, jy, 7S May RECT SYSTEM convension
janisused by real employegs "Yate bo, Cee men
phase 4: Implementation PHeaLL SYSTEM comeRGON Neen
ihe implementation phase, the» soy O14 sytem
ry hardware for theo Project team finish, a
essay hardware forth system tues ahs itn ay a
Sarand soflwarein theuss oot hen installs the hand
ment. Then i
esystem to perform work, not j Then the users start using
‘ems development. ASE lo provide feedback on the sys. _MSEPSTSTEM CONVERSION WETIOD
aie
| tte process of movingefrom the old
x system to the new is calle: conn
mversion. IS professionals must handle this eee ee Re
Ising oF corrupting data or frustrating users tying we puhenn vo ‘
wrk. As shown in Figure 11.11, there are a number of different ways to Figure 11.19
coierta department or an organization, including the following: = a
1 Direct conversion. All users stop using the old system at the same time and then begin
sing the new. This option is fast, but it can be disruptive. Furthermore, pressure on sup-
fort personnal can be excessive, ee ed
vposuged wba ne
1 anlol conversion. Usors continue to use the old sytam while anincreasing amount of | smpscagd i
{ata is processed through the new system. The out-
‘ls from the two systems are compared; if they
‘ye, th switch is made. This option i usful for
futher live testing of the new system, but it is fairy
fne.intensive because both systems aro operating
the same time.
"hased convorsion. Usors start using ms por
‘kn component by component. This o
sharpie that con bo compartmentalied-
" Matconversion. Parsonnl in a single pot si
new systom and than the entire organize
"eins the switch, Although this approach mY =”
Sen tine than the other thre, i gives SUPPOT PT
‘tel the opportunity to test user sgt
‘ren thoroughiy, and they will be beter P
“enmany people make the conversion” Eee
417 have a significant role during the conversion.
courses usually involve classroom-style lectures, hands-on sessions
| with sample data, and computer-based training (CBT), which users can work
with on their own time
| Phase 5: Maintenance
| Alter the information systems are implemented, 1S professionals continue to
provide support during the maintenance phas.
of system performance, such as response
basis, they may recognize instances where a small change in the system would
| allow them to be more effective Or the manager of a user department might
request changes due to a change in state or federal regulations of the industry,
Errors in the system
are also corrected during Phase
installed
user environment with known programming or design errors,
‘Typically, these errc
5. Often, systems are
Even if effective ontne train
have been identified as noncritical, or not important
ere | enough to delay installation, Programmers have lists of such errors to cor.
wrlacteanamiees | rect during the maintenance phase. In addition, daily use of the system
teknelpontngaemes, | ™ay highlight more serious errors for the programmers to fix.
‘the job of providing answers. tay highlight i for the progr
Changes, or upgrades, to the system are made regularly during the t
life span of the system. At some point, however, patch repairs to the system no
longer meet user requirements, which may have changed radically since the
e system was installed. IS professionals or managers in a user department start
calling for a major modification or new system. At this point, the SDLC has
come full circle, and the analysis phase begins again
maining
CREATING COMPUTER PROGRAMS
If hardware is the muscle of an information system, and if network
media act as the spinal cord, then software provides the intelligence
that enables these components to process and distribute data and infor:
mation. No information system—whether a stand-alone PC, a small
Peer-to-peer network, or a WAN—is complete without software.
Software requirements are an enormous consideration in
the development of any information system. What tasks
will users need to perform? What type of output is
expected? Will different types of software work
logether? These questions, and many others, must
be answered before any information system can
function as intended.
Sometimes, developers can resolve these issues by
using commercial software, purchased off the shelf.
This solution works well when the users’ needs are
typical and require little or no customization of the
software—as is often the case in small businesses or
office automation systems.
Otherwise, the solution may involve creating new soft
3 ware or customizing existing software. This can be a plex process—so complex,
en lfe ele that mirrors the
frst step in this process involves ide,
formation systey
tems development lie eye
ntilying the type or ty
the
Thea 10 ran the information syatenn Pes of sof
reat be purchased, created, or customized gas ot Whether the software
mized. Software products genoai’ a? | sen
oducts generally fay) | Peeaton atin tet
Moone of the following categ
4 Operating systems
ps vilities
ig Word processors
1 Spreadsheets
ig Dotabase managers
12 Communications and Internet browsers
1x Graphics and publishing applications
8 CAD software
1B Mulimecurand presentation software
Education and entertainment software
Networking and network-management systems
.
