Chemistry Video Notes

Chem Notes

Some Basic Concepts

Of Chemistry

Class 11ᵗʰ
 What is Chemistry? Didn’t understand? Watch
the video (Click Here)

Chemistry is defined as the branch of science which deals with the Composition
structure and properties of matter, the changes which take place in the matter
under different conditions and the laws which govern these changes.

Importance of Chemistry:

Chemistry has diverse applications that significantly impact various aspects of

life, science, and industry. Some key applications of chemistry are:
Healthcare: Study of drugs, their synthesis, and reactions
(pharmaceutical chemistry).
Food and Agriculture: Knowledge of fertilizers, preservatives,
and food additives.
Energy: Understanding fuels, batteries, and renewable energy
systems.
Didn’t understand? Watch
Matter and its Classifications the video (Click Here)

Matter refers to anything that occupies space and has mass. It is composed of
particles and exhibits physical and chemical properties.
Matter Can be classified based on:
Physical Classification
Chemical Classification

Physical Classification : Chemical Classification :

In physical classification, matter is In chemical classification, matter is
classified as solid, liquid & gas. classified as pure substances and
The three states of matter are mixtures.
interconvertable. It may be done by Materials found in nature are either
changing the Physical factors such single substances (Pure) or consists of
as temperature and pressure. two or more substances (Mixture).

Chemical Classification of Matter

Pure Substances Elements Homogeneous Mixtures

Compounds Heterogeneous
 Didn’t understand? Watch
Classification of Pure Substance the video (Click Here)

Elements: An element is defined as a pure substance that contains only one kind
of atom. An element can neither be broken into simpler substances nor built
from simpler substances by any method.

Compounds: When two or more atoms of different elements combine, the

molecule of a compound is formed. Compounds are pure substances and contain
more than one kind of element, These elements have a fixed proportion by mass
in the compound.
Types Of Compound: Organic Compounds
: Inorganic Compounds

Mixtures Didn’t understand? Watch

the video (Click Here)

Mixtures are not pure substances. A mixture may contain two or more
substances (elements or compounds) in any proportion.
The mixture shows the properties of its constituents. A mixture may be
separated into its constituents by physical methods.

Mixtures

Heterogeneous Mixture Homogeneous Mixture

These are the mixtures that have These are the mixtures that do not
uniform composition throughout. have uniform composition throughout.
Example- sugar in water Example- sand in water

Properties Of Matter
Physical Properties: Physical properties can be measured or observed without
changing the substance's identity or composition.
For example- density, volume, melting point & boiling point
Chemical Properties: The measurement or observation of chemical properties
requires a chemical change to occur.
For example- flammability, solubility, heat from combustion, radioactivity, types
of chemical bonds formed & acidity or basicity.
Didn’t understand? Watch
Measurement of Physical Properties Of the video (Click Here)
Matter
The International System of Units (SI) is a modernized metric system with seven
base units representing fundamental scientific quantities.
These seven base quantities form the foundation for all derived units in science,
ensuring uniformity and accuracy in measurements across various scientific
disciplines.

Fundamental Units: These are the basic units in the SI system, independent of
other units. They represent fundamental physical quantities.
Examples: Mass, Length, Time etc.
Derived Units: These are units derived from the fundamental units through
mathematical relationships. They are used to express complex physical
quantities.
Examples: Velocity, Force, Pressure etc.

Prefix In SI Unit
The prefixes in SI units are used to express large or small quantities of physical
measurements in a more convenient way. These prefixes represent powers of 10,
allowing for easier representation of both extremely large and extremely small
numbers.
 Didn’t understand? Watch
Uncertainty In Measurement the video (Click Here)

Uncertainty in measurement refers to the doubt or limitation in the accuracy of

a measured value due to imperfections in measuring instruments, methods, or
observations.
In measurements, accuracy and precision are two essential concepts that help
assess the reliability of results.
Accuracy: Accuracy refers to how close a measured value is to the true or
accepted value.
Precision: Precision refers to how close multiple measurements are to each
other, regardless of their closeness to the true value.

Scientific Notation
Scientific Notation is a method of expressing very large or very small numbers
in a compact form.
Scientific notation is represented as: N x 10ⁿ
Steps to Convert a Number into Scientific Notation:
1. Move the decimal point to create a number between 1 and 10 (N).
2. Count the number of places the decimal point has moved:
Left shift: ⁿ is positive.
Right shift: ⁿ is negative.
3. Express the number as N x 10ⁿ
Didn’t understand? Watch
Significant Figures the video (Click Here)

Significant Figures are the digits in a measured or calculated quantity that are
meaningful in terms of accuracy and precision. They include all certain digits
plus one uncertain (estimated) digit. Rules for determining Significant Figures:
All non-zero digits are significant.
Ending zeros in the right of the decimal are significant figures.
All the zeros between two non-zeros digits are significant figures.
Initial zeros are not significant figures.
Exact numbers have an infinite number of significant figures.
When a number ends in zero(s) and zero is not to the right of the decimal,
such zeros may or may not be the significant figure.
The power of 10 is insignificant.
Didn’t understand? Watch
Rounding Off Uncertain Digits the video (Click Here)

If the digit to be dropped is less than 5, the preceding digit remains the
same.
If the digit to be dropped is greater than 5, the preceding digit increases by
1.
 If the digit to be dropped is exactly 5:
The preceding digit remains unchanged if even.
The preceding digit increases by 1 if odd.

Didn’t understand? Watch

Law Of Chemical Combination the video (Click Here)

The laws of chemical combination are fundamental principles that govern how
elements combine to form compounds.
Law of conservation of mass Law of reciprocal proportions
Law of constant proportions Law of combining volumes
Law of multiple proportions Avogadro's Law

Law of conservation of mass:

WOW!
Mass can neither be created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction.
The total mass of reactants is always equal to the total mass of products.

Law of constant proportions:

A given compound always contains the same elements in the same proportion by
mass, regardless of its source or method of preparation.
Law of multiple proportions
When two elements combine to form more than one compound, the masses of
one element that combine with a fixed mass of the other are in simple whole-
number ratios.
Law of reciprocal proportions:
If two elements (A and B) combine separately with a fixed mass of a third
element (C), the ratio of their masses in which they combine with C will be the
same as, or a simple multiple of, the ratio in which they combine.
Law of combining volumes:
When gases combine chemically, they do so in volumes that bear a simple
whole-number ratio to each other and to the volume of the products (if
gaseous), at the same temperature and pressure.

Avogadro's Law:
Equal volumes of all gases, at the same temperature and pressure, contain an
equal number of molecules.

Dalton’s Atomic Theory Didn’t understand? Watch

the video (Click Here)
Matter is made up of small, indivisible particles called atoms.
Atoms cannot be created, divided, or destroyed.
Atoms of a given element are identical in mass and properties.
Atoms of different elements have different masses and
properties.
Atoms combine in simple whole-number ratios to form compounds.
Limitations Of Dalton’s Atomic Theory
Discovery of Isotopes: Atoms of the same element can differ in mass, proving
they are not identical.
Atoms are Divisible: The discovery of subatomic particles and nuclear reactions
shows that atoms can be divided.
Transmutation of Elements: By nuclear reactions, atoms of one element can be
converted into atoms of another element.
Isobars: Atoms of different elements may have the same mass, such as calcium
(Ca) and argon (Ar) with a mass of 40.
Failure to Explain Chemical Bonding: Dalton's theory could not explain how
atoms combine to form compounds (e.g., molecules).
Non-Simple Ratios in Compounds: Atoms may not always combine in simple
whole-number ratios, such as in sugar (C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁).

Atomic And Molecular Mass Didn’t understand? Watch

the video (Click Here)

Atomic mass is the total mass of an atom, which is the sum of the masses of its
protons & neutrons.
Average atomic Mass: The average atomic mass of an element is the sum of the
masses of its isotopes, each multiplied by its natural abundance.

Molecular mass is the sum of the atomic masses of all atoms in a molecule. It is
measured in atomic mass units (u)
Formula Mass: The formula mass of a substance is defined as the sum of the
atomic masses of constituent atoms in an ionic compound. This is generally used
for ionic compounds which do not contain discrete molecules, but ions as their
constituent units.

Mole Concept Didn’t understand? Watch

the video (Click Here)

A mole is the amount of substance that contains the same number of particles
(atoms, molecules, ions, or electrons) as there are atoms in 12 grams of pure
carbon-12. This number is called Avogadro's number (N​).

