UNIT I

DIVERSITY IN THE LIVING WORLD

Chapter 1 : The Living World

Chapter 2 : Biological Classification

Chapter 3 : Plant Kingdom

Chapter 4 : Animal Kingdom

Living World and Taxonomy

● The world is rich in diverse organisms varying in size, color, and habitat.
● Taxonomy: The science of identifying, naming, and classifying organisms.
● Uses: Useful in agriculture, forestry, and understanding bio-resources.
● Binomial Nomenclature: Scientific naming system with two words.
● Taxonomic Categories: Hierarchical classification (taxa).

Biological Classification

● Aristotle: Classified based on simple morphological features.

● Linnaeus: Introduced the Two Kingdom classification (Plantae and Animalia).
● Whittaker’s Five Kingdoms: Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, Animalia.
○ Criteria: Cell structure, body organization, nutrition, reproduction,
phylogeny.

Kingdom Monera

● Includes bacteria, widespread with diverse metabolic pathways.

● Nutrition: Autotrophic or heterotrophic.

Kingdom Protista

● Single-celled eukaryotes with a defined nucleus.

● Examples: Chrysophytes, Dinoflagellates, Euglenoids, Slime-molds,
Protozoans.
● Reproduction: Both asexual and sexual.
Kingdom Fungi

● Saprophytic nutrition, absorbing nutrients from decaying matter.

● Classes: Phycomycetes, Ascomycetes, Basidiomycetes, Deuteromycetes.

Kingdom Plantae

● Includes chlorophyll-containing eukaryotes (Algae to Angiosperms).

● Alternation of Generations: Gametophyte (haploid) and sporophyte (diploid)
stages.

Kingdom Animalia

● Heterotrophic, multicellular organisms without a cell wall.

● Mode of nutrition: Holozoic (ingestion).
● Reproduction: Predominantly sexual.

Acellular Organisms

● Viruses, viroids, and lichens are not classified in the five-kingdom system.

Plant Kingdom Detailed

● Algae: Simple, autotrophic, aquatic, classified into Chlorophyceae,

Phaeophyceae, Rhodophyceae.
● Bryophytes: Non-vascular plants dependent on water for reproduction.
○ Examples: Liverworts, mosses.
○ Life Cycle: Gametophyte dominant.
● Pteridophytes: Vascular plants with a sporophyte-dominant life cycle.
● Gymnosperms: Naked seed plants with cones (male and female).
● Angiosperms: Flowering plants divided into monocots and dicots.

Animal Kingdom Detailed

Basic Features for Classification:

● Symmetry, coelom, segmentation, organization levels, and presence of a

notochord.

Invertebrates:

● Porifera: Cellular organization, choanocytes.

● Coelenterata: Tentacles, cnidoblasts.
● Ctenophora: Comb plates for movement.
● Platyhelminthes: Flatworms with bilateral symmetry.
● Aschelminthes: Roundworms, pseudocoelomates.
● Annelida: Segmented, true coelom.
● Arthropoda: Jointed appendages.
● Mollusca: Soft body, calcareous shell.
● Echinodermata: Spiny skin, water vascular system.
● Hemichordata: Worm-like, marine animals.

Chordates:

● Possess a notochord, dorsal hollow nerve cord, and pharyngeal slits.

● Agnatha: Jawless vertebrates (Cyclostomata).
● Gnathostomata:
○ Pisces: Fish with cartilaginous (Chondrichthyes) or bony
(Osteichthyes) skeletons.
○ Tetrapoda: Includes Amphibia, Reptilia, Aves, Mammalia.
■ Amphibia: Dual habitat.
■ Reptilia: Scaly, cold-blooded.
■ Aves: Feathers, warm-blooded, adapted for flight.
■ Mammalia: Mammary glands, hair, viviparous.

Animal Kingdom Classification

Fundamental Features

● Organisation: Cellular, tissue, or organ level.

● Symmetry: Radial or bilateral.
● Coelom: Presence or absence (acoelomate, pseudocoelomate, coelomate).
● Segmentation: Metamerism in some phyla.
● Notochord: Present in chordates, absent in non-chordates.

Non-Chordates

Porifera
 ● Cellular-level organization, flagellated choanocytes.

Coelenterata (Cnidaria)

● Aquatic, tentacles with cnidoblasts.

Ctenophora

● Marine, use comb plates for locomotion.

Platyhelminthes

● Flatworms, bilateral symmetry, parasitic forms with suckers/hooks.

Aschelminthes (Nematoda)

● Roundworms, pseudocoelomates, parasitic or free-living.

Annelida

● Segmented body, true coelom.

Arthropoda

● Jointed appendages, largest phylum.

Mollusca

● Soft body, calcareous shell.

Echinodermata

● Spiny skin, water vascular system.

Hemichordata

● Marine, worm-like, body divided into proboscis, collar, and trunk.

Chordates

Key Features

● Notochord, dorsal hollow nerve cord, paired gill slits.

Agnatha (Jawless)

● Example: Cyclostomata (primitive, ectoparasites on fish).

Gnathostomata (Jawed Vertebrates)

 ● Pisces: Fish with fins.
○ Chondrichthyes: Cartilaginous skeleton, marine.
○ Osteichthyes: Bony skeleton, freshwater/marine.
● Tetrapoda: Four limbs.
○ Amphibia: Land and water habitats, cold-blooded.
○ Reptilia: Dry skin, poikilothermic.
○ Aves: Warm-blooded, feathers, wings, unique flight adaptations.
○ Mammalia: Mammary glands, hair, viviparous reproduction.

Unique Features

● Warm-blooded: Aves and mammals.

● Poikilothermic: Fishes, amphibians, reptiles.
● Viviparity: Mammals exhibit live birth.

UNIT II
STRUCTURAL ORGANISATION IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS 55-84
Chapter 5 : Morphology of Flowering Plants 57
Chapter 6 : Anatomy of Flowering Plants 71
Chapter 7 : Structural Organisation in Animals

Summary with Keywords

1. Variation:
○ Flowering plants vary in shape, size, structure, nutrition, life span,
habit, and habitat.
2. Root System:
○ Types: Tap root (dicotyledons), fibrous root (monocotyledons).
○ Modifications: Storage (e.g., carrot), mechanical support (e.g., banyan),
respiration (e.g., mangroves).
3. Shoot System:
○ Components: Stem, leaves, flowers, fruits.
○ Features: Nodes, internodes, multicellular hairs, phototropism.
4. Leaf:
○ Origin: Lateral outgrowth from nodes.
○ Function: Photosynthesis.
○ Variations: Shape, size, margin, apex, lamina incisions.
5. Flower:
○ Definition: Modified shoot for sexual reproduction.
 ○ Features: Inflorescences, symmetry, ovary position, petal/sepals
arrangement.
6. Fertilisation:
○ Ovary → Fruit, Ovules → Seeds (monocotyledonous or
dicotyledonous).
○ Variations: Shape, size, viability.
7. Classification:
○ Basis: Floral characteristics.
○ Tools: Floral diagrams, floral formulae, semi-technical family
descriptions.

Summary with Headings

Division of Labour

● Cells, tissues, organs, and organ systems divide functions to ensure survival.
● Tissue: Group of cells with intercellular substances performing specific
functions.

Epithelia

● Sheet-like tissues lining surfaces, cavities, ducts, and tubes.

