Chapter-3: Measurements and Units

Every measurement provides three kinds of information:-

o the size or magnitude of the measurement (a number)
o a standard of comparison for the measurement (a unit), and
o an indication of the uncertainty of the measurement.
Without units, a number can be meaningless.
The standards for seven fundamental properties (“base units”) are
fixed by international agreement, and they are called the
International System of Units or SI Units.
Units for other properties may be derived from these seven base
units.
a) Basic Quantities
 length, mass, time, temperature, electric current, amount of
substance and luminous intensity are all basic quantities.
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BASE Quantity Name of Unit Symbol of Unit
Length meter m

Mass kilogram kg

Time second s

Temperature Kelvin K

Electric current ampere A

Amount of substance mole mol

Luminous intensity candela Cd

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Length:-
► SI unit:- meter(m)
►one meter is about 39.37 inches or 1.094 yards.
 Longer distances are often reported in kilometers (1 km = 1000 m = 103 m),
whereas shorter distances can be reported in centimeters (1 cm = 0.01 m ) or
millimeters (1 mm = 0.001m ), 1kilometer is about 0.62137mile.
Mass:-
♦ SI unit:- kilogram(kg), 1kg=1000g
♦ One kilogram(kg) is about 2.2 pounds (lb), one lb = 16 ounce (oz) .
Temperature :- The SI unit of temperature is the kelvin (K). The IUPAC
convention is to use kelvin (all lowercase) for the word, K (uppercase) for the
unit symbol, and neither the word “degree” nor the degree symbol (°). The
degree Celsius (°C) is also allowed in the SI system, with both the word
“degree” and the degree symbol used for Celsius measurements.
0C= 5/9(oF-32)

0F=9/5( oC) +32

K=0C +273.15

. . 3
Time:-The SI base unit of time is second (s).
 Small and large time intervals can be expressed with the appropriate
prefixes;
• For example; 3microseconds = 0.000003 s = 3×10−6 and
• 5 mega seconds = 5,000,000 s = 5 × 106 s.
alternatively, hours, days, and years can be used.
b) Derived SI Units
 We can derive many units from the seven SI base units.
 Volume:- is the measure of the amount of space occupied by an object.
 Its SI unit is m3
• 1m3=1000L, 1L=1.0567qt (quarts)
• 1dm3=1L
 Density:-The density of a substance is the ratio of the mass of a sample of the
substance to its volume.
 The SI unit for density is the kilogram per cubic meter (kg/m3).
 For many situations, however, this as an inconvenient unit and we often use grams
per cubic centimeter (g/cm3) for the densities of solids and liquids, and grams per
liter (g/L) for gases.
. . 4
 Several quantitative expressions of concentration are used in
chemistry.

 Some common units used to express concentration are:

mass percentage,

ppm and ppb,

mole fraction,

molarity,

normality and

molality of a solution.

. . 5
Mass Percentage
• The ratio of the mass of a solute to the mass of the solution,
multiplied by 100%.

𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒐𝒏𝒆𝒏𝒕

Mass percentage = x 100%
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

• It is referred to percent mass (%m), percent weight (%W) and

weight/weight percent (W/W)%.

. . 6
Example 1:

1. A solution is made by dissolving 13.5 g of glucose (C6H12O6) in 0.100

kg of water. What is the mass percentage of solute in this solution?

The mass of the solution = grams of solute, glucose (13.5 g) + mass of

solvents (0.100 kg = 100 g). From this we must calculate the mass
percentage of solute.

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒 13.5𝑔

Mass % of glucose= x100= =11.9%
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 13.5𝑔+100𝑔

Comment: The mass percentage of water in this solution is (100 – 11.9)%

= 88.1%.

. . 7
Parts per million (ppm) and Part per billion (ppb)

 Very low solute concentrations are expressed using appropriately

small units such as parts per million (ppm) or parts per billion
(ppb).

 Like percentage (“part per hundred”) units, ppm and ppb

defined in terms of masses, volumes, or mixed mass-volume
units. 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆
ppm= x 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝒑𝒑𝒎
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
 The mass-based definitions of ppm and ppb are given here:
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆
ppb= x 𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝒑𝒑𝒃
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

. . 8
Example:

1. A 2.5 g sample of ground water was found to contain 5.4 µg of

Zn2+. What is the concentration of Zn2+, in parts per million?