A mole is also defined as the amount of the gas which has volume of 22.4 litre
at STP

1 mole of atoms = 6.022×10²³ atoms =A N

Importance Of Avogadro’s Number

and mole concept
 Mass of single atom or molecule can be calculated.
Volume of single atom or molecule can be calculated.
Number of total atoms present in a given mass of the element can be
calculated.
Number of total molecules present in a given volume of a gas under given
conditions can be calculated.
Sometimes it is easy to represent the data in terms of mole.

Didn’t understand? Watch

Formulae to Remember: the video (Click Here)

Mass of element in grams (w)

😎
Gram atoms (moles) =
Atomic mass of element (M) Fantastic

Mass of substance in grams (w)

Gram moles =
Molecular mass of the substance (M)

Volume (in liters) of gas at STP

Gram moles of a gas =
22.4

Number of atoms of an element = Mol atoms X NA

Number of molecules = Moles X NA

Volume (in liters) at STP X NA

Number of molecules of a gas =
22.4

Mass of 6.022×1023 molecules = Molecular mass of the compound

Mass of 6.022×1023 atoms = Atomic mass of the compound

Mass of 22.4 liters of a gas at STP = Molecular mass of the gas

Percentage Composition

The percentage composition of a compound refers to the percentage by mass of

each element in the compound.

n X M (Element)
Percentage of an element = X 100
M (Compound)

Empirical Formula Didn’t understand? Watch

the video (Click Here)
The empirical formula of a compound represents the simplest whole-number ratio
of atoms of each element in the compound.
It does not provide information about the actual number of atoms, but rather
their relative proportions.

Steps to Determine the Empirical Formula:

Determine the percentage composition: Obtain the mass percentage of each

element in the compound.
Convert mass percentages to moles: Divide the percentage of each element
by its atomic mass to find the number of moles.
Simplify the mole ratio: Divide all the mole values by the smallest number of
moles to get a whole-number ratio.
Write the empirical formula: Use the whole-number mole ratio to write the
empirical formula.

Molecular Formula Didn’t understand? Watch

the video (Click Here)
The molecular formula represents the actual number of atoms of each element in
a molecule of a compound.

Relation Between Molecular Formula and Empirical Formula

Molecular formula = (Empirical formula) x n

n = Molecular formula
(Empirical formula)
Concentration Terms Didn’t understand? Watch
the video (Click Here)
Concentration terms are used to express the quantity of solute present in a given
quantity of solution or solvent.

Mass Percent (%)

Mole Fraction (X)
Molarity (M)
Molality (m)

Mass Percentage(%)
Bindaas Stuff!
The mass of solute in 100 grams of solution.

Mole Fraction (X)

The ratio of moles of one component to the total moles of all components in the
mixture.

Molarity (M)
The number of moles of solute dissolved in 1 litre of solution.

Molality (m)
The number of moles of solute dissolved in 1 litre of solution.

Stoichiometry Didn’t understand? Watch

the video (Click Here)

Stoichiometry is the study of the quantitative relationships between reactants

and products in a chemical reaction, based on a balanced chemical equation.
It ensures that the law of conservation of mass is followed, where the total mass
of reactants equals the total mass of products.

2 H₂ ​+ O₂ ​→ 2 H₂​O
2 moles of hydrogen react with 1 mole of oxygen to produce 2 moles of water.

Stoichiometry helps us to calculate how much oxygen is needed for a given

amount of hydrogen or how much water will form.

Limiting Reagent and Excess Reagent Didn’t understand? Watch

the video (Click Here)

Limiting Reagent: The limiting reagent (or limiting reactant) is the reactant in a
chemical reaction that is completely consumed first, thereby limiting the amount
of products formed. Once the limiting reagent is exhausted, the reaction stops,
even if other reactants are present in excess.

Excess Reagent: The excess reagent is the reactant that is not completely
consumed in a chemical reaction. After the reaction is complete, some amount of
the excess reagent remains unreacted because the limiting reagent determines
the extent of the reaction.

Limiting Reagent Excess Reagent

Limiting reagent is the

Excess reagent is the reactant that
reactant of a particular chemical
is present in excess in a reaction
reaction that
mixture.
limits the formation of the product.

Completely consumed during a Not completely consumed during a

reaction. reaction.

Not present at the end of the Some amount is present at the end
reaction. of the reaction.

Limits the amount of product that is Has no effect on the product formed
formed from a reaction. from the chemical reaction.
Chemistry Video Notes
Chem Notes

Structure of
an Atom

Class 11ᵗʰ
 ATOM Didn’t understand? Watch
the video (Click Here)

The word 'atom' has been derived from the Greek word 'a-tomio' which means
'uncut-able' or 'non-divisible'. Atom was discovered by John Dalton. He proposed
the famous atomic theory in 1807. Atoms are fundamental unit of matter. The
existence of different kind of matter is the due to the different atoms constructing
them

Atomic Theory KEEP IN MIND:-

1808- JOHN DALTON

All matter is made up of atoms. 1897- THOMSON MODEL
Atoms of an element are identical 1911- RUTHERFORD MODEL
Each element has different atoms 1912- BOHR MODEL

Atoms can engaged in a chemical reaction

Atoms are in divisible
Atoms and neither be created nor be destroyed

Structure of an Atom
The arrangement of electrons and
protons in an atom many scientist to
proposed various atomic models.

Didn’t understand? Watch

Discovery of Electron the video (Click Here)

In mid 1850s, many scientist mainly FARADAY begin to study electrical discharge in
partially evacuated tubes known as a cathode ray discharge tube. A cathode Ray tubes is
made up of Glass containing two thin pieces of metal called electrodes, sealed in it. The
electrical discharge through the gases could be observed only at very low pressure and at
very high voltage. The pressure of different gases the could be adjusted by evacuation of the
glass tubes. When a sufficiently High Voltage is applied around the electrodes, current starts
flowing through a stream of a particles a moving in the tube from the negative electrons to
the positive electrons. These were called cathode rays

Properties of cathode rays

The cathode rays starts from cathode and move towards
the Anode.
These rays themselves are not visible but these behaviour
can be obtained with the help of a certain kind of
materials which glow when it hit by them.
In the absence of a electrical or magnetic field these days
travel in straight line.
In the presence of electrical or magnetic field the behaviour CATHODE RAY TUBE
of cathode ray are similar to that expected from negatively LCD & LED TV
charged particles, suggesting that the cathode ray consist
of negatively charged particles called electrons.
 Didn’t understand? Watch
Charge to mass the video (Click here)
The charge to mass ratio is basically a physical quantity that is directly
connected to the mass and electric charge of any given particle.

It depends upon-
• Magnitude of the negative charge e/me = 1.758820 x 10 1" Ckg-¹
• Mass of the particle
• Strength of electric/ magnetic field

Thus, we can conclude that electrons are basic constituent of all the atoms &
contains negative charge .eld
• The smallest and
Didn’t understand? Watch
Discovery of Protons:- the video (Click here) lightest positive ion was
obtained from hydrogen
Eugene Goldstein noted streams of positively
and was called protons
charged particles in cathode rays in 1886.
Particles move in opposite direction of cathode
rays Called "Canal Rays" because they passed
through holes (channels or canals) drilled through
the negative electrode.
Proton | +1 | 1.6727 x 10-24 g

Properties of Canal Rays:

Unlike cathode rays, mass of positively charged particles depends
upon the nature of gas present in the cathode nay tube.These ane
simply the positively changed gaseous ions.
The change to mass natio of the particles depends on the gas from
which these oniginate.
Some of the positively changed particles canny a multiple of the
fundamental unit of electrical change.
The behaviour of these panticles in the magnetic on electrical field is
opposite to that observed for electron on cathode rays.

Didn’t understand? Watch

Discovery of Neutrons:- the video (Click here) Neutrons are the
neutral particles.
In 1932, J. Chadwick discovered anothen subatomic particle
which had no change and a mass nearly equal to that of a
photon. It was eventually named as neutron.Neutrons ane
present in the nucleus of all atoms, except hydrogen.
In general, a neutron is represented as 'n'. The mass of an
atom is therefore given by the sum of the masses of protons
and neutrons present in the nucleus.

Neutron | 0 | 1.6750 x 10-24 g

 Didn’t understand? Watch
Thompson model of atom the video (Click here )

In 1897, the English scientist J.J. Thomson provided the finst hint that an
atom is made of even smaller particles. He proposed a model of the atom that
is sometimes called the "Plum Pudding" model.
Atoms were made from a positively changed sphere with negatively changed
electrons embedded in it, like raisins in a pudding.
The negative and positive changes are equal in magnitude. So, the atom as a
whole is electrically stable.