1 Software development systems
1
Online
Forma
ioraton 0
saftaar, st
tis oes He leat
‘agence con/ntenine
(uicken i financial
management program
designed especialy or
nome usors and small NORTON
Online
vertical applications nthe
pci and accounting market
west Pas Books Webs at
‘wre glencoe.som/norton/eiine
The largest computer stores. ~
carry hundreds of programs.
Within these general categorie
s, there are
ndreds of specialized categories
of software (sometimes called vertical applications) including the following:
Accounting systems
Bank management systoms
1 Rotail point-of-sale systom:
Financial planning software
Legal and modical office management systems
WE Modical diagnostic software
Insurance claims processing systems
Software development accessories
The following sections explain how software programs function and describe
the processes and tools that develo)
ers Use Lo create software
What Is a Computer Pr
gram?
A computer program is a collection of instructions, or statements (also
called code) carried out by the computer's CPU. These instructions can be
written in many different languages. Except for operating systems and utili
ties, all the categories of programs listed in the preceding section are appl
cation progra
or perfor
ns. These programs are developed to help users solve problems
n tasks, such as sending mail mess:
icle ina library.
ges, editing text, or finding a
Application programs
are usually composed
of many files. Some
of these files contain
instructions for Uy?
computer, whereas
other files contain
data. On DOS- or
Windows-based PCs,
some common exten-
program
files are .exe (execu-
table), .dll (dynamic
link library), .ini (ini:
tialization), and -hip
(help), ‘These exten-
sions define the type
of file.
sions for
By default, imost pro-
gram files are stored
in the folder that
bears the application's name or an abbreviation of it. To view a list of the files
needed to run an application, you can open that application's directory or
folder (see Figure 11.12 for an example). ies,
we:
a Sey ows sin
Bae 4 28 me
= OB @ 6
28 eae ete
Ba = 2 Sa} mine
248 S Ve 0 wath
+E || seen
2 Figure 11.13
: {tae
2, 28.8388 8}
£28.28 9 88
288388825
| a2 8
| 2S 8.28.2.8.8.8
; @ BB BO BB 1 | mrmanmun
ronment
The system software that controls your computer also includes TaN files
‘the ones used by ‘Windows 98.
The folder in Figure 11.13 shows just a few of
Program Control Flow
are considered parts of the
the core. This file is often called the
program, usually one file a
Fea sual oe pe one iat the comput OS
DOS the executable file has
iplusthe extension ©: ‘The example in Figure 11.14 shows the flow
rogram that controls a furnace. The neyo Sal
tantly checks the thermostat setting andr
fete ica cea sr
thermostat setting, the program executes the
iments that (ui off the furnace. I the current me
ature is below the thermostat setting, the ropes
‘executes the statements that turn on the furnace”
‘Variables
One element that most computer lariguages have
common is variables—placeholders lor data
Processed, For example, imagine you are siting’
rogram that prompts users lo enier their ap. eq
need a placeholder, or variable, to repre-nnt thy iat
(different ages) they enter: In this « e, you migiy
+ choose to name the variable Age. Thien, «hl ygat
enters a number at the prompt, this data lnc,
the value of the variable Age.
Just as in algebra, you can use variables in programs to perform actions oq
data. For example, consider the instruction:
Ago 2
© Ifthe value of Age is 20, the resull ofthis instruction is 22; i the value is30,
the result is 32; and so on.
Algorithms and Functions
Algorithms are the series of steps by which problems are solved. Algorithms
have béen worked out for solving a wide range of niathématical problems,
such as adding numbers or finding a square root.
Algorithms represent solutions to probleius. The steps to the solution
(instructions) remain the same, whether you ar woth ing out the solution by
‘computer or by hand. a
Funetions are the expression of algorithms in « specific computer language.
You reuse functions when you need them, You do not have to rewrite the
J of code represented by the function each time. For example: :
ponds re TWO APPROACHES To
Unil the 1960s, relatively lithe
wrote code. AS a result, followin.
of lines of code was alinost
goto statement {jump to oth,
exactly what thé name imp
which control jumps, (It goes tp,
how program control flow proce
jumping-off place,
PROGRAP Ey |
MUcture wa
AE Control flo
impossible, Pry
) The issue
eds
or does it contin
With
aller the
te al the new location?
I
Action #2 =~) Go towia —-d
>} Action #1 =~)
oe ‘Aetion 4»
Structured ‘Programming evolved in the 1960s and 1970s. The name ref
to the practice of building programs usin, A set of well-defined oe ~
One goal of structured programming isthe dinate
Stiithation of goto statements,”
Software developers have found that using structured programming resulis
in improved efficiency, but they continue to struggle with the process of
building soffware quickly and correctly,
Reuse is recognized as the key to the solution, Reusing code allows programs
tobe built quickly and correctly. Functions, which are the building blocks of
structured programming, are one step along this path. In the 1980s, com-
puling took another leap forward with the development of object-oriented
programming (OOP). The building blocks af OOP, call objects are]
reusable, modular components. Experts claim ihat OOP will be the domi-
ant programming approach through at least the end of the 1990s.