2. Express 5% (m/m) solution of NaCl in ppm.

Answer:

𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆
1. ppm= x106 = (5.4x10-6/2.5g) x106=2.2ppm
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

2. ppm = Mass percentage × 104 = 5 × 104

. . 9
Molarity
Molarity or molar concentration is the number of moles of solute
in 1 L of solution.
Molarity is determined by the equation
𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 𝒏𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆
Molarity(M) = , 𝑴=
𝑽 𝑳 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑽(𝑳)

𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒏 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 (𝒎)𝒊𝒏 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒎 (𝒈)

𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 (𝒏) =
𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 𝑴. 𝒘𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒈/𝒎𝒐𝒍

Example:
1. What is the molar concentration of a solution containing 16.0 g of
CH3OH in 200 mL of solution?
2. How many grams of NaCl (MW = 58 g/mol) are contained in 0.25
L of a 0.53 M solution?
. . 10
Answer:
1. Given: Required:

Mass of solute = 16 g Molarity = ?

Volume of solution = 0.20 L

Molar mass of CH3OH = 32 g/mol

mCH 3OH
Solution: MolarityM  
16g
  2.5M
M CH 3OH  Vsolution 32g / mol  0.2 L

2.

mNaCl  Molarity M  M NaCl  Vsolution

 0.53mol / L  58 g / mol  0.25 L  0.768 g
. . 11
How solution is prepared?
 First, the solute is accurately weighed and transferred to a
volumetric flask, then water is added through a funnel .

 Next, the solid is slowly dissolved by gently swirling the flask.

 After all the solid has dissolved, more water is slowly added to
bring the level of solution exactly to the volume mark
 When the volume of the solution
in the flask and the quantity of
compound (the number of moles)
are known, you can calculate the
molarity of the solution.
Example: A one-molar solution of
NaCl can be prepared by
dissolving 58.5 g of NaCl in water .
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Dilution of solutions
 Dilution is the process whereby the concentration of a solution is
lessened by the addition of solvent.
 Dilution is also a common means of preparing solutions of a desired
concentration. By adding solvent to a measured portion of a more
concentrated stock solution, a solution of lesser concentration may
be prepared.

 A simple mathematical relationship volumes and concentrations of

a solution before and after the dilution process.

 According to the definition of molarity, the number of moles of

solute in a solution (n) is equal to the product of the solution’s
molarity
.
(M) and its volume in liters
. (L): n = MV 13
 Expression like these may be written for a solution before and
after its diluted.

n1 = M1V1 and n2 = M2V2

 Since the dilution process does not change the amount of solute
in the solution, n1 = n2,

Thus, M1V1 = M2V2 Or C1V1 = C2V2 →dilution equation.

Example:

1. Describe how would you prepare 5.00 × 102 mL of a 1.75 M

H2SO4 solution, starting with an 8.61 M stock solution of H2SO4.
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Answer 1:
Before After dilution M1V1 = M2V2
dilution M = 1.75 M
V = 5× 102 8.61M × y = 5×102 mL × 1.75 M
M = 8.61 M
V = y mL mL y = 102 mL
Thus, we must dilute 102 mL of 8.61 M H2SO4 solution with
sufficient water to give a final volume of 5.0 × 102 mL.

Example 2: You have 100 mL of a 0.5 M HCl solution, and you want
to dilute it to exactly 0.1 M. How much water should you add?
M1V1 = M2V2 , V1=100ml, M1=0.5M, M2=0.1M and V2=?
V2=0.5Mx100ml/0.1M=500ml

There fore, 500ml-100ml=400ml, amount of water added=400ml

. . 15
 Measurement and Uncertainty
 Counting is the only type of measurement that is free from
uncertainty. Example; exact number.
1m = 100cm
 Every measurement has some uncertainty, which depends on the
device used and the user’s ability.
Significant Figures in Measurement
 Significant figures are those digits that correctly indicate the
precision of a measurement.
• Rules for Counting Significant Figures
1. Nonzero integers- always count as significant figures.
2. Zeros: There are three classes of zeros:
a) Leading zeros; are zeros that precede all the nonzero digits. These
do not count as significant figures.
0.0025
16
 SF.

• In the number 0.0025, the three zeros simply indicate the position of

the decimal point.

• This number has only two significant figures.

b) Captive zeros: are zeros between nonzero digits. These always

count as significant figures.