Didn’t understand? Watch

Rutherford Foil Experiment the video (Click here )

In 1908, the English physicist Ernest Rutherford was hard at work on an

experiment that seemed to have little to do with unraveling the mysteries of
the atomic structure.
Rutherfond's experiment Involved firing a stream of tiny positively changed
alpha (a) particles at a thin sheet of gold foil.
The expected result was that the a-particles would be deflected by the
subatomic particles in gold atoms. Since a - particles wene much heavien than
protons, he did not expect to see langer deflections
Postulates of Rutherford's model of an atom:
▪The particles were made to strike on a thin gold foil.
▪Many of theαparticles passed linearly through the gold foil.
▪Some of the particles deviated at small angles.
▪One out of everyparticle appeared to bounce.

Defects of Rutherford's model of an atom:

The movement of electrons was not specified by him and was
expected to be unstable.Any particle in a circular orbit undergoes
acceleration and radiate energy due to which the revolving particle
identified by Rutherford was unstable as they tend to fall inside the
nucleus.

Conclusions of Rutherford's model of an atom:

The space inside an atom is empty as most of theα particles passed
without deflection through the gold foil.The positive charge occupies a
minimum space which indicates that
very few particles were diverted from their path.A very small
proportion of α particles were diverted by a large angle
 Atomic Number
▪The number of protons in an atom Didn’t understand? Watch
is referred to as its Atomic Number.
▪It is denoted by the letter ' Z'. the video (Click here)
▪Elements are defined by the
number of protons they posses.
▪The atomic number of hydrogen is
1.
Mass Number
▪The mass of an atom resides in its nucleus.
The mass of an atom is practically due to
protons and neutrons
alone.
▪Therefore, Mass Number of an atom is the
sum of neutrons and
protons present in the nucleus of an atom
▪for hydrogen, its mass number is 1 u.

Didn’t understand? Watch

the video (Click here) Application of Isotopes
▪An isotope of uranium is used as

Isotopes a fuel in nuclear reactors.

▪An isotopes of cobalt is used in
•Isotopes are atoms of same element, which the treatment of cancer.
have different mass ▪An isotope of iodine is used in
numbers but same atomic number. the treatment of goitre.
•Their chemical properties are similar but
physical properties are
different.
→

Didn’t understand? Watch Isotones

the video (Click here ) Isotones aretwo or more species of
atoms or nuclei that have the same
Isobars number of neutrons. Their atomic
▪ Atoms of different elements with number(Z) and mass number (A) are
different atomic numbers,same mass different. But the value ( number of
number are known as isobars. neutrons) is the same
▪ Examples of isobars are:
calcium(z=20)and argon(z=18).their Example-
mass number is 40 u.
 Didn’t understand? Watch
the video (Click here)
BOHR'S ATOMIC MODEL :
▪In 1913, the Danish scientist
Niels Bohr proposed an improvement.
▪In his model, he placed each electron
in a specific energy level.

Development leading to Bohr’s Atomic Model

Dual character of the electromagnetic radiation which means
that radiations possess both wave like and particle like properties.
Experimental results regarding atomic spectrum.
Atom has a centre called nucleus . Electrons revolve only in fixed
Circular orbits with fixed energy & fixed velocity .
Quantisation condition- Electrons revolve only in those circular orbits
for which their angular momentum is an integral multiple of h/2π

Emission and Absorption Spectra :

The spectrum of radiation emitted by a substance that
has absorbed energy is called an emission spectrum.
Atoms, molecules or ions that have absorbed radiation
are said to be "excited".To produce an emission
spectrum, energy is supplied to a sample by heating it
on irradiating it and the wavelength (or frequency) of
the radiation emitted, as the sample gives up the
absorbed energy, is recorded.

The study of emission on absorption spectra is

nefenned to as spectroscopy.

The spectrum of the visible light, was continuous as

all wavelengths (ned to violet) of the visible light ane
represented in the spectra.

The emission spectra of atoms in the gas phase, on

the other hand, do not show a continuous spread of
wavelength from red to violet, rather they emit light
only at specific wavelengths with dark spaces between
them.

Such spectra are called line spectra or atomic

spectra because the emitted radiation is identified by
the appearance of bright lines in the spectra

E=hc/λ
Line Spectrum of Hydrogen Didn’t understand? Watch
the video (Click here)

When an electric dischange is passed through gaseous

hydrogen, the H2 molecules dissociate and the energetically
excited hydrogen atoms produced emit electromagnetic
radiation of discrete frequencies.

• The hydrogen spectrum consists of several series of lines

named after thein discoverens.

1/λ = RZ²(1/n₁²-1n²2) R= 10 973 731.6 m-¹

Didn’t understand? Watch

the video (Click here)

Wave nature of Electromagnetic Radiation

▪James Maxwell (1870) was the first to give a
comprehensive explanation about the interaction
between the charged bodies and the behaviour of
electrical and magnetic fields on macroscopic level

▪He suggested that when electrically charged

particle moves under accelaration, alternating
electrical and magnetic fields are produced and
transmitted.

▪These fields are transmitted in the forms of waves

called electromagnetic waves or electromagnetic radiation.

The electric and magnetic field

components of an electromagnetic
wave. These components have the
same wavelength, frequency, speed
and amplitude, but they vibrate in
two mutually perpendicular planes.
Properties of Electromagnetic wave:
Didn’t understand? Watch
▪The oscillating electric and magnetic fields produced by the video (Click here)
oscillating charged particles are perpendicular to each other and both are
perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the wave.
▪ Unlike sound waves or waves produced in water, electromagnetic waves
do not require medium and can move in vacuum. It is now well
established that there are many types of electromagnetic radiations,
which differ from one another in wavelength (or frequency). These
constitute which is called electromagnetic spectrum

Different kinds of units are used to

represent electromagnetic radiation:

These radiations are characterised by

properties, namely, frequency (v)
and wavelength (Λ)
In vaccum all types of
electromagnetic radiations, regardless
of wavelength, travel at the same
speed, i.e., 3.0 × 108 m s-'
(2.997925 × 108 ms', to be precise).
This is called speed of
Wavelength (^) It is defined as the distance between light and is given the symbol c.
two consecutive crests or troughs.

Frequency (v) It is defined as the number of waves passing

through a point in one second.
The SI units of frequency are
Hertz (Hz or sec 1) 1Hz = 1 cycle/sec.

Velocity (C) It is the linear distance travelled by the

wave in one second. It is represented by c. Its units are
cm/sec or m/sec.

Amplitude It is the height of the crest or depth of the

trough.It is represented by 'a. Its units are cm or metre.
Didn’t understand? Watch
Wave Number (v) is defined as the number of waves per the video (click here)

Black Body Radiation

unit lengths. It is reciprocal of the wavelength.

An ideal body, which emits and

absorbs radiations of all frequencies
uniformly, is called a black body and
the radiation emitted by such a body is
called black body radiation. In
practice, no such body exists. Carbon
black approximates fairly closely to
black body
 Experimental facts Didn’t understand? Watch
the video (click here)
Blackbody spectrum depends only on the
temperature of the object.
As the temperature of an object increases, it emits
more blackbody energy at all wavelengths.
As the temperature of an object increases, the
peak wavelength of the blackbody spectrum
becomes shorter (bluer).
The blackbody spectrum always becomes small at
the left-hand side (the short wavelength, high
frequency side).
Didn’t understand? Watch
the video (click here)

Result of Photoelectric
Effect
The electrons are ejected from
the metal surface as soon as the
beam of light strikes the
surface
The number of electrons ejected
is proportional to the intensity
Particle Nature of Electromagnetic Radiation:
or brightness of light
Planck's Quantum Theory E = hv
For each metal, there is a
The nature of emission of radiation from hot bodies
characteristic minimum
(black-body radiation)
frequency, vo (threshold
ejection of electrons from metal surface when
frequency)
radiation strikes it (photoelectric
below which photoelectric effect
effect)
is not observed.
variation of heat capacity of solids as a function of
At a frequency v ›Vo, the
temperature
ejected electrons come out with
Line spectra of atoms with special reference to
certain kinetic energy
hydrogen. These phenomena
indicate that the system can take energy only in
discrete amounts.
All possible energies cannot be taken up or radiated.

Albert Einstein explained the theory was based on the

idea that light is made up of tiny packets of
energy called photons. He explained that when
photons with enough energy hit a metal surface,
they can transfer their energy to the electrons in
the metal, causing them to be ejected.
 Didn’t understand? Watch
De-Broglie Hypothesis the video (click here)
According to the de-Broglie hypothesis,a moving material particle
behaves like awave at times and like a particle at other times.
Every moving material particle is connected with a wave.De Broglie's
Hypothesis says that Matter consists of both the particle nature as well
as wave nature.