● Features: One free surface, junctional connections.

Indian Bullfrog (Rana tigrina)

1. Body Structure
○ Skin: Vascularized with mucous glands; aids respiration.
○ Division: Head and trunk.
2. Digestive System
○ Includes oesophagus, stomach, intestine, rectum, and cloaca.
○ Digestive glands: Liver and pancreas.
3. Respiratory System
○ Water: Respiration through skin.
○ Land: Respiration through lungs.
4. Circulatory System
○ Closed system with single circulation.
○ RBCs: Nucleated.
5. Nervous System
○ Organized into central, peripheral, and autonomic systems.
6. Urinogenital System
○ Organs: Kidneys and urinogenital ducts open into the cloaca.
7. Reproductive System
○ Male: Pair of testes.
○ Female: Pair of ovaries.
 ○ Reproduction: External fertilization.
○ Eggs: 2500-3000 ova per female.
8. Development
○ Eggs → Tadpoles → Adult frogs (via metamorphosis).

Summary with Headings

Plant Anatomy and Tissues

● Plants are composed of various tissue types.

● Tissue Types:
1. Meristematic Tissues: Apical, lateral, and intercalary; responsible for
growth.
2. Permanent Tissues: Divided into simple (e.g., parenchyma,
collenchyma, sclerenchyma) and complex (xylem and phloem).

Functions of Tissues

● Assimilation and Storage: Storing and processing food.

● Transportation: Moving water, minerals, and photosynthates.
● Mechanical Support: Providing strength and stability.

Tissue Systems

1. Epidermal Tissue System:

○ Made up of epidermal cells, stomata, and appendages.
2. Ground Tissue System:
○ Forms bulk of the plant.
○ Divided into zones: cortex, pericycle, and pith.
3. Vascular Tissue System:
○ Formed by xylem and phloem.
○ Responsible for conduction of water, minerals, and food.

Vascular Bundles

● Types vary based on:

○ Cambium Presence: Determining growth potential.
○ Xylem and Phloem Location: Arrangement and structure.
● Function as conducting tissues.

Differences in Monocots and Dicots

● Monocotyledonous Plants:
○ Vascular bundles scattered.
○ No secondary growth.
 ● Dicotyledonous Plants:
○ Vascular bundles arranged in a ring.
○ Secondary growth present in roots and stems.

UNIT III

CELL : STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS 85-130

Chapter 8 : Cell : The Unit of Life 87

Chapter 9 : Biomolecules 104

Chapter 10 : Cell Cycle and Cell Division

Summary with Headings

Introduction to Cells and Their Classification

● All living organisms are composed of cells or aggregates of cells.

● Cells differ in shape, size, and function.
● Based on the presence of a membrane-bound nucleus:
○ Prokaryotic Cells: Lack a defined nucleus and organelles.
○ Eukaryotic Cells: Contain a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.

Structure of a Typical Eukaryotic Cell

1. Cell Membrane:
○ Selectively permeable, facilitates molecule transport.
2. Nucleus:
○ Enclosed by a double membrane with pores.
○ Contains nucleoli and chromatin material, crucial for heredity and organelle
control.
3. Cytoplasm and Organelles:
 ○ Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER):
■ Rough ER: Protein synthesis.
■ Smooth ER: Lipid and glycogen synthesis.
○ Golgi Complex:
■ Processes, packs, and transports cell secretions.
○ Lysosomes:
■ Contain enzymes for digesting macromolecules.
○ Ribosomes:
■ Protein synthesis, found freely or on ER.
○ Mitochondria:
■ Site of ATP production through oxidative phosphorylation.
■ Double membrane with inner folds (cristae).
○ Plastids (Plant Cells Only):
■ Chloroplasts for photosynthesis.
■ Chromoplasts for pigments like carotene and xanthophyll.

Diversity in Chemical Composition of Life

● Living organisms and non-living matter share similar elemental compositions, but:
○ Carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen are more abundant in living systems.
○ Water is the most abundant compound in living organisms.

Biomolecules in Living Systems

1. Small Biomolecules:
○ Amino acids, sugars, fatty acids, glycerol, nucleotides, and nucleosides.
○ Glycerides (fats and oils) and phospholipids for membranes.
2. Macromolecules:
○ Proteins: Heteropolymers of amino acids, serve structural, enzymatic, and
signaling functions.
■ Example: Collagen (most abundant in animals) and RuBisCO (most
abundant on Earth).
○ Nucleic Acids: Polymers of nucleotides, carry hereditary information (DNA,
RNA).
○ Polysaccharides: Provide structure (cell wall, exoskeleton) and store energy
(starch, glycogen).

Role of Enzymes

● Proteins that catalyze biochemical reactions.

● Ribozymes (nucleic acids) also have catalytic properties.
● Enzymes exhibit:
○ Substrate specificity.
 ○ Optimal activity at specific temperature and pH.
○ Denaturation at high temperatures.
● They lower activation energy to accelerate reactions.

Conclusion

● The structural and functional unit of life is the cell.

● Nucleic acids ensure the transfer of hereditary information across generations.

Cell Division and the Cell Cycle

Cell Theory and Division

● Cell Theory: Cells arise from preexisting cells.

● Cell Division: The process through which cells divide to form new cells.
○ In sexually reproducing organisms, life begins from a single-celled zygote.
○ Cell division continues throughout the life cycle of an organism.

The Cell Cycle

● Cell Cycle: The stages a cell passes through from one division to the next.
● The cell cycle consists of two main phases:
1. Interphase – Preparation for cell division.
2. Mitosis (M phase) – The actual division of the cell.

Interphase: Preparation for Cell Division

● G1 Phase (Gap 1):

○ Cell growth and normal metabolic activities.
○ Duplication of most organelles.
● S Phase (Synthesis):
○ DNA replication and chromosome duplication.
● G2 Phase (Gap 2):
○ Cytoplasmic growth and final preparations for cell division.

Mitosis: The Process of Cell Division

● Mitosis: The process where a parent cell divides into two genetically identical
daughter cells.
○ The chromosome number remains the same as the parent cell (equational
division).

Stages of Mitosis
 1. Prophase:
○ Chromosomes condense and become visible.
○ Centrioles move to opposite poles.
○ Nuclear envelope and nucleolus disappear.
○ Spindle fibers begin to form.
2. Metaphase:
○ Chromosomes align at the equatorial plate of the cell.
3. Anaphase:
○ Centromeres divide, and chromatids are pulled towards opposite poles of the
cell.
4. Telophase:
○ Chromatids reach opposite poles and elongate.
○ The nuclear envelope and nucleolus reappear.
● Cytokinesis:
○ Cytoplasmic division occurs after nuclear division, resulting in two daughter
cells.

Meiosis: Reduction Division for Gametes

● Meiosis: A type of cell division that reduces the chromosome number by half to form
gametes (sperm and egg cells).
○ Meiosis results in four non-identical haploid cells.