GOP builds on and enhances structured programming, You do not ae
structured programming behind when you work with an object-oriented lan-
and the logic of manipiilating objects is also structured.
Structured Programming =.
writ
Researchers in the 1960s demonstrated that programs coul.
control structures:
° Seavoncesiructire defines the default contol flow in a progr. Typicaly tis
‘a résult, unless directed othorwise, 2
‘we is butt into programming nee a wich they aro writen Figur 1.15
‘omputer executes lines of code inthe order 2 a '
shows a acietaees sequential flow. The Serene ots
sy ean ine nate Pore cote fic Ie
mn with
‘ommand sequence is developed. the
pest tea. The pmnaas ere TT pals
ft arama ss ess rs carn gains
‘eciic computer language. IB Selection structures ara buit around a condition statement. the condition stat
r@ executed. If the condition statement
‘wo most common selection structures or
Iso). Figuras 11.16 and 11.17
tue, certain lines of code ai
code are not executed. The
(somotimes called W-Thon-
25 of
6: Thon and t-igg
Mustrate those type of structures
Yes
14.16 =} Istomperature Y°8 5
Figure 11. >= 05° F? Ping the alarm =—)
Imo
Hh Mtomperntre 7) tog he ate prep Cal ccaty —r}
yo) pond” wees
[v0
Print
B® Repetition (or looping) structures aré Iso built around condition statements, HE the cx
‘is true, then a block of. ‘on@ oF more commands is repeated until the condition is false,
tone the Atsttess the condion and, ftistrve, execute the command back once tae
‘tests the condition again. If itis still true, the command block is repeated. Because of this
cycling, repetition structures are also called loops. Three common looping structures are:
For-Next, While, and ‘Do-While. Figures 11.18-11.20 illustrate these three looping structures,
——
5 7 Print "Now * No
= a ed Ine. ET} istheting im) xexe1 o> bx 10
Hott ste teh Pts f Mite toe? Erp X= Xt ay <= 1022p
erates
ome iza “O-
Object-Oriented Programming
Concepts of object-oriented programming, such as objects and classes, cat
seem abstract at first, but many programmers claim that an object orientation
4sa natural way of thinking about the world, Because OOP gives them anit
y {ive way to model the world, they say, programs become simpler, programming
becomes faster, and the burden of program maintenance is lessened. pict
hink for a moment about what you perceive when
greet. Your first impression is probably of the cat ye a roe la You Sct
a8 a whole, You do not
focus on the steel, chrome, and plastic elements that weak
nie unit, o object, is what registers in your mind. UP ‘Me car The
Now, how would you describe that ear to someone si
Fight siart with its color size, and shape. A car like all objects has en ot
you might then talk about what the car can do, It can accelerate avn
mph in 9.2 seconds, for example, it turns on a dime, and so forth, Agait: ike
all objects, a car has certain things it can do, or functions. Toget
{iced or functions. Together, the attrib.
object. In the kinguage of OOP,
exery object has attributes and Gy MeUTES
fancions and encapsulates other Doors— Four
objects.
When you look more closely
al the car, you may begin to
notice many smaller com-
ponent objects. The car,
for example, has a chas-
‘sis, a drive train, a body,
and an interior. Each of
these components is, in
‘um, made up of other
objects. The drive train
includes an engine, trans-
mission, rear end, and axle. rel
‘An object, then, can be
cither a whole unit or a component of
other objects. Objects can include other objects.
Classes and Class Inheritance
As ye jects around you, you will ind that you naturally
im coment See, ‘or classes, with other similar objects, 19
‘wample, the Porsche, Infiniti, and Saturn you see on the road are all ears. In
Oop, therefore, you would group these into a car class. 7
object.
Aclass consists of altribulés and functions shared by more than one l
«ats, for example, have a suecrinig wheel and four tires. Alcan con drive for
ard, reson berks and wooeferae, lass anus are ale
and class functions are represented as member como 4
we
Classes ied into subclasses. The car cass for exainple: °F
tins eee ‘a sports car class, and a pickuP truck cle pia
Ua tea lah auibutes and methods ofthe paren! SOs 4° od
See sn necring whicel =i once ai called CLASS: VEHICLES
cuss cuass
rmmoures: merions; | voices
car Aocaration
Dos Stern these
Fel tra? {_atrbutos supc.ass:
tg ‘and methods
Unique subclass characteristics Unique subclass characteristics:
Handing Fuel economy
‘Spood Passenger safety
Appearance
Trunk space
Unique subclass characteristics:
Four-whee! dive
Towing
Cargo capaciy
However, in addition to inherited characteristics, subclasses have unique
~ characteristics of their own. For example, pickup trucks have fourwheel
drive and trailer hitches, as shown in Figure 11.22.