From the above relation, it can be said that the wavelength of the
matter is inversely proportional to the magnitude of the particle's
linear momentumThis relation is applicable to both microscopic and
macroscopic particles.
The de Broglie equation is one of the equations that is commonly
used to define the wave properties of matter.
Electromagnetic radiation exhibits the dual nature of a particle
(having a momentum) and wave (expressed in frequency, and
wavelength
Didn’t understand? Watch
the video (click here)
Davisson–Germer
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle Davisson and L.H. Germer
Heisenberg’s uncertainty performed an experiment
principlestates that it is known as the Davisson
impossible to measure or Germer experiment to explain
the wave nature of electrons
calculate exactly both the
through electron diffraction.
position and the momentum
of an object.

This principle is based on the wave-particle

Uncertainty in Momentum
duality of matter :-
▪Although Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle can be
ignored in the macroscopic world (the uncertainties in
the position and velocity of objects with relatively large
masses are negligible), it holds significant value in the
quantum world.
▪Since atoms and subatomic particles have very small
masses, any increase in the accuracy of their positions
will be accompanied by an increase in the uncertainty
Uncertainty in Position
associated with their velocities.

Drawbacks of Bohr's atomic mode:-

He could not explain the details of the Hydrogen and Helium atomic spectrum.
He did not explain the splitting of spectral lines in presence of a magnetic field.
The intensity of spectral lines was not explained by him.
He considered electron as a moving particle.
He could not explain the Zeeman effect i.e. splitting of spectral lines in
Magnetic field as well as the Stark effect i.e. splitting of spectral lines in electric field
 QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL OF ATOM
Didn’t understand? Watch
The branch of science that takes into account this dual the video (click here)
behaviour of matter is called quantum mechanics.
Quantum mechanics is a theoretical science that deals with the
Study of the motions of the microscopic objects that have both
observable wave like and particle like properties.
Quantum mechanics was developed independently in
1926 by Werner Heisenberg and Erwin Schrödinger.

Didn’t understand? Watch

the video (Click here)

Location of an electron-
The large number of Orbital are possible in an
atom. Quantitatively these orbitals can be
distinguished by their size shape and orientation
and orbital of a small size means there is more
chances chances of finding the electrons and their
Nucleus. Similarly shape and orientation means
that there is more probability of finding the
electron along certain directions then along other

Quantum Numbers Principal Quantum number

Each electron in an atom is identified ▪It tells us about the main shell in
in terms of four quantum numbers. which electron resides. It also
▪ Principal quantum number(n) gives an idea about the energy of hell
▪ Azimuthal or Orbital or Subsidary and average distance of the
quantum number (I) electron from the nucleus(Size)
▪ Magnetic quantum number (m) ▪Value of n = any integer.
▪ Spin quantum number (s) ▪n= 1,2,3,..... for shell K, L, M, ..

Azimuthal Quantum number (l)

It tells about the number of subshells (s. p, d, f) in any main shell.
It also represent the angular momentum of an electron and
shapes of subshells.
It defines the three-dimensional shape of the orbital.
For a given value (n), It can have n values ranging from 0 to n - 1, that
is, for a given value of n, the possible value of l are : 1 = 0, 1, 2, .... (n-1)
For example, when n = 1, value of lis only 0. For n = 2, the possible value
of l can be 0 and 1. For n = 3, the possible l values are 0, 1 and 2

NOTE- ORBITAL is the 3D description where

the probability of finding and electron is maximum
 Magnetic Quantum number (m) Didn’t understand? Watch
▪ It tells about the number of orbitals and the video (Click here)

orientation of each subshell.

▪ Value of m = -l to +l including zero.
▪ Number of orbitals in each subshell = (2l + 1)
▪ Number of orbitals in main energy level = n2
Aufbau principle:
Didn’t understand? Watch
the video (Click here) ▪Afbau is a German
word which means
Spin Quantum number structure or
▪It indicates the direction of constructuction.
spinning of electron, i.e., ▪ Aufbau Principle
clockwise or anti-clockwise. states that in the
▪Shows how the electron can rotate ground state of an atom,
about its own axis . the electrons fill atomic
▪Maximum number of electrons in orbitals of the lowest
main energy level = 2n2 available
energy levels before
occupying higher levels
i.e. orbitals are
filled in the increasing
order of their energies.

Pauli Exclusion Principle

▪It states, no two electrons in an atom can
have identical set of four quantum numbers.
"Only two electrons may exist in the same orbital
and these electrons must have opposite spin"
▪The maximum number of electrons in s subshell is 2, p
subshell is 6 d subshell is 10 and f subshell is 14.

Hund’s Rule
▪Hunds Rule of Maximum Multiplicity
Didn’t understand?
Watch the video
rule states that for a given
(Click here) electron configuration, the term with
maximum multiplicity falls lowest in
energy. According to this rule electron
pairing in p, d and f orbitals
cannot occur until each orbital of a
given subshell contains one electron
each or is singly occupied
Electronic Configuration
The arrangement of electrons in
orbitals around an atomic nucleus.
The electronic configuration of an
atom in the quantum-mechanical
model is stated by listing the
occupied orbitals, in order of
filling, with the number of
electrons in each orbital indicated
by superscript.
Didn’t understand? Watch
the video ( click here )

Electronic Configuration upto 30 Elements

Chemistry Video Notes
Chem Notes

Chemical Bonding &

Molecular Structure

Class 11ᵗʰ
 CHEMICAL BONDING &
MOLECULAR STRUCTURE
The attractive force which holds various constituents (atoms, ions, etc.)
together in different chemical species is called chemical bond.

Kosse:-Lewis Approach to Chemical Bonding

This theory is based on the electronic concept of atom and is Didn’t understand? Watch
the video (Click here)

called electronic theory of valence.

Electrons of the outermost shell are called valence electrons.
The part of the atom left after the removal of valence electrons
is called Kernel.
Kernel is +vely charged. The units of positive charge on kernel is
equal to the number of valence electrons.
Lewis assumed that outermost shell could accommodate at the
maximum 8 electrons.

Octet rule: Atoms of all the atoms combine to complete their octet or duplet.
Inert gas Electronic configuration Didn’t understand? Watch
the video (Click here)
He (2) : 2
Ne (10) : 2, 8
Ar (18) : 2, 8, 8
Kr (36) : 2, 8, 18, 8
Xe (54) : 2, 8, 18, 18, 8
Rn (86) : 2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 8

Lewis Symbols Representing the Valence Electrons:

Didn’t understand? Watch
the video (Click here)

Lewis introduced simple notation to represent the valence electrons. These notations
are called Lewis symbols Or electron dot symbols. These symbols do not consider the
inner shell electrons.

Stability Didn’t understand? Watch

the video (Click here)

Sharing of Electrons Transfer of Electrons

Types of bond: Didn’t understand? Watch
the video (Click here)

Covalent bond: A covalent bond is formed by the mutual sharing of electron

pairs among the combining atoms.
Electrovalent Bond: It is the bond formed by the transfer of electron between
a metal & a non metal .
Coordinate bond or dative bond: It is a special type of covalent bond in which
the shared electron pair is contributed by one of the combining atom only.

Examples of Covalent Compounds:

i.H₂0 ii.CH₄ iii.N₂

Lewis dot structure (Octet Rule): Didn’t understand? Watch

the video (Click here)
-Steps-
Select the central atom which is generally the less electronegative atom or
highest atomic number (sometimes) .
Draw the skeleton & join them using single bond.
Add the total number of valence electrons of each atom of the molecule.
Put one pair of shared electrons between the atoms linked by a single bond,
two pairs of shared electrons between the atoms linked by a double bond and
so on.
The remaining electrons are shown as lone pairs.
The octet of each atom (duplet for H, Be) should be complete.
-Formulas used-
Total no. of electrons (Q) = No. of valence e + ( -ve ) – (+ve ) charge.
Bond pair electron = 2 x no. of bonds.
Lone pair electron = Q - Lp e.
Remember lone pair electron is either used to fill lone pair or as double, triple
bond according to the compound.
-Formal Charge-
Formal Charge is the difference between the number of valence electrons of that
atom in free state (isolated state) and the number of electrons assigned to that
atom in the Lewis structure.

Signiticance of Formal Charge - Structure having smallest formal charge on the

atoms is most stable. Thus we can select the most stable structure.