Phases of Meiosis

1. Meiosis I (Reduction Division): Reduces chromosome number by half.

○ Prophase I: Homologous chromosomes pair up and undergo crossing over
(exchange of genetic material).
■ Substages of Prophase I:
■ Leptotene
■ Zygotene
■ Pachytene
■ Diplotene
■ Diakinesis
○ Metaphase I: Bivalents (paired homologous chromosomes) align on the
equatorial plate.
○ Anaphase I: Homologous chromosomes are separated to opposite poles.
○ Telophase I: Nuclear membrane and nucleolus reappear, completing the first
meiotic division.
2. Meiosis II (Similar to Mitosis): The division of haploid cells to produce four haploid
gametes.
○ Anaphase II: Sister chromatids separate and move to opposite poles.
○ At the end of Meiosis II, four haploid cells are formed, each containing half the
chromosome number of the parent cell.
Conclusion

● Mitosis ensures that the chromosome number remains constant in daughter cells.
● Meiosis reduces the chromosome number by half to form gametes, and sexual
reproduction restores the full chromosome number upon fertilization.

HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY

Chapter 14 : Breathing and Exchange of Gases

Chapter 15 : Body Fluids and Circulation

Chapter 16 : Excretory Products and their Elimination

Chapter 17 : Locomotion and Movement

Chapter 18 : Neural Control and Coordination

Chapter 19 : Chemical Coordination and Integration

Respiration and Gas Exchange

Respiratory System Overview

● Oxygen Utilization: Cells require oxygen for metabolism and produce energy,
releasing carbon dioxide (CO2) as a byproduct.
● Respiratory Mechanism: Animals, including humans, have specialized respiratory
systems to transport oxygen to cells and remove CO2.

Stages of Respiration

1. Breathing:
○ Inspiration: Taking atmospheric air into the lungs.
○ Expiration: Releasing alveolar air out of the body.
2. Gas Exchange:
○ Alveolar Exchange: O2 from inhaled air diffuses into deoxygenated blood,
and CO2 from blood diffuses into the alveoli to be exhaled.
○ Tissue Exchange: Oxygenated blood delivers oxygen to tissues, and CO2
produced by tissues diffuses back into the blood for removal.
3. Cellular Respiration:
○ Oxygen is utilized by cells to generate energy (ATP), while CO2 is produced
as a waste product.
Mechanisms of Breathing

● Pressure Gradients: Breathing is facilitated by creating pressure differences

between the atmosphere and the alveoli using specialized muscles (intercostals and
diaphragm).
● Spirometry: Air volumes involved in breathing can be measured with a spirometer,
which has clinical significance.

Diffusion and Transport of Gases

● Factors Affecting Diffusion:

○ The rate of diffusion of O2 and CO2 depends on partial pressure gradients,
solubility, and thickness of diffusion surfaces.
○ These factors help facilitate the diffusion of gases across alveolar and tissue
membranes.
● Oxygen Transport:
○ Oxygen binds to hemoglobin in the alveoli, forming oxyhemoglobin. It is
released in tissues where O2 levels are low and CO2 is high.
● Carbon Dioxide Transport:
○ Around 70% of CO2 is transported as bicarbonate (HCO3-).
○ 20-25% of CO2 is carried by hemoglobin as carbaminohemoglobin.
○ CO2 moves from tissues to blood and is expelled in the alveoli.

Regulation of Breathing

● Respiratory Rhythm: Controlled by the medullary respiratory center.

● Chemoreceptors in the medulla and the pneumotaxic center in the pons adjust the
respiratory rate based on O2 and CO2 levels.

Circulatory System

Functions of Blood and Lymph

● Blood: Transports essential substances (oxygen, nutrients) and removes waste

products (CO2, urea).
● Lymph: A tissue fluid derived from blood, transporting certain substances, and is
similar to blood, except in protein content and formed elements.
Components of Blood

● Plasma: The fluid matrix of blood.

● Formed Elements:
○ Red Blood Cells (RBCs): Carry oxygen.
○ White Blood Cells (WBCs): Involved in immune response.
○ Platelets: Involved in blood clotting.
● Blood Grouping:
○ ABO System: Blood types are classified based on A and B antigens on
RBCs.
○ Rhesus Factor: Blood is also classified by the presence (Rh+) or absence
(Rh-) of the Rhesus factor antigen on RBCs.

Circulatory System

● Closed Circulatory System: Vertebrates have a closed circulatory system with

blood circulating within vessels.
● Heart Structure: The heart consists of two atria and two ventricles, pumping blood
throughout the body.

Cardiac Function

1. Cardiac Cycle:
○ The sequential contraction and relaxation of the heart (systole and diastole)
make up the cardiac cycle.
○ Each cycle involves 70 mL of blood being pumped per ventricle, called
stroke volume.
2. Cardiac Output:
○ The total volume of blood pumped by each ventricle per minute is cardiac
output (approximately 5 liters).
○ It is calculated as the product of stroke volume and heart rate.

Regulation of Heart Function

● Sino-Atrial Node (SAN): The SAN acts as the pacemaker, generating action
potentials that regulate heart rhythm.
● Electrical Activity: The heart's electrical activity can be recorded and observed
using an ECG (electrocardiogram).

Excretory System in Animals

Excretion of Nitrogenous Wastes

● Types of Nitrogenous Wastes: Ammonia, urea, and uric acid are the major
nitrogenous wastes excreted by animals, depending on habitat and water availability.
● Excretory Organs: Protonephridia, nephridia, malpighian tubules, green glands, and
kidneys are common excretory organs. These organs also help in maintaining ionic
and acid-base balance.

Excretory System in Humans

● Organs Involved:
○ Kidneys: A pair of kidneys filters blood and produces urine.
○ Ureters: Transport urine from kidneys to the bladder.
○ Urinary Bladder: Stores urine.
○ Urethra: Expels urine from the body.
● Nephrons:
○ Structure: The kidney contains over a million nephrons, each consisting of a
glomerulus (a tuft of capillaries) and a renal tubule (comprising the
Bowman’s capsule, PCT, Henle's loop, and DCT).
○ Function: Nephrons are responsible for filtration, reabsorption, and secretion
of substances.

Urine Formation

1. Filtration:
○ Filtration is a non-selective process that occurs in the glomerulus using the
glomerular capillary blood pressure. About 1200 ml of blood is filtered per
minute to form 125 ml of filtrate (Glomerular Filtration Rate or GFR).
2. Reabsorption:
○ PCT: Primary site for reabsorption of water, ions, and nutrients.
○ Henle’s Loop: Helps maintain osmolarity gradient in the kidney.
○ DCT and Collecting Duct: Further reabsorb water and electrolytes to
regulate water balance.
3. Secretion:
○ Ions (H+, K+, NH3) are secreted into the filtrate for ionic balance and pH
regulation.

Countercurrent Mechanism

● Henle’s Loop & Vasa Recta: The loop of Henle and the parallel vasa recta
capillaries facilitate the concentration of filtrate and retention of electrolytes and urea
in the kidney's interstitium.
 ● Water Conservation: The system helps concentrate the filtrate from 300
mOsmolL–1 to 1200 mOsmolL–1, conserving water effectively.

Micturition and Excretion

● Urine Storage and Release: Urine is stored in the urinary bladder and is released
through the urethra via micturition, controlled by the CNS.
● Other Excretory Organs: Skin, lungs, and liver also assist in excretion.

Movement and Locomotion in Animals

Types of Movement

● Protoplasmic Streaming: Movement of cytoplasm within cells.

● Ciliary Movement: Involves beating of cilia (e.g., in respiratory tract).
● Locomotion: Voluntary movement that results in a change of location (e.g., walking,
flying) and is essential for finding food, shelter, mates, etc.