All objects belong to classes. When an object is created, it automatically has
all the attributes and methods associated with that class. In the language of
00P, objects are instantiated (created).
Messages
Objects do not typically perform behaviors spontaneously. After all, manyol
these behaviors may be contradictory. A car, for example, cannot go forward
and in reverse at the same time. You also expect that the car will not drive
forward spontaneously either! —
; Hundreds of programming languages are now in use. These languagés fall
“igue J into the following categories:
whee! |
you send a signal to the car to
ersten are ext forward by pressing on the accelerator
Mipeclfic function, Penta are £601 to objects, requesting them to perform
ot designing a program is to identify the flow of
ressages among the objects (see Figure 11.23)
THE EVOLUTION OF Phosnameami i
tions, programmers use defined la, sung.
eS to communicate. These languages
have many of the same types of rule: ns
ny Of the Same ty rules as languages people use to communi:
cate with ach other: For example, information must be provided in a certain
order and structure, symbols are used, and punctuation is often required,
The only language that a computer understands is its machine language.
People, however, have diffi ulty understanding machine code. As a reat
researchers first developed assembly languages and then higher level lan.
guages. This evolution represents a transition from strings of numbers
(machine code) to command sequences that you can read like any other lan. |
guage. Higher-level languages focus on what the programmer wants the |
computer to do, not on how the computer will execute those commands
| Machine languages are the most basic of languages. Machine languages consist of strings of
‘numbers and are defined by hardware design, In other words, the machine language for a NOE ~
jase Macintosh is notthe same asthe machine language for aPC. computer understands onlts, | yy |
ze of native machine language—the commands ofisinsrucion et Teseconmandsinstuctine | OMIING
‘computer to perform elementary operations such as loading, storing, adding, and subtracting. Formore
Uitimately, machine cade consists entirely ofthe Os and 1s of the binary number system. =
Assembly languages were developed by using Eriglish-like mnemonics for commonly used feprgeme ee
yof strings of machine language. Programmers worked intext editors, which ae simple word | Wes Se age
ard processors, to create source files. Source files contain instructions for the computer to
18 Higher-level languages were developed to make programming easier. These languages are
‘execute, but the files must first be translated into machine language. Researchers created
translator programs called assemblers to perform the conversion, Assembly languages
‘are still highly detailed and cryptic, butreading assembler code is much fester than strug-
‘ling with machine language. Programmers seldom write programs of any significant size.
in an assembly language: (One exception to this rule is found in action games where the
‘peed of the programis critical, Instead, they use assembly languages to fine-tune impor-
tant parts of programs written ina higher-level language.
1uages bocause their syntaxis closer to human language than assem-
eta ator ar mo
Aetailed quagmire of digits that comprise the machine instructians. To express computer
operations, these languages use operators, such as the plus or minus sign, that are the fami-
jar components of mathematics, Asa resul, reading, writing, and understanding computer
programs is easier wit a higher evel language although the instructions must sil be
translated into machine language before the computer can understand and cary them ou,
‘assembly or higher-level language must be trans-
eran writen ihine code before he computer can execute the com-
mands. These translator programs are program must be compiled, or translated into machine code, before it
‘Compiled program files become e: sana
The next section outlines a few of the more
ming languages.
portant higher-level program,
Higher-Level Languages
Programming languages are sometimes discussed in terms of generations
although these categories are somewhat arbitrary. Each successive generation
is thought to contain languages that are easier to use and more powerful than
1us generation, Machine languages are considered first-gen.
eration languages, and assembly languages are considered second-generation
anguages, The higher-level languages began with the third generation.
those in the prev
Third-Generation Languages
Third-generation languages have the capability to support structured pro-
gramming, which means that they provide explicit structures for branches
and loops. In addition, because they are the first languages to use English.
like phrasing, sharing development between programmers is also easier
‘Team members can read each other's code and understand the logic and pro-
gram control flow.
‘These languages are also portable. As opposed to the assembly languages,
programs in these languages can be compiled to run on multiple CPUs.