F.C. = V - L - B
2

Write the Lewis dot structure of the following: +1

iii) NH ion
i) O₂ Molecule
ii)CO₂ Molecule
+
 +1 2-
iv) H₃O ion -1 vi) SO₃
v) NO₃
+

-1

Limitations of the Octet Rule: Didn’t understand? Watch

the video (Click here)

Incomplete octet: The octet rule doesn't apply to molecules where the central
atom has fewer than eight electrons. This is especially true for elements with
fewer than four electrons in their valence shell. For example, in LiCl, BeH2,
and BCl3, the central atom has fewer than eight electrons.
Odd-electron molecules: The octet rule doesn't apply to molecules with an odd
number of electrons, such as nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2).
Expanded octet: Elements in the third period and beyond of the periodic table
have 3d orbitals that can be used for bonding. This means that the outermost
shell can accommodate more than eight electrons, which is called an expanded
octet.
Hydrogen and helium: Hydrogen and helium are exceptions to the octet rule
because they have the lowest energy when they have two electrons in their
valence shell.
Shape of the molecule: The octet rule doesn't predict the shape of the
molecule.
Relative stability: The octet rule doesn't explain the relative stability of
molecules.
Ionic and covalent bonds: The octet rule doesn't apply to molecules that have
both ionic and covalent characteristics, because no bond is completely ionic or
completely covalent.

Electrovalent Bond or Ionic Bond: Didn’t understand? Watch

the video (Click here)

Formation of ionic bond involves:

One atom loses, electrons to form cation.
Other atom gains electrons to form anion.
Cations and anions are held together by strong electrostatic forces
of attraction. SUPER!!
Cations and anions formed by the loss or gain of electrons generally have
electronic configuration of the nearest inert gas. But it is not a necessary
condition for the ionic bond formation.

Lattice Enthalpy:
Didn’t understand? Watch
the video (Click here)

One atom loses, electrons to form cation.

Other atom gains electrons to form anion.
Cations and anions are held together by strong electrostatic forces of attraction.
Cations and anions formed by the loss or gain of electrons generally have
electronic configuration of the nearest inert gas. But it is not a necessary
condition for the ionic bond formation.
 Examples of Electrovalent (ionic) Compounds

i.NaCl ii.CaCl₂ iii.MgCl₂

Stable Ionic Compound: Didn’t understand? Watch

the video (Click here)

Ionic compound is formed if: Lattice enthalpy + Electron affinity > Ionisation
enthalpy.
Conditions for the formation of an ionic bond are-
1. Ionisation enthalpy of the atom forming cation should be small.
2. Electron affinity of the atom forming anion should be high.
3. Lattice enthalpy of the ionic compound should be high.

Bond Parameters: Didn’t understand? Watch

the video (Click here)

1.Bond Length - bond length is defined as the equilibrium distance between the
nuclei of two bonded atoms in a molecule. Covalent Radius , Ionic Radius , Metallic
Radius , Vander Walls radius
Covalent Radius < Van der walls radius
O
2.Bond Angle - it is defined as the angle between the orbitals containing
bonding electron pairs around the Central atom in a molecule. It helps to H H
determine the shape of the molecule

3.Bond Enthalpy - amount of energy required to break one mole of bond of a

particular type between the two atoms in a gaseous state
In polyatomic molecules, the
term mean or average bond
enthalpy is used.

4.Bond Order - It is given by the number of bond between the two atoms in a
molecule. In the Lewis description of covalent bond. The bond order is given by the
number of bonds between the two atoms in a molecule.
Isoelectronic molecules have identical bond orders.

5.Resonance Structures - According to the concept of resonance,

whenever a single Lewis structure cannot describe a molecule accurately.
A number of structures with similar energy positions of nuclei, bonding
and non-bonding, pairs of electron are taken as the canonical structure
of the hybrid, which describes the molecule accurately.
Resonance hybrid has less energy hence they are more stable.

6.Bond Polarity - In reality, there is no bond or compound, which is completely

electrovalent or completely covalent in nature. A dipole moment is a measurement of
the separation of positive and negative electrical charges within a system. It is a
vector quantity that has both magnitude and direction

D.M. is Expressedin Debye -31 D.M. = charge(Q) X

1 D =0.143 wk 3.33564 X 10 Cm distance of separation(r)
 -2
Draw the resonating structure of CO₃

Fazan’s Rule Didn’t understand? Watch

the video (Click here)

All the covalent bonds have some partial ionic character and partial covalent
character. When a cation approaches an anion, the electron cloud of the anion is
attracted towards the cation and hence gets distorted. This is called Polarisation of
the anion. Outermost electron cloud
Polarising power
Power of cation to polarise anion
Polarisability
X+
Tendency of anion to get polarised Cation
1. Smaller the cation, greater is its polarising power
2. Larger the anion, greater is its polarisability
3. Larger the charge on cation, more is its polarising power
4. Larger the charge on anion, more easily it gets polarised.
5. Same size & charge cations, then one with EC of transition metals is more
polarising than one with noble gas, alkali or alkaline earth metal cations.

Valence Bond Theory Didn’t understand? Watch

the video (Click here)

The valence bond theory was proposed by Heitler and London to explain the
formation of covalent bond quantitatively using quantum mechanics.
Later on, Linus Pauling improved this theory by introducing the concept of
hybridization.
Valence bond (VBT) theory assumes that all bonds are localized bonds formed
between two atoms by the donation of an electron from each atom.
Valence Bond theory describes covalent bond formation as well as the electronic
structure of molecules.
The theory assumes that electrons occupy atomic orbital's of individual atoms
within a molecule, and that the electrons of one atom are attracted to the nucleus
of another atom.
A covalent bond is formed by the overlapping of two half filled valence atomic
orbital's of two diferent atoms.
The electrons in the overlapping orbital's get paired and confined between the
nuclei of two atoms.
The electron density between two bonded atoms increases due to overlapping. This
confers stability to the molecule.
Greater the extent of overlapping, stronger is the bond formed.
The direction of the covalent bond is along the region of overlapping of the atomic
orbital's i.e., covalent bond is directional.

Overlapping of Atomic Orbitals Didn’t understand? Watch

the video (Click here)
-31

BE CALM!!
Valence Bond Theory Didn’t understand? Watch
the video (Click here)

There are two types of covalent bonds based on the pattern of overlapping as follows:

σ-bond л-bond
A sigma bond (symbol: σ) is a covalent bond A pie bond (symbol: л) is a covalent bond
formed via linear overlap of two orbital's. formed via parallel overlap of two orbital's.

л-bond

σ-bond

Calculate sigma and pie bond of the following:

i)Benzene ii)Ethanoic acid
Sigma bond= 12 Sigma bond= 7
Pie bond= 3 Pie bond= 1

σ-bond
Didn’t understand? Watch
the video (Click here)

The covalent bond formed due to overlapping of atomic orbital along the inter
nucleus axis is called o-bond. It is a stronger bond and cylindrically symmetrical.
Depending on the types of orbital's overlapping, the o-bond is divided into following
types: σ bond: σ
p-p
bond: σ bond:
s-s s-p

s orbital s orbital σs-s bond σ bond

p orbital p orbital σ p-p bond s-p

л-bond
Didn’t understand? Watch
the video (Click here)

The covalent bond formed by sidewise overlapping of atomic orbital's is called

л- bond. In this bond, the electron density is present above and below the inter
nuclear axis. It is relatively a weaker bond since the electrons are not strongly
attracted by the nuclei of bonding atoms. л
p-p
bond

ILLUSTRATION: Didn’t understand? Watch

the video (Click here)

H₂ molecule
The electronic configuration of hydrogen atom in the ground state is 1s¹.
In the formation of hydrogen molecule, two half filled 1s orbital's of hydrogen
atoms overlap along the inter-nuclear axis and thus by forming a σ bond. s-s
O₂ molecule
The electronic configuration of O in the ground state is [He] 2s² 2p² 2p¹ y
x
2p¹Z .
The half filled 2p,
Z
orbital's of two oxygen atoms overlap along the inter-
nuclear axis and form σ p-p bond.
The remaining half filled 2pZ orbital's overlap laterally to form a
π p-p bond.
Thus a double bond (one σ p-p and one π p-p ) is formed between two oxygen
atoms.