Muscle Types and Movement

● Skeletal Muscles: Striated and voluntary, attached to the skeleton and responsible
for voluntary movements.
● Visceral Muscles: Non-striated and involuntary, found in internal organs.
● Cardiac Muscles: Striated, branched, and involuntary, found in the heart.

Muscle Structure and Function

● Muscle Fibers: The anatomical unit of muscles, each containing myofibrils.

Myofibrils consist of sarcomeres, which are functional units of contraction.
● Sarcomeres: Contain actin (thin filaments) and myosin (thick filaments) arranged in
a specific structure:
○ A Band: Thick myosin filaments.
○ I Band: Thin actin filaments.
○ Z Lines: Mark boundaries of sarcomeres.
● Contraction Mechanism:
○ Action potential from a motor neuron triggers the release of Ca++ from the
sarcoplasmic reticulum, enabling actin and myosin to bind and form
cross-bridges.
 ○ Cross-bridges cause actin filaments to slide over myosin, resulting in muscle
contraction.
○ Relaxation occurs when Ca++ is pumped back into the sarcoplasmic
reticulum.

Fatigue and Muscle Fiber Types

● Fatigue: Repeated muscle stimulation leads to fatigue due to depletion of energy

stores.
● Red Fibers: Rich in myoglobin, suited for endurance activities.
● White Fibers: Poor in myoglobin, suited for quick bursts of power.

Skeletal System

Types of Skeleton

● Axial Skeleton: Includes the skull, vertebral column, ribs, and sternum.
● Appendicular Skeleton: Includes limb bones and girdles.

Joints and Movement

● Types of Joints:
○ Fibrous Joints: Limited movement (e.g., sutures in the skull).
○ Cartilaginous Joints: Slight movement (e.g., intervertebral discs).
○ Synovial Joints: Freely movable, playing a significant role in locomotion
(e.g., knee, shoulder joints). These joints contain synovial fluid to reduce
friction.

Conclusion

The excretory and locomotor systems in animals, especially humans, are essential for
maintaining homeostasis and facilitating movement, allowing for proper function and survival
in varying environmental conditions.

Neural System Overview

Functions of the Neural System

 ● Coordination & Integration: The neural system coordinates and integrates
functions of organs, and regulates metabolic and homeostatic activities across the
body.
● Neurons: Neurons are excitable cells with a differential ion concentration across their
membranes, which allows for electrical impulses.
● Resting Potential: The electrical potential difference across the membrane of a
resting neuron.
● Nerve Impulse: A wave of depolarization and repolarization conducted along the
axon membrane.
● Synapse: The junction between neurons, where neurotransmitters facilitate the
transmission of nerve impulses.

Components of the Human Neural System

1. Central Neural System (CNS):

○ Brain: Divided into three parts:
■ Forebrain: Includes the cerebrum, thalamus, and hypothalamus. The
cerebrum is divided into two hemispheres connected by the corpus
callosum. The hypothalamus regulates body temperature, eating,
and drinking.
■ Limbic System: Part of the forebrain involved in olfaction, autonomic
responses, sexual behavior regulation, and emotional reactions.
■ Midbrain: Receives and integrates visual, tactile, and auditory inputs.
■ Hindbrain: Includes the pons, cerebellum, and medulla. The
cerebellum processes balance and movement. The medulla controls
respiration, cardiovascular reflexes, and gastric secretions.
○ Spinal Cord: Acts as a communication pathway between the brain and the
peripheral nervous system.
2. Peripheral Neural System:
○ Connects the CNS to limbs and organs, involving sensory and motor neurons.

Endocrine System Overview

Hormones and Their Functions

● Chemical Coordination: Hormones regulate metabolism, growth, and development

of organs and tissues. They are produced by endocrine glands and certain organs.
● Endocrine Glands: Include the hypothalamus, pituitary, pineal, thyroid, adrenal
glands, pancreas, parathyroid, thymus, and gonads (testis and ovaries).
Major Endocrine Glands and Their Functions

1. Pituitary Gland:
○ Pars Distalis: Produces six trophic hormones, which regulate somatic growth
and peripheral endocrine glands.
○ Pars Intermedia: Secretes one hormone.
○ Pars Nervosa (Neurohypophysis): Releases two hormones.
2. Pineal Gland:
○ Secretes melatonin, which regulates circadian rhythms such as sleep/wake
cycles, body temperature, etc.
3. Thyroid Gland:
○ Produces hormones regulating basal metabolic rate, development of the
CNS, and metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats.
○ Thyrocalcitonin helps regulate blood calcium levels by decreasing them.
4. Parathyroid Glands:
○ Secretes parathyroid hormone (PTH), which increases blood calcium levels
and plays a key role in calcium homeostasis.
5. Thymus Gland:
○ Secretes thymosins, which aid in the differentiation of T-lymphocytes for
cell-mediated immunity and increase antibody production for humoral
immunity.
6. Adrenal Gland:
○ Adrenal Medulla: Secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine, which
enhance alertness, cause pupil dilation, increase heart rate, and promote
glycogen breakdown.
○ Adrenal Cortex: Secretes glucocorticoids (which stimulate
gluconeogenesis and suppress immune response) and mineralocorticoids
(which regulate water and electrolyte balance).
7. Pancreas:
○ Secretes glucagon (increases blood sugar levels) and insulin (lowers blood
sugar levels and stimulates glycogen synthesis). Insulin deficiency or
resistance leads to diabetes mellitus.
8. Gonads:
○ Testes: Produce androgens, which regulate male secondary sex
characteristics, spermatogenesis, and male sexual behavior.
○ Ovaries: Secrete estrogen (for female secondary sex characteristics) and
progesterone (for maintaining pregnancy and mammary gland
development).
9. Other Hormone-Producing Organs:
○ Heart: Produces atrial natriuretic factor, which lowers blood pressure.
○ Kidneys: Produce erythropoietin, which stimulates red blood cell
production.
○ Gastrointestinal Tract: Secretes hormones like gastrin, secretin,
cholecystokinin, and gastric inhibitory peptide, which regulate digestion.

Conclusion
The endocrine system works in coordination with the neural system to regulate bodily
functions through hormones. It plays a critical role in maintaining homeostasis, growth,
metabolism, reproduction, and immune responses. Each hormone has a specific role in
regulating different aspects of body function.

UNIT IV

PLANT PHYSIOLOGY

Chapter 11 : Photosynthesis in Higher Plants

Chapter 12 : Respiration in Plants

Chapter 13 : Plant Growth and Development

Summary: Photosynthesis and Cellular Respiration in Plants

Photosynthesis in Green Plants

● Process: Green plants produce their own food through photosynthesis, using
carbon dioxide (CO₂) from the atmosphere to create carbohydrates like glucose and
starch.
● Location: Photosynthesis occurs mainly in the green parts of the plant, particularly
the leaves, where mesophyll cells contain chloroplasts responsible for CO₂ fixation.