 The number 1.008 has four significant figures.

c) Trailing zeros are zeros at the right end of the number.

 They are significant only if the number contains a decimal point.

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 Leading zeros, are not significant
 Captive zeros, are therefore always
significant
 Trailing zeros, preceded by a
decimal point make all figures
significant, other wise ambiguous.

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Cont…
 The zeros in the measurement 1,300 grams could be significant or
they could simply indicate where the decimal point is located.

• The ambiguity can be resolved with the use of exponential notation:

1.3 × 103 (two significant figures), 1.30 × 103 (three significant
figures, if the tens place was measured), or 1.300 × 103 (four
significant figures, if the ones place was also measured).

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 Significant Figures in Calculations
i) Addition and Subtraction with Significant Figures
 Rule: When adding or subtracting numbers, round the result to the
same number of decimal places as the number with the fewest
decimal places (i.e., the least certain value ).
examples:-
a) Add 1.0023 g and 4.383 g.
b) Subtract 421.23 g from 486 g.
Solution;
a) 1.0023 g + 4.383 g =5.3853g
Answer = 5.385 g (round to the thousandths place; three
decimal places)
b) 486 g − 421.23 g = 64.77 g,
Answer: 65 g (round to the ones place; no decimal places)

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 ii) Multiplication and Division with Significant Figures
 Rule: When multiplying or dividing numbers, round the result to the
same number of digits as the number with the fewest significant
figures (the least certain value ).
Examples:-
a) Multiply 0.6238 cm by 6.6 cm.
b) Divide 421.23 g by 486 mL.
Solutions:-
a) 0.6238 cm×6.6cm=4.11708cm2 ⟶ result is 4.1cm2
(round to two significant figures)
i.e four significant figures x two significant figures ⟶ two SF.
b) 421.23 g / 486 mL = 0.866728 g/mL ⟶ result is 0.867 g/mL
(round to three significant figures)

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 Accuracy and Precision
 Measurements are said to be precise if they yield very similar
results when repeated in the same manner.

► Precise values agree with each other.

 A measurement is considered accurate if it yields a result that is

very close to the true or accepted value.

►accurate values agree with a true value.

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23
 Conversion Factors and Dimensional Analysis
• Also called Factor-label method.
• Is the procedure we use to convert between units in solving chemistry
problems. A ratio of two equivalent quantities expressed with
different measurement units can be used as a unit conversion factor.
• For example, the lengths of 2.54 cm and 1 in. are equivalent (by
definition), and so a unit conversion factor may be derived from the
ratio,
2.54 𝑐𝑚
• (2.54 cm= 1 in)
1 𝑖𝑛
• Common Conversion Factors
length volume mass

1 in= 2.54 cm 1L=1000 𝑐𝑚3 1kg= 2.2046 lb

1 cm= 0.01m 1𝑚3 = 1000L 1lb=453.59g

 In general, to apply dimensional analysis we use the relationship:

given quantity x conversion factor= desired quantity
 And the units cancel as follows;
𝒅𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕 24
given unit x = desired unit
CONT…
Example: Convert a volume of 9.345 ml to:
a) liters and
b) 𝑚3
Ans.
-------
1. What is the density of common antifreeze in units of g/mL?
A 4.00 qt sample of the antifreeze weighs 9.26 lb.
Solution
𝒎
 Since 𝒅 =
𝑽
 In general: the number of units of B = the number of units of A × unit
conversion factor.
• The necessary conversion factors are:
1 lb = 453.59 g; 1 L = 1.0567 qt; 1 L = 1,000 mL.
 Mass may be converted from pounds to grams as follows:
453.59 𝑔
9.26𝐼𝑏 𝑥 = 4.20 𝑥 103 𝑔
1𝐼𝑏
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CONT…
 Volume may be converted from quarts to millimeters via two steps:

Step 1. Convert quarts to liters.

1𝐿
4.00𝑞𝑡 𝑥 = 3.78𝐿
1.0567𝑞𝑡

Step 2.Convert liters to milliliters.

𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝒎𝑳
3.78 𝐿 𝑥 = 3.78 𝑥 103 𝑚𝐿
𝟏𝑳
Then,
𝑚 4.20 𝑥 103 𝑔 𝑔
𝑑= = 3
= 𝟏. 𝟏𝟏 𝑚𝐿
𝑣 3.78 𝑥 10 𝑚𝐿

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