HYBRIDIZATION
Didn’t understand? Watch
the video (Click here)

The intermixing of two or more pure atomic orbital's of an atom with almost
same energy to give same number of identical and degenerate new type of
orbital's is known as hybridization.
The new orbital's formed are also known as hybrid orbital's.
During hybridization, the atomic orbital's with different characteristics are mixed
with each other.
Salient features of Hybridization
The number of hybrid orbitals is equal to the number of the
atomic orbitals that get hybridised.
The hybridised orbitals are always equivalent in energy and
shape.
The hybrid orbitals are more effective in forming stable
bonds than the pure atomic orbitals.
These hybrid orbitals are directed in space in some preferred
direction to have minimum repulsion between electron pairs
and thus a stable arrangement.
Therefore, the type of hybridisation indicates the geometry
of the molecules.
Types of Hybridization Didn’t understand? Watch
the video (Click here)

-sp Hybridization-
Intermixing of one 's' and one 'p' orbital's of almost equal energy
to give two identical and degenerate hybrid orbital's is called 'sp'
hybridization.
These sp-hybrid orbital's are arranged linearly at by making 180°
of angle.
They possess 50% 's' and 50% 'p'character.
-sp² Hybridization-
Intermixing of one 's' and two 'p' orbital's of almost equal
energy to give three identical and degenerate hybrid orbital's
is known as sp2 hybridization.
The three sp2 hybrid orbital's are oriented in trigonal planar
symmetry at angles of 120° to each other.
The sp2 hybrid orbital's have 33.3% 's'character and 66.6%
'p' character.
 -sp³ Hybridization-
In sp3 hybridization, one 's' and three 'p' orbital's of
almost equal energy intermix to give four identical and
degenerate hybrid orbital's.
These four sp3 hybrid orbital's are oriented in tetrahedral
symmetry with 109° 28' angle with each other.
The sp3 hybrid orbital's have 25% 's' character and 75%
'p' character.
-sp³d Hybridization-
In sp3d hybridization, one 's', three 'p' and one 'd'orbital's of almost
equal energy intermix to give five identical and degenerate hybrid
orbital's, which are arranged in trigonal bipyramidal symmetry.
Among them, three are arranged in trigonal plane and the
remaining two orbital's are present above and below the trigonal
plane at right angles.
The sp3d hybrid orbital's have 20% 's', 60% 'p' and 20% 'd'
characters.
-sp³d² Hybridization-
Intermixing of one 's', three 'p' and two 'd' orbital's of almost same
energy by giving six identical and degenerate hybrid orbital's is called
sp3d2 hybridization.
These six sp3d2 orbital's are arranged in octahedral symmetry by
making 90° angles to each other. This arrangement can be visualized
as four orbital's arranged in a square plane and the remaining two
are oriented above and below this plane perpendicularly
-sp³d³ Hybridization-
In sp3d3 hybridization, one 's', three 'p' and three 'd' orbital's of
almost same energy intermix to give seven sp3d3 hybrid orbital's,
which are oriented in pentagonal bipyramidal symmetry.
Five among the sp3d3 orbital's are arranged in a pentagonal plane
by making 72° of angles. The remaining are arranged
perpendicularly above and below this pentagonal plane.
Z = no. of sigma bond + l.p. of C.A.
Regions of
Arrangement Hybridization
Electron Density

2 linear sp
180°

120°

3 trigonal planar sp²

109.5%

4 tetrahedral, sp³

trigonal bipyramidal,
90°
YOU WILL DO IT
5 sp³d 120°

90°

6 octahedral sp³d² 90°

Didn’t understand? Watch

VALENCE SHELL ELECTRON PAIR REPULSION THEORY the video (Click here)

The shape of a molecule depends upon the number of valence shell electron pairs
(bonded or nonbonded) around the central atom.
Pairs of electrons in the valence shell repel one another since their
electron clouds are negatively charged.
These pairs of electrons tend to occupy such positions in space that minimise
repulsion and thus maximise distance between them.
The valence shell is taken as a sphere with the electron pairs localising on the
spherical surface at maximum distance from one another.
A multiple bond is treated as if it is a single electron pair and the two or three
electron pairs of a multiple bond are treated as a single super pair.
Where two or more resonance structures can represent a molecule, the VSEPR
model is applicable to any such structure
Lone pair-Lone pair > Lone pair-Bond pair > Bond pair-Bond pair
If lone pair is zero the shape = Geometry
Shape: The structure of a molecule, excluding lone pairs on the central atom. 66 of
94.
Geometry: The three-dimensional arrangements of atoms and chemical bonds in a
molecule, including lone pairs around the central atom(BP + Lp)

Steps in the prediction of geometry

Determine the central atom.
Draw the electron dot structure and bar diagram
Find arrangement of electron pairs
Find arrangement of bonding pairs,
Determine the geometry based on of bonding pairs.

Central atom with Two Electron Pairs Didn’t understand? Watch

the video (Click here)

Trigonal Planar
Three electron pairs in the valance
There are two electron pairs in the shell of Boron. [1s2 2s2 2p].
valance shell of Beryllium. [1s² 2s²]. Molecular geometry-Trigonal Planar
Molecular geometry-Linear arrangement arrangement

Limitations of VSEPR Didn’t understand? Watch

the video (Click here)
It fails to predict the shapes of isoelectronic species and transition metal
compounds.
Not based on quantum theory
This model does not take relative sizes of substituents.
Unable to explain atomic orbitals overlap.
INTRODUCTION
Didn’t understand? Watch
the video (Click here)

MOT
initially developed by Robert S. Mullikan.
the bonding between atoms is described.
provides answers to more complex questions.
allows one to predict the distribution of electrons
And this in turn can help predict molecular properties such as shape,
magnetism, and Bond Order.
PRINCIPLES OF MOT Didn’t understand? Watch
the video (Click here)
In molecules, atomic orbitals combine to form molecular orbitals which surround
the molecule. Molecular Orbitals
Bonding Antibonding
Molecular bonds have lower potential energy than in separate atomic
orbitals. Antibonding
Molecular
Thus, electrons prefer to stay in a molecular bond. Orbital

Equal no. of orbitals Order of Energy Atomic orbitals of like energies. Bonding

Following both the Pauli exclusion principle and Hund's rule Molecular
Orbital

SIGMA BONDS (0) Didn’t understand? Watch

the video (Click here)

They are symmetrical about the axis

HYDROGEN BONDING
Didn’t understand? Watch
the video (Click here)

When hydrogen is bonded to a highly electronegative atom (such as

8-

8+
nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine), the bonding electron pair is drawn
towards the electronegative atom.
Hydrogen has no inner shell electron and is very small in size, the
positive charge density eveloped is high
The nucleus of hydrogen atom is exposed to attraction by nearby Bonding electron
cloud
electron cloud, a lone pair electrons on the electronegative atom
DEFINITION:
Electrostatic attraction between hydrogen atoms bonded to small, strongly
electronegative atoms (N, O and F) and the lone pair electrons on these
electronegative atom. 8- 8+ 8- 8+

Hydrogen bonding

Essential requirements for formation of hydrogen bond:

A hydrogen atom must be directly bonded to a highly electronegative atom (e.g. F, O
and N).
An unbonded pair of electrons (lone pair electrons) is presented on the
electronegative atom.
 SPECIAL NOTES
Didn’t understand? Watch
the video (Click here)

Intermolecular hydrogen bond: Hydrogen bond formed between two

molecules
Intramolecular hydrogen bond: Hydrogen bond formed between two
different atoms in the same molecule
Intermolecular hydrogen bond is stronger than van der Waals' forces.
Chemistry Video Notes
Classification of
Elements & Periodicty
in Properties

Class 11ᵗʰ
 https://youtu.be/I55bzdbtY2k?
Mendeleeve’s Periodic Law watch here si=_wnc7RTNO8M-8R3t&t=653

It states that the physical and chemical properties of elements

repeat periodically when arranged in order of increasing atomic
weight. This means that elements with similar properties will
appear after regular intervals of increasing atomic weight.

Modern Periodic Law watch here https://youtu.be/I55bzdbtY2k?si=QzsVjb

Moseley studied the X-ray spectrum
of various elements and proved that
atomic number is the fundamental
property of the element.
A plot of root v (frequency of X-rays
emitted) against atomic number (Z)
gave a straight line and not the plot
of Vo versus atomic mass.
This shows that atomic number is the
fundamental property of the
element.

Some notes watch here https://youtu.be/I55bzdbtY2k?

si=Gv8jRlfyHpBdtVsq&t=1184

Henry Moseley: "The physical and chemical properties of the elements are periodic
function of their atomic numbers."

When the elements are arranged in the modern periodic table in order of
increasing atomic number,the occurrence of similar properties of elements
after a definite intervalis termed as periodicity of an element.

Cause of Periodicity in Properties watch here https://youtu.be/I55bzdbtY2k?

si=4fuELGv_hZkwCtjI&t=1321

Periodicity in properties means that a property is repeated at

regular intervals. When elements are arranged in the increasing
order of their atomic numbers, elements with similar properties are
repeated at regular intervals.
These regular intervals are 2, 8, 8, 18, 18 or 32 when elements with
similar electronic configuration of the valence shell are repeated.
These numbers are called magic numbers.
This repetition in the similar electronic configuration of the outer
energy level is the cause of periodicity in properties.