Stages of Photosynthesis

1. Light Reaction:
○ Light energy is absorbed by pigments in the antenna complex and transferred
to reaction center chlorophylls (specialized chlorophyll a molecules).
○ There are two photosystems:
■ PS I (P700) absorbs light at 700 nm.
■ PS II (P680) absorbs light at 680 nm.
○ Electrons are excited, transferred through PS II and PS I, and finally to NAD⁺,
forming NADH.
○ A proton gradient is created across the thylakoid membrane, driving ATP
synthesis.
○ Water splitting occurs at PS II, releasing O₂, protons, and transferring
electrons.
2. Carbon Fixation (Calvin Cycle):
 ○ RuBisCO enzyme adds CO₂ to a 5-carbon compound (RuBP), forming two
3-carbon molecules (PGA).
○ These are converted into sugars, and RuBP is regenerated.
○ ATP and NADPH produced in the light reaction are used in the Calvin cycle.
○ Photorespiration may occur in C3 plants, a wasteful oxygenation process by
RuBisCO.
3. C4 Pathway:
○ Some tropical plants use the C4 pathway for photosynthesis, where the first
product of CO₂ fixation is a 4-carbon compound.
○ The Calvin cycle occurs in bundle sheath cells, producing carbohydrates.

Gaseous Exchange in Plants

● No Special Systems: Plants do not have specialized systems like animals for
breathing or gaseous exchange.
● Stomata and Lenticels: These structures facilitate gaseous exchange by diffusion.
Most plant cells have their surfaces exposed to air.

Cellular Respiration in Plants

● Process: Cellular respiration is the process of breaking down complex organic

molecules, releasing energy. Glucose is the primary substrate, but fats and proteins
can also be used.

Stages of Cellular Respiration

1. Glycolysis:
○ Occurs in the cytoplasm, where glucose is broken down into pyruvic acid
through enzyme-catalyzed reactions.
○ Under anaerobic conditions, fermentation occurs, producing either lactic
acid or alcohol.
○ Fermentation occurs in many prokaryotes, unicellular eukaryotes, and
germinating seeds.
2. Aerobic Respiration:
○ Pyruvic acid enters the mitochondria and is converted into acetyl CoA,
releasing CO₂.
○ Acetyl CoA enters the Krebs cycle (tricarboxylic acid cycle) in the
mitochondria, generating NADH and FADH2.
○ Electron Transport System (ETS): Located on the inner mitochondrial
membrane, where electrons release energy to synthesize ATP through
oxidative phosphorylation.
○ Oxygen (O₂) is the ultimate electron acceptor, forming water.
3. Respiratory Quotient (RQ):
 ○ The RQ depends on the type of respiratory substrate (e.g., glucose, fats,
proteins) used during respiration.

Amphibolic Nature of the Respiratory Pathway

● The respiratory pathway is considered amphibolic because it involves both

anabolism (building up) and catabolism (breaking down) processes.

Summary: Growth and Differentiation in Plants

Growth in Organisms

● Definition: Growth is an irreversible increase in an organism, expressed in

parameters like size, length, area, volume, and cell number.
● Key Feature: Growth involves the increase in protoplasmic material within cells.

Growth in Plants

1. Meristems:
○ Meristems are the primary sites of growth in plants.
○ Root and shoot apical meristems (along with intercalary meristems)
contribute to the elongation growth of plant axes.
2. Indeterminate Growth:
○ Growth in higher plants is indeterminate, meaning it continues throughout
the plant’s life.
○ After cell division in apical meristems, plant growth can follow two patterns:
■ Arithmetic growth (constant increase).
■ Geometrical growth (exponential increase).
3. Phases of Growth:
○ Lag Phase: Slow growth as cells adjust and prepare.
○ Log Phase: Rapid and exponential growth.
○ Senescent Phase: Slowdown and eventual cessation of growth.

Differentiation in Plants

● Definition: Differentiation occurs when a cell loses the ability to divide and
specializes to perform a specific function.

Principles of Differentiation:

1. Cell Differentiation:
 ○ Differentiation leads to the development of specific structures that align with
the function of the cell.
○ General principles of differentiation apply to cells, tissues, and organs.
2. Flexibility in Differentiation:
○ In plants, differentiation is open, meaning cells can dedifferentiate (revert to
a less specialized state) and redifferentiate (specialize again).
○ This flexibility allows for plasticity in development, making plant growth and
development adaptable to changing conditions.

Plasticity in Plant Development

● Plasticity refers to the ability of plants to adapt and modify their development in
response to environmental or internal factors, emphasizing the dynamic and flexible
nature of plant growth and differentiation.

UNIT VI

REPRODUCTION

Chapter 1 : Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants

.Sexual Reproduction in Angiosperms

Flowers are the reproductive structures in angiosperms. The two main reproductive parts
are:

● Androecium: Comprising stamens, which are the male reproductive organs.

● Gynoecium: Comprising pistils, which are the female reproductive organs.

Structure of Anther

● A typical anther is bilobed, dithecous, and tetrasporangiate.

● Inside the anther are microsporangia where pollen grains develop.
● The microsporangium is surrounded by four wall layers:
○ Epidermis: Protective outermost layer.
○ Endothecium: Provides support.
○ Middle layers: Assist in protection and dehiscence.
○ Tapetum: Nutritive layer for developing pollen grains.
Microsporogenesis and Pollen Grain Development

● Sporogenous tissue undergoes meiosis to form tetrads of microspores.

● Individual microspores mature into pollen grains, representing the male gametophyte.
● Pollen grain structure:
○ Wall layers: Outer exine (made of sporopollenin) and inner intine.
○ Contains germ pores for pollen tube formation.
○ At shedding, pollen may have two cells (vegetative and generative) or three
cells (vegetative and two male gametes).

Structure of Pistil and Ovule

● Pistil parts:
○ Stigma: Receives pollen.
○ Style: Connects stigma and ovary.
○ Ovary: Houses ovules.
● Ovule structure:
○ Funicle: Stalk attaching ovule to ovary wall.
○ Integuments: Protective layers around the ovule.
○ Micropyle: Opening for pollen tube entry.
○ Nucellus: Central tissue with the archesporium.

Megasporogenesis and Embryo Sac Formation

● A cell from the archesporium differentiates into the megaspore mother cell.
● Meiosis in the megaspore mother cell produces four megaspores, one of which forms
the embryo sac.
● The mature embryo sac is 7-celled and 8-nucleate:
○ Micropylar end: Egg apparatus (2 synergids and 1 egg cell).
○ Chalazal end: 3 antipodals.
○ Central cell: Contains 2 polar nuclei.

Pollination and Pollen-Pistil Interaction

● Pollination: Transfer of pollen from anther to stigma via abiotic (wind, water) or biotic
(animals) agents.
● Pollen-pistil interaction:
○ Ensures compatibility.
○ Pollen germinates on stigma and forms a pollen tube to deliver two male
gametes to the embryo sac.
Double Fertilisation

● Unique to angiosperms, involving two fusion events:

○ Syngamy: Fusion of one male gamete with the egg, forming a diploid zygote.
○ Triple fusion: Fusion of the second male gamete with two polar nuclei,
forming a triploid primary endosperm nucleus.
● Results:
○ Zygote develops into the embryo.
○ Primary endosperm cell develops into endosperm, providing nutrition to the
embryo.

Embryo Development

● The zygote passes through stages like proembryo, globular, and heart-shaped
before maturing.
● Dicot embryos: Two cotyledons with epicotyl and hypocotyl.
● Monocot embryos: Single cotyledon.

Post-Fertilisation Changes

● Ovary develops into fruit.

● Ovules develop into seeds.

Special Phenomena

● Apomixis: Formation of seeds without fertilisation, common in grasses.