‘Third-generation languages include:
Um FORTRAN (FORmula TRANslator) was specifically designed for mathematical and eng
neering programs. The language, which enjoyed immediate and widespread acceptance,
has been enhanced several times, most recently in 1990. The current version is often
referred to as FORTRAN-90. Because of its almost exclusive focus on mathematical and
‘engineering applications, FORTRAN has not been widely ‘used with personal computers.
Instead, FORTRAN remains a common language on mainframe systems, especially those
‘sed for research and education.
COBOL (COmmon Business Oriented Language) wes developed in 1960 by a government-
appointed committee, Under the leadership of retired Navy Commodore and ‘mathemati
cian Grace Hopper, the committee set out to solve the problem of incompatibiliies among
‘computer manufacturers, Partly because of the government’ backing, COBOL won wide
spread acceptance as a standardized language. Athough COBOL had lost: most ofits foF
~ Jowirg over tho past five to ten years, the Year 2000 problem has required marly CO80L
{rammers to come out of “retirement” to help reprogram milions of lines of programs
writen in COBOL to work after the year 2000,
BASIC (Beginners All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code) was developed by Joh?
Kemeny and Thomas Kurtz at Dartmouth College in 1964 and started ‘outlargely asa too oF
teaching programming to students. Bacause of its simplicity, BASIC quickly became PoP
Ular, and when personal computers took of, it was the frst high-level language 1° i
limplomentad on these now machines. Versions of BASIC were included with eat Per
Sonal computers, aven before IBM PCs came on the market. Although BASIC i
‘extremely popular and widely used langue
add ds anim @& ——
ae
pocause it ust does not have as large a repertoire of tools as othor lan
addition, BASIC compilers stl do not produce executable fis that aro my ones
refficient as those produced by other languages. aie?
15 Pascal was introduced in 1871 by a Swiss computor sciontist named Niklaus Wirth,
verte 17th-contury French iventor Blaise Pascal Pascal was intonded tavern
Fmtations of other programming languages and to demonstrate the propor way te har
Meant a computer language. Pascal le often considered an excolet teechiny anne,
Beginners find i easy ta implement algorithms in Pascal. In ation tho Pascal comer,
enforces rule of structured programming, thus ensuring that errors are caught en
Because the compilers of other languages do not necessary anforce those rls, nding
errors in other programs may require a lengthy debugging process. Almost al ary
Macintosh applications were written in Pascal, Lately, Pascal has become well known for
itsimplementation of object-oriented principle of programming but currently does nothave
the following it once had.
1m C, whichis often regarded as the thoroughbred of programming languages, was devel-
oped in the early 1970s at Bell Labs by Brian Kernighan and Dennis Ritchie. Richio, with
Ken Thompson, had also developed the UNIX operating system. Kernighan and Ritchie
needed a better language to integrate with UNIX so that users could make modifications
‘and enhancements easily. Programs written in C produce fast and efficient executable
code and are portable. Cis also a powlful language—with C, you can make a computer
to just about anything itis possible for a computer to do. Because of this programming
freedom, C has become extremely popular and is the most widely used language among
professional software developers for commercial applications. The disadvantage of such
‘a powerful and capable language is that itis not particularly easy to learn.
Bt C++ was developed by Bjarne Stroustrup at Bell Labs in the early 1980s. Like C, C++is an
‘extremely powerful and efficient language. Learning C++ means learning everything about
Cand then learning about object-oriented programming and its implementation with C++.
Nevertheless, more C programmers move to C++ every year, and the newer language is
row replacing C as the langage of choice among software development companies.
1 Javais @ programming environment that creates cross-platform programs. Itwas devel:
‘oped in 1991 by Sun Microsystems for TV set-top boxes fr two-way interactive cable s¥s-
toms, When the Internet became a popular communications networkin the mid-190s, Sun
redirected Java to become a programming environment in which Webmasters could cre
ate interactive and dynamic programs (called applets) for Web pages. Java is simi in
complexity to C++. Nevertheless, many programmers and computer prfessionels are
learning Java in response to the growing number of companies: looking for Java applica~
tions. In the future, Sun is hoping Java will be the de facto programming environment,
knocking off C++ as the number one programming environment.
Fourth-Generation Languages
Fourth-generation languages (4GLs) are mostly special-purpose ProB
thing languages that are easier to use than third-generation languages with
4GLs, programmers can create applications rapidly. As part of the develop”
™ent process, programmers can use 4GLs to develop prototypes of an appli
cation quickly. Prototypes give teams and clients an idea of how the finshed
application will look and operate before the code is finished. As @ a :
everyone involved in the development of the application can provide
back on design and structural issues early in the process. rmatenen deve,
ts ok WOO le a
wor plone. com/nartonnting
Figure 11.31