Long form of periodic table

IUPAC Nomenclature of Elements watch here https://youtu.be/I55bzdbtY2k?
si=uumWnDc8P7Xw7G1i&t=1707

https://youtu.be/I55bzdbtY2k?
si=k6uDYb3s6XmQTMiW&t=189
9
re
he
t ch
wa
From where Lanthanum & Actinum series came ?

Lanthanides*

Actinides**

Groups Name https://youtu.be/I55bzdbtY2k?

watch here si=CxaqKYAStJbNXXai&t=2065
Group 1 : Alkali Metals
Group 2 : Alkaline Earth Metals
Group 3 to 12 : Transition Elements
Group 13 : The Boron Family
Group 14 : The Carbon Family
Group 15 : The Nitrogen Family
Group 16 : The Oxygen Family (The Chalcogens)
Group 17 : The Halogens
Group 18 : The Noble Gases

P s
G e
https://youtu.be/I55bzdbtY2k?
si=85c4o72ejOTnfbha&t=2504
S - Block watch here
S-block elements (except hydrogen and helium) are metals that areshiny, silvery,
relatively soft, good conductors and lose electrons easily.

Hydrogen and helium are similar to S - block elements in that they have valence
electrons in the s orbital. Otherwise, they lack similar properties.
P - Block watch here
https://youtu.be/I55bzdbtY2k?si=zaZ-
uuK5431iGrTJ&t=2580

Most of p-Block elements are non-metals.

They have variable oxidation states.
They form acidic oxides.
They impart no characteristic colour to the flame.
Generally they form covalent compounds.
They have very large electron gain enthalpies.
https://youtu.be/I55bzdbtY2k?
d - Block watch here si=MhYBk6N9jHJQ91-V&t=2619

Physical properties of d block elements containhigh melting point, density, atomic and
ionic radii, and typical metallic properties.
d- block elements can find stability in half-filled orbital or completely filled full orbital.
They are typically metals with a high melting point.
They have a variety of oxidation states. They usually combine to form coloured
compounds.
They are frequently paramagnetic.

f - Block watch here https://youtu.be/I55bzdbtY2k?si=D-

NiLXVN0Gwyf48Y&t=2694

f-block elements are complex and heavy metals.

f-block elements have high melting and boiling points.
They exhibit varying oxidation states.
They form coloured ions.
f-block elements may likely form complex compounds.
The unique properties of f-block elements are the radioactivity of actinides.

Electronic Configuration( S,p,d & f ) watch here https://youtu.be/I55bzdbt

Y2k?
si=Mg4KML9lwQKVOrP1
&t=2741

Bridge Elements watch here https://youtu.be/I55bzdbtY2k?

si=IRBvgKycScPLvLPO&t=3226

Bridge elements are theelements of the second period of the periodic table. These
elements show a relationship with thethird-periodelements or the typical elements,
because of similarity in their properties.
They show similarities in characteristics such as electronegativity and ion
polarization.
To Predict the Period, Group and Block of an Element
https://youtu.be/I55bzdbtY2k?
From Its Electronic Configuration watch here si=OT_32KURUqbTdunq&t=3298
1. Write the electronic configuration of the element.
2. Period of the element : It is equal to the principal
quantum number (n) of the outermost orbit (shell).
3. Block of the element: It corresponds to the sub-
shell in which last electron enters.

Group number of the element: It is determined by the

following rules : watch here https://youtu.be/I55bzdbtY2k?
si=F9BEN6pcUUe3218q&t=3434
(i) For s-block elements: Group number is equal to the number of electrons in the
outermost s - orbital.
(ii) For p-block elements : Group number = 12 + total number of electrons in
outermost shell.
(iii) For d-block elements : Group number = electrons in outermost (n) s - orbital +
electrons in (n - 1) d - orbital.
watch here
https://youtu.be/I55bzdbtY2k?
si=01e_r7TjKIf71BzE&t=3862
Classification of Elements & Periodicity in Properties
Ques - Decide the position in periodic table of an element having atomic number 24

Homework Question
Ques - Decide the position in periodic table of an element having atomic number 26.

Periodic Properties watch here https://youtu.be/I55bzdbtY2k?

si=34VBZWGezsUG2bR2&t=4080
Atomic Radius
Ionisation Energy
Electron Affinity
Electronegativity
Metallic Character
Non Metallic Character

Atomic Radius watch here https://youtu.be/I55bzdbtY2k?

si=sFq2diD04gaPSYar&t=4104

Atomic Radii isthe total distance from the nucleus of an atom to the outermost
orbital of its electron.
The mean or typical distance from the centre of the nucleus to the boundary of
the surrounding shells of electrons.
Types of Atomic Radius with Respect to the Types of
Bond watch here https://youtu.be/I55bzdbtY2k?
si=DQ8qrXZR_7tWWCQI&t=4163

Based on the type of bond, atomic radius is divided into three types as follows:
Covalent Radius
Vander Waals Radius
Ionic Radius
Metallic Radius

Covalent Radius watch here

https://youtu.be/I55bzdbtY2k?
si=k67dw2eEjJqdJSnC&t=4184
The covalent radius of an atom is the radius of an atom under the covalent bond
with another atom(s) of a similar element.
The covalent radius of an atom can be determined by measuring bond lengths
between pairs of covalently-bonded atoms.
If the two atoms are the same kind, the covalent radius is simply one-half of the
bond length.

Van Der Waals Radius watch here

https://youtu.be/I55bzdbtY2k?
si=vnCeERApQywUWKmV&t=4281

Van-der-Waals radii are determined from the contact distances between unbonded
atoms in touching molecules or atoms.
https://youtu.be/I55bzdbtY2k?
Ionic Radius watch here si=xLMjc5bDrEKlZGW9&t=4358

The ionic radius is the radius of an atom forming an ionic bond or an ion. The
atomic bonds restrict the electrons and nucleus, and due to this, the ions or atoms
don’t have a specific shape.
Anion > Neutral atom > Cation
https://youtu.be/I55bzdbtY2k?
Metallic Radius watch here si=1lBwjX5RPWf00cDd&t=4791

The metallic radius is the radius of an atom joined by the metallic bond. The
metallic radius is half of the total distance between the nuclei of two adjacent
atoms in a metallic cluster

Covalent Radius

Vander Waal’s Radius Metallic Radius

Isoelectronic Specie
https://youtu.be/I55bzdbtY2k?
watch here si=0omyQFQbQlmlbqJw&t=4978

Isoelectronic species are atoms, ions, or molecules that have the same number of
electrons. The term "isoelectronic" means "equal electric" or "equal charge".
Example

Ne- 10 electrons
Na ion - 10 electrons
F ion- 10 electrons
https://youtu.be/I55bzdbtY2k?
Atomic Radius General Trend watch here si=pkDjTetLBzrk2lD1&t=5091

Exceptions watch here https://youtu.be/I55bzdbtY2k?

si=8Ao0ne7Y-deXRrC_&t=5541

Atomic radius of He > H

In Period 2 : Atomic Radius of Ne > Li > Be > B > C > N > O > F
Similar with all the periods

Reason- Noble gases form Vander walls radius whereas the other elements form
Covalent Radius.
D- Block elements show variable changes in atomic radius.

Along a period
Down a Group watch here

https://youtu.be/I55bzdbtY
2k?si=qKjLGLo5KALZ-
oaq&t=5767

Lanthanide Contraction & Sheilding Effectwatch here https://youtu.be/

I55bzdbtY2k?
Lanthanide contraction isthe steady decrease in atomic and ionic size of si=nwzbpSlBeo
B-Q8YH&t=5799
lanthanoids as their atomic number increases.

Causes of Lanthanide contraction: In f-block elements, the positive charge on the

nucleus rises by one unit, and one additional electron enters the same subshell, as
the atomic number increases.