○ Advantageous in agriculture for maintaining genetic traits.
● Polyembryony: Presence of multiple embryos in a seed.

These processes are crucial for the reproductive success and diversity of angiosperms.

Chapter 2 : Human Reproduction

Human Reproduction Overview

Humans are sexually reproducing and viviparous, meaning offspring develop inside the
mother's body and are born alive.

Male Reproductive System

The male reproductive system includes:

1. Primary Organs:
○ Testes:
 ■ Paired structures located in the scrotum.
■ Divided into ~250 compartments called testicular lobules.
■ Each lobule contains 1-3 seminiferous tubules.
■ Inside seminiferous tubules:
■ Spermatogonia: Germ cells undergoing meiosis to form
sperms.
■ Sertoli cells: Provide nutrition to germ cells.
■ Leydig cells: Found outside seminiferous tubules; produce
androgens (testicular hormones).
2. Accessory Ducts:
○ Transport sperms.
3. External Genitalia:
○ Penis: Male external genital organ.

Female Reproductive System

The female reproductive system includes:

1. Primary Organs:
○ Ovaries:
■ Produce female gametes (ova) and ovarian hormones (steroids).
■ Contain ovarian follicles in different stages of development.
2. Accessory Ducts:
○ Oviducts (Fallopian tubes): Site for fertilisation.
○ Uterus:
■ Layers: Perimetrium (outer), Myometrium (muscular middle),
Endometrium (inner).
○ Vagina: Passage for childbirth and sexual intercourse.
3. External Genitalia:
○ Includes mons pubis, labia majora, labia minora, hymen, and clitoris.
4. Mammary Glands:
○ Secondary sexual characteristics; differentiate during pregnancy to secrete
milk postpartum.

Gametogenesis

1. Spermatogenesis (in males):

○ Formation of sperms in seminiferous tubules.
○ A sperm consists of head, neck, middle piece, and tail.
2. Oogenesis (in females):
○ Formation of mature female gametes (ova).
Menstrual Cycle

● The reproductive cycle in female primates, starting at puberty.

● Ovulation occurs once per cycle, releasing one ovum.
● Regulated by pituitary and ovarian hormones.

Fertilisation and Pregnancy

1. Fertilisation:
○ Occurs in the ampulla of the oviduct.
○ Sperm fuses with ovum, forming a diploid zygote.
○ The sex of the embryo is determined by the X or Y chromosome in the
sperm.
2. Blastocyst Formation:
○ Zygote undergoes mitotic divisions, forming a blastocyst.
○ The blastocyst implants in the uterus, initiating pregnancy.
3. Pregnancy:
○ Lasts for ~9 months.

Parturition (Childbirth)

● The process of childbirth is a neuroendocrine mechanism.

● Hormones involved: Cortisol, estrogens, oxytocin.

Lactation

● Mammary glands secrete milk after childbirth.

● Provides nutrition to the newborn in the early month

Chapter 3 : Reproductive Health

Reproductive Health Overview

Reproductive health is a state of total well-being in all aspects of reproduction—physical,

emotional, behavioral, and social. It is essential for ensuring a healthy and balanced
society.

National Initiatives for Reproductive Health

 ● India was the first country to implement national-level action plans to promote
reproductive health.
● Awareness and Counselling: Focused on educating people about:
○ Reproductive organs.
○ Adolescence and associated changes.
○ Safe and hygienic sexual practices.
○ Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs) like AIDS.

Medical Facilities and Support

The Reproductive and Child Health Care Programmes include:

● Treatment for menstrual irregularities.

● Pregnancy-related care and safe delivery.
● Medical Termination of Pregnancy (MTP).
● Management of STIs.
● Providing birth control options.
● Assistance with infertility treatments.
● Postnatal care for mothers and children.

Achievements in Reproductive Health

● Reduced maternal and infant mortality rates.

● Early detection and treatment of STIs.
● Support for infertile couples through advanced technologies.

Population Growth and Contraception

Improved health facilities and living conditions have led to population growth, necessitating
widespread use of contraceptives:

● Contraceptive Methods:
○ Natural and traditional methods.
○ Barrier methods (e.g., condoms).
○ Intrauterine Devices (IUDs).
○ Pills, injectables, and implants.
○ Surgical methods like vasectomy and tubectomy.
● Contraceptives help to avoid unintended pregnancies, space births, or delay
childbirth.

Medical Termination of Pregnancy (MTP)

 ● Legally permitted in India for:
○ Unwanted pregnancies (e.g., due to rape or casual relationships).
○ Situations where pregnancy threatens the life of the mother or foetus.

Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs)

● Definition: Diseases transmitted through sexual contact.

● Complications:
○ Pelvic Inflammatory Diseases (PIDs).
○ Stillbirth.
○ Infertility.
● Prevention and Early Detection:
○ Avoid sexual contact with unknown/multiple partners.
○ Use condoms during intercourse.
○ Early diagnosis ensures better treatment outcomes.

Infertility and Assisted Reproductive Technologies (ART)

● Infertility: Inability to conceive even after 2 years of unprotected intercourse.

● Treatment Options:
○ In Vitro Fertilisation (IVF): Fertilisation outside the body, followed by embryo
transfer to the uterus (commonly known as the Test Tube Baby
Programme).

Conclusion

Efforts to enhance reproductive health have led to significant improvements in maternal and
child health, population control, and treatment options for infertility. Public awareness and
access to medical facilities remain key for maintaining and improving reproductive health in
society.

UNIT VII

GENETICS AND EVOLUTION

Chapter 4 : Principles of Inheritance and Variation

Summary of Genetics Using Keywords

Genetics:
The branch of biology that deals with inheritance principles and practices.

Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance:

1. Law of Dominance:
○ Dominant traits express in heterozygous conditions.
○ Recessive traits express only in homozygous conditions.
2. Law of Segregation:
○ Characters segregate during gamete formation.
○ No blending occurs in heterozygous conditions.
3. Law of Independent Assortment:
○ Factors (genes) assort independently when two characters are inherited
together.
○ Represented by the Punnett Square.

Key Terms:

● Factors: Now known as genes, found in pairs (alleles).

● Genotype: Genetic composition of a trait.
● Phenotype: Physical expression of a trait.

Extensions to Mendel's Laws:

1. Chromosomal Theory of Inheritance:

○ Correlates Mendel’s laws with chromosome segregation during meiosis.
2. Linked Genes:
○ Genes on the same chromosome assort together.
○ Linkage maps show gene arrangement on chromosomes.
3. Sex-linked Genes:
○ Genes linked to sex chromosomes (e.g., XX in females, XY in males in
humans).
○ Other examples: ZZ (male) and ZW (female) in chickens.

Mutations:

● Definition: Changes in genetic material.

● Point Mutation: Change in one DNA base pair (e.g., Sickle-cell anemia).
● Polyploidy: Change in a whole set of chromosomes.
● Aneuploidy: Change in a subset of chromosome numbers.
Genetic Disorders:

1. Down's Syndrome:
○ Trisomy 21: Extra copy of chromosome 21, total chromosomes = 47.
2. Turner’s Syndrome:
○ XO condition: One X chromosome missing.
3. Klinefelter’s Syndrome:
○ XXY condition: Extra X chromosome in males.

Tools for Study:

● Karyotype Analysis: Visualization of chromosomal abnormalities.

● Pedigree Analysis: Inheritance tracking in families.

This summary emphasizes the foundations and advancements in the field of genetics using
key terminologies.

Chapter 5 : Molecular Basis of Inheritance

Summary of Nucleic Acids Using Keywords

Nucleic Acids:

● Long polymers of nucleotides.

● Types: DNA (stores genetic information) and RNA (transfer and expression of
information).
● DNA is more stable than RNA and a better genetic material, but RNA evolved first.

Structure of DNA:

● Double-stranded helix with complementary base pairing.

○ Adenine (A) pairs with Thymine (T) (2 H-bonds).
○ Guanine (G) pairs with Cytosine (C) (3 H-bonds).
● Strands are antiparallel and complementary.

Replication:

● Semiconservative process.
● Complementary H-bonding guides DNA synthesis.
Gene and Transcription:

● Gene: A segment of DNA coding for RNA.

● During transcription, one DNA strand acts as a template for complementary RNA
synthesis.
● In bacteria: Transcribed mRNA is directly functional.
● In eukaryotes:
○ Exons (coding sequences) and introns (non-coding sequences).
○ Introns are removed via splicing to produce functional RNA.

Translation:

● mRNA is read in triplet genetic codes (codons) for amino acids.

● tRNA:
○ Adapter molecule.
○ Carries specific amino acids and pairs with mRNA codons via anticodons.
● Ribosomes:
○ Site of protein synthesis.
○ rRNA catalyzes peptide bond formation (ribozyme).

Gene Regulation:

● Transcription regulation is the primary control of gene expression.

● Operons in bacteria: Genes grouped and regulated together.
○ Example: Lac operon (regulated by lactose levels).

Human Genome Project (HGP):

● Aimed to sequence every base in the human genome.

● Opened new areas in genetics and biotechnology.

DNA Fingerprinting:

● Technique to detect polymorphism in DNA sequences.

● Applications:
○ Forensic science.
○ Genetic biodiversity.
○ Evolutionary biology.
This concise outline captures the essence of nucleic acids and related processes through
key terminologies

Chapter 6 : Evolution

Summary of the Origin of Life and Evolution Using Keywords

Origin of Life:

● Linked to the origin of the universe, especially Earth.

● Chemical evolution: Formation of biomolecules preceded the first cellular life.

Darwinian Evolution:

● Based on natural selection.

● Variations in populations result in variable fitness.
● Phenomena:
○ Habitat fragmentation.
○ Genetic drift: Accentuates variations.

Speciation and Evolution:

● New species arise due to cumulative variations.

● Homology: Indicates branching descent.
● Evidence:
○ Comparative anatomy.
○ Fossils.
○ Comparative biochemistry.

Diversity of Life:

● Changes over millions of years.

● Variability in fitness drives evolution.

Evolution of Humans:

● Modern man evolved alongside:

○ Brain development.
○ Emergence of language.
This summary uses key concepts to explain the process of life’s origin and evolution,
emphasizing evidence and mechanisms.

UNIT VIII

BIOLOGY IN HUMAN WELFARE

Chapter 7 : Human Health and Disease

Summary of Health and Disease Using Keywords

Definition of Health:

● Not just absence of disease.

● Complete well-being: Physical, mental, social, and psychological.

Major Diseases:

● Typhoid, cholera, pneumonia, fungal infections, malaria.

● Vector-borne diseases:
○ Malaria caused by Plasmodium falciparum can be fatal if untreated.

Preventive Measures:

● Personal hygiene and cleanliness.

● Public health strategies:
○ Proper waste disposal.
○ Decontamination of drinking water.
○ Vector control (e.g., mosquitoes).
○ Immunisation.

Immune System:

● Innate immunity:
○ Skin, mucous membranes, antimicrobial substances (tears, saliva).
○ Phagocytic cells block pathogen entry.
● Adaptive immunity:
○ Humoral response: Produces antibodies.
○ Cell-mediated response: Kills pathogens.
 ○ Immune memory: Rapid and intense response on re-exposure.
● Vaccination: Based on immune memory.

Critical Diseases:

● AIDS:
○ Caused by HIV.
○ Fatal, but preventable with precautions.
● Cancer:
○ Curable with early detection and therapies.

Drug and Alcohol Abuse:

● A rising issue among youth and adolescents.

● Causes:
○ Peer pressure, stress, competition.
○ Addictive nature of substances.
● Solutions:
○ Education, counselling, professional and medical help.

This concise summary emphasizes key terms related to health, diseases, and preventive
measures.

Chapter 8 : Microbes in Human Welfare

Summary of the Importance of Microbes Using Keywords

Role of Microbes:

● Essential component of life.

● Not all pathogenic—many are beneficial.

Uses of Microbes in Daily Life:

● Lactic acid bacteria (LAB): Convert milk to curd.

● Yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae): Ferment dough for bread.
● Microbial fermentation: Used for foods like idli and dosa.
● Bacteria and fungi: Impart texture, taste, and flavor to cheese.
Industrial Applications:

● Production of lactic acid, acetic acid, and alcohol for industrial processes.
● Antibiotics (e.g., penicillin) produced by microbes used to kill pathogenic
microbes.
● Antibiotics help control diseases like diphtheria, whooping cough, and
pneumonia.

Environmental and Agricultural Uses:

● Sewage treatment: Microbes used in activated sludge formation for wastewater

treatment and water recycling.
● Methanogens: Produce biogas (methane) by degrading plant waste, used as
energy in rural areas.
● Biocontrol: Microbes used to kill harmful pests, reducing the need for toxic
pesticides.
● Biofertilisers: Microbes used to replace chemical fertilisers.

Conclusion:

● Microbes are vital for the welfare of human society due to their diverse roles in food
production, medicine, environmental management, and agriculture.

UNIT IX

BIOTECHNOLOGY

Chapter 9 : Biotechnology : Principles and Processes

Summary of Biotechnology Using Keywords

Definition:

● Biotechnology: Large-scale production and marketing of products using live

organisms, cells, or enzymes.

Modern Biotechnology:

● Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) made possible by altering DNA

chemistry.
 ● Recombinant DNA technology (or genetic engineering) enables the construction
of recombinant DNA.

Key Processes in Genetic Engineering:

● Restriction endonucleases: Enzymes used to cut DNA.

● DNA ligase: Enzyme used to join DNA fragments.
● Plasmid or viral vectors: Used to transport foreign DNA into host organisms.
● Foreign gene expression: The foreign gene is activated and produces the desired
product.
● Gene product purification: Functional protein is purified for use.

Large Scale Production:

● Use of bioreactors for mass production of the gene product.

Conclusion:

● Recombinant DNA technology plays a key role in biotechnology by enabling

genetic modification for the large-scale production of bioproducts.

Chapter 10 : Biotechnology and its Applications

Summary of Biotechnology Using Keywords

Biotechnology Products:

● Use of microbes, plants, and animals for the production of useful bioproducts.
● Tissue culture and somatic hybridization for developing new plant varieties.
● Recombinant DNA technology enables the genetic engineering of microbes,
plants, and animals to impart novel capabilities.

Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs):

● GM plants increase crop yields, reduce post-harvest losses, and enhance stress
tolerance.
● GM crops with improved nutritional value and pest resistance.
 ● Recombinant DNA technology leads to genetically modified organisms (GMOs)
created through non-natural gene transfer methods.

Healthcare Impact:

● Recombinant therapeutics: Mass production of safe, effective therapeutics, such

as human insulin produced by bacteria with the same structure as the natural
molecule.
● Transgenic animals as models to study human diseases like cancer, cystic
fibrosis, rheumatoid arthritis, and Alzheimer’s.

Gene Therapy:

● Gene therapy: Insertion of healthy genes to treat hereditary diseases by replacing

defective alleles or amplifying genes.
● Gene vectors: Viruses used to transfer healthy genes into cells or tissues.

Ethical Concerns:

● Manipulation of microbes, plants, and animals raises significant ethical questions.

Conclusion:

● Biotechnology using genetic engineering has revolutionized healthcare,

agriculture, and the study of diseases but has also sparked ethical debates.

UNIT X

ECOLOGY

Chapter 11 : Organisms and Populations

Summary of Ecology Using Keywords

Ecology:

● The study of relationships between living organisms and their abiotic

(physico-chemical) and biotic (other species) environment.
 ● Focuses on four biological levels: organisms, populations, communities, and
biomes.

Population Ecology:

● Evolution occurs at the population level through natural selection.

● A population consists of individuals of the same species that share or compete for
resources in a specific area.
● Population characteristics: birth rates, death rates, sex ratio, and age distribution.
● Age pyramid: Graphical representation of the proportion of different age groups,
indicating population growth, stability, or decline.

Population Dynamics:

● Population density reflects the size of a population, measured by numbers,

biomass, or percent cover.
● Populations grow through births and immigration and decline through deaths and
emigration.
● Exponential growth occurs when resources are unlimited, but growth becomes
logistic as resources become limiting, eventually reaching the carrying capacity.
● Intrinsic rate of natural increase (r): A measure of a population's growth potential.

Species Interactions:

● Species do not live in isolation; they interact in different ways:

○ Competition: Both species suffer (Competitive Exclusion Principle).
○ Predation and Parasitism: One benefits, the other suffers.
○ Commensalism: One benefits, the other is unaffected.
○ Amensalism: One is harmed, the other unaffected.
○ Mutualism: Both species benefit.
● Predation: Facilitates trophic energy transfer and controls prey populations.
● Herbivory defense: Plants develop morphological and chemical defenses.

Co-existence in Competition:

● Competitive Exclusion Principle: The superior competitor eliminates the inferior

one, but many species evolve mechanisms for co-existence.
● Plant-pollinator mutualism: A fascinating example of mutualism, where both plants
and pollinators benefit.
Conclusion:

● Ecology examines how populations grow, interact, and evolve in relation to each
other and their environment. The balance of interactions, resource availability, and
evolutionary processes shape ecosystems and biodiversity.

Chapter 12 : Ecosystem

Summary of Ecosystem Using Keywords

Ecosystem:

● A structural and functional unit of nature, composed of abiotic and biotic

components.
● Abiotic components: Inorganic materials such as air, water, and soil.
● Biotic components: Producers, consumers, and decomposers.

Ecosystem Structure:

● Physical structure: Results from the interaction of abiotic and biotic components.
● Species composition: The types of species present in the ecosystem.
● Stratification: The arrangement of species in layers or levels within the ecosystem.
● Nutritional role: Organisms occupy different roles based on their nutrition (e.g.,
producers, consumers, decomposers).

Ecosystem Components:

1. Productivity: The rate at which energy or biomass is produced.

○ Primary productivity: Rate of energy capture by producers (plants).
○ Gross primary productivity (GPP): Total energy capture or biomass
production.
○ Net primary productivity (NPP): Energy remaining after producers use
energy for their own metabolism.
○ Secondary productivity: Rate of energy assimilation by consumers.
2. Decomposition: Breakdown of organic matter (detritus) into carbon dioxide, water,
and inorganic nutrients by decomposers.
○ Decomposition processes:
■ Fragmentation of detritus.
■ Leaching: Loss of nutrients through water.
■ Catabolism: Breakdown of organic molecules.
3. Energy Flow:
 ○ Unidirectional: Energy flows from plants (producers) to consumers and
decomposers.
○ Trophic levels: Organisms are connected in a food chain based on their
energy relationships.
4. Nutrient Cycling:
○ Movement and storage of nutrients through ecosystem components.
○ Types of cycles:
■ Gaseous cycle: Involves the atmosphere or hydrosphere (e.g.,
carbon cycle).
■ Sedimentary cycle: Involves Earth's crust (e.g., phosphorus cycle).
○ Nutrients are recycled repeatedly in these cycles.

Ecosystem Services:

● Products of ecosystem processes that benefit humans, such as purification of air

and water by forests.

Conclusion:
Ecosystems are complex systems where energy flows in a unidirectional manner, and
nutrients are recycled. The interactions between the abiotic and biotic components create a
balance, allowing ecosystems to perform essential services that support life on Earth.

Chapter 13 : Biodiversity and Conservation

Summary of Biodiversity Using Keywords

Biodiversity:

● Refers to the diversity of life at genetic, species, and ecosystem levels.

● Aims to conserve genetic, species, and ecosystem diversity.

Species Diversity:

● Over 1.5 million species recorded globally, with an estimated 6 million species yet
to be discovered.
● 70% of named species are animals, and 70% of those are insects.
● Fungi have more species than all vertebrates combined.
● India: Approximately 45,000 plant species and twice as many animal species,
making it a mega-diverse country.
Distribution of Species:

● Species richness is highest in the tropics and decreases towards the poles.
● Explanations for tropical species richness:
○ More evolutionary time.
○ Relatively constant environment.
○ More solar energy and higher productivity.
● Species-area relationship: Larger areas generally have more species.

Importance of Species Diversity:

● High-diversity communities are:

○ Less variable,
○ More productive,
○ More resistant to invasions.
● Mass extinctions have occurred in Earth's fossil history.
● Current extinction rates (due to human activities) are 100 to 1000 times higher
than natural rates.

Current Extinction Crisis:

● 700 species have recently gone extinct.

● Over 15,500 species (including 650 in India) face extinction threats.
● Main causes:
○ Habitat loss (especially forests).
○ Fragmentation.
○ Over-exploitation.
○ Biological invasions.
○ Co-extinctions.

Reasons for Conserving Biodiversity:

● Utilitarian benefits:
○ Direct benefits like food, fiber, pharmaceuticals, etc.
○ Indirect benefits: Pollination, pest control, climate moderation, flood
control.
● Ethical reasons: Moral responsibility to protect and pass on biodiversity.

Biodiversity Conservation Methods:

 1. In situ conservation:
○ Protects endangered species in their natural habitat.
○ Focus on ecosystem protection.
○ 34 biodiversity hotspots worldwide, including 3 in India (Western Ghats,
Himalayas, Indo-Burma).
○ India’s conservation efforts:
■ 14 biosphere reserves
■ 90 national parks
■ 450+ wildlife sanctuaries
■ Sacred groves.
2. Ex situ conservation:
○ Protective maintenance of species outside their natural habitat.
○ Methods include:
■ Zoological parks and botanical gardens.
■ In vitro fertilization, tissue culture, cryopreservation of gametes.

Conclusion:
Biodiversity is crucial for the survival of life on Earth, offering both direct and indirect
benefits. Protecting it requires both in situ and ex situ conservation efforts, particularly in
biodiversity-rich regions like India.