The shielding effect can be defined asa reduction in the effective nuclear charge
on the electron cloud, due to a difference in the attraction forces on the electrons
in the atom
Lanthanide Contraction

Ionization Energy watch here https://youtu.be/I55bzdbtY2k?

si=JDDrT1SCCf4yMOTq&t=6696
The amount of energy required to remove an electron from an isolated atom or
molecule. There is an ionization energy for each successive electron removed; the
ionization energy associated with removal of the first (most loosely held) electron,
however, is most commonly us ed.
Ionization energy as the minimum energy that an electron in a gaseous atom or
ion has to absorb to come out of the influence of the nucleus. It is also sometimes
referred to as ionization potential and is usually anendothermic process.
It can also be used to determine the strength of chemical bonds. It is measured
either in units of electronvolts or kJ/mol.
Ionization Energy
It can also be used to determine the strength of chemical bonds. It is measured either in
units of electronvolts or kJ/mol.
The first ionization energy is the energy that is required to remove the first electron from
a neutral atom.
The energy needed for the removal of the second electron away from the unipositive ion
is second ionization energy, and so on.

For example: M + ∆H → M+ + e; ∆H1 = First ionization energy

M++ ∆H 2nd→ M2+ + e; ∆H2nd = Second Ionization energy, etc.,
 Naturally, removing the second electron from an already positive ion will be
difficult. Hence, the second ionization energy will be larger than the first
ionization energy. The third ionization energy will be more than the second
ionization energy etc.
∆H1st < ∆H2nd < ∆H3rd < ….. Because of the enhanced stability of half-filled
and fully-filled .
orbitals, the removal of electrons from such systems will have relatively higher
ionization than other atoms and ions.

Factors on which I.E. depends :- watch here

https://youtu.be/I55bzdbtY2k?
1. Atomic Size si=PaJswJ69FR8Fj4Z3&t=7317
2. Nuclear Charge
3. Electronic Configuration

Ionisation Energy General Trend

https://youtu.be/I55bzdbtY2k?
watch here si=ncFY6CeNYyr82W6o&t=7574

Highest Ionisation Energy - Helium

Caesium element has the lowest ionisation energy.

Exceptions watch here

https://youtu.be/I55bzdbtY2k?si=tBAnae1eL-Z980A-
&t=7609
I.E. of Boron > Berilium I.E. of Nitrogen > Oxygen
Li< B< Be< C< O< N< F< Ne.

I.E. of Magnesium > Aluminium I.E. of Phosphorus > Sulphur

Na< Al< Mg< Si< S< P< Cl< Ar

Question watch here https://youtu.be/I55bzdbtY2k?

si=2lGKesuYeMczjceR&t=7824

Ques- Compare the First & Second Ionisation Energy of Oxygen & Nitrogen?

Ionisation energy trend Exceptions in group

B> Tl> Ga> Al> In
As we go from indium to thallium,screening by the filled 5d and 4f subshells
is so poor that Zeff increases significantly from indium to thallium. Thus
the first ionization energy of thallium is actually greater than that of
indium.

watch here

https://youtu.be/I55bzdbtY2k?
si=lzW_DYb1LfMQdoy_&t=799
1
Exceptions watch here https://youtu.be/I55bzdbtY2k?si=x0GgT6_-
pIFM70mP&t=8198
C > Si > Ge > Pb >Sn.
Due to ineffective shielding of the d and f orbitals, Pb has a higher Ionization
Enthalpy than Sn in this case.
https://youtu.be/I55bzdbtY2k?
Electron Affinity watch here si=bjhCc6fVcZXsNfeJ&t=8223

The electron affinity is the potential energy change of the atom when an electron
is added to a neutral gaseous atomto form a negative ion.
So the more negative the electron affinity the more favourable the electron
addition process is.
Not all elements form stable negative ions in which case the electron affinity is
zero or even positive.
It is an Exothermic Process

It can also be used to determine the strength of chemical bonds. It is measured either
in units of electronvolts or kJ/mol.

Some notes
https://youtu.be/I55bzdbtY2k?
watch here si=lUFV8IF84htViYLZ&t=8460

The first electron affinity is generally exothermic that is negative.

The second electron affinity of the same element will be positive or endothermic.
This is so because the second electron has to be forced to enter the mono
negative ion.
The electron affinity cannot be determined directly but is obtained indirectly
from the Born-Haber cycle.

Successive Electron Affinity watch here https://youtu.be/I55bzdbtY2k?

si=GoIQbJNt6F1hWMW3&t=8627
EA (first) + EA ( second) < 0

Factors Affecting Electron Affinity watch here https://youtu.be/I55bzdbtY2k?

si=z9YsZKWmA3hMObZN&t=864
0
1. Atomic Size
2. Nuclear Charge
3. Electronic Configuration
https://youtu.be/I55bzdbtY2k?
Exceptions watch here si=JnEj62dGEW5g3afc&t=8817

Period-1 Ne < N < Be < Li < B < C < O < F

Group-17 Astatine< Iodine < Bromine < Fluorine < Chlorine
Chlorine has maximum Electron Affinity
oxygen has the lowest electron affinity value in group 16

Fluorine is the most electronegative element but still its electron affinity is less than
that of chlorine . It is because of the small size of fluorine. All the electrons in the
atom repels the incoming electron significantly, this nullify the effect of higher
electronegativity of fluorine over chlorine.

Similar trend will be followed by the elements of group 14,15 & 16 i.e. E.A. of Si > C, P
>N & S > O
Electronegativity watch here https://youtu.be/I55bzdbtY2k?
si=hSQagJ2P3i6TR93u&t=9241

It is the tendency of an atom in a molecule to attract the shared pair of electrons

towards itselfis known as electronegativity.
It is a dimensionless property because it is only a tendency.
It basically indicates the net result of the tendencies of atoms in different elements
to attract the bond-forming electron pairs. We measure electronegativity on several
scales. The most commonly used scale was designed by Linus Pauling.

Some notes
https://youtu.be/I55bzdbtY2k?
watch here si=4v1pUtTOZMLKxzZw&t=9511

Fluorine is the most electronegative element with a value of 4.0.

Cesium is the least electronegative element with a value of 0.7.

It is a general observation that metals show a lower value of electronegativity as

compared to the non-metals.Therefore, metals are electropositive and non-metals
are electronegative in nature.

Electronegativity has no units. It is measured in scale.

Difference between Electronegativity & Electron Affinity

https://youtu.be/I55bzdbtY2k?
watch here si=m3Y71pNBeVZWZfmZ&t=9561

watch here
Factors Affecting Electron Negativity
1. Atomic Size https://youtu.be/I55bzdbtY2k?
2. Nuclear Charge si=NBzsiWcyYAjeUgj_&t=9620
3. Electronic Configuration
4. Electronegativity is directly proportional to the positive charge on cation.
5. Electronegativity is inversely proportional to the positive charge on anion.
6. In case of Hybridisation, more s character, more is the Electronegativity.
Electronegativity general Trend
watch here
https://youtu.be/I55bzdbtY2k?
si=4TQQIv29jv7G8NpY&t=9830

Pauling Electronegativity Scale watch here

https://youtu.be/I55bzdbtY2k?
si=lg9gSVh67e1Ruau_&t=983
5

Pauling Scale
The Pauling scale is based on an empirical relation between the energy of a
bond and the electronegativities of bonded atoms.

1. Let us consider a bondbetween two dissimilar atomsandof a molecule.

2. Also let the bond energies ofandbonds be represented asand respectively.
3. We may see that the bond dissociation energy ofis almost higher than the
geometric mean of the bond dissociation energies ofandbonds.
4. Their differenceis related to the difference in the electronegativities of Aand
Baccording to this equation

6. The factorarises from the conversion of Kcals to electron volt.

7. Hereandare the electronegativities ofandrespectively.
8. Considering arbitrarily the electronegativity of hydrogen to be Pauling calculated the
electronegativities of other elements with the help of this equation.

Therefore, with the help of this equation, can determine Electronegativity.

https://youtu.be/I55bzdbtY2k?
Mulliken Scale watch here si=ehazGl0azCbYfKpG&t=9870

Robert S.Mulliken proposed that the arithmetic mean of the firstionization energy
(EI1) and theelectron affinity (Eea) should be a measure of the tendency of an
atom to attract electrons. As this definition is not dependent on an arbitrary
relative scale, it has also been termedabsolute electronegativity.
Chemistry Video Notes
Chem Notes

Hydrocarbons

Class 11ᵗʰ
 HYDROCARBONS Didn’t understand? Watch
the video (Click here)

Hydrocarbons

Aliphatic Compounds Cyclic Compounds

Alkane Alicyclic Aromatic
Alkene CycloAlkane CycloAlkene CycloAlkyne

Alkyne

Cyclopentane Cyclopentene Cyclopentyne Benzene

Didn’t understand? Watch

Primary, Secondary & Tertiary Carbon: the video (Click here)

Primary (1°)
Secondary (2°)
Tertiary (3°)
Quaternary (4°) Didn’t understand? Watch

Alkyl Group
the video (Click here)

They are derived from Alkanes by removal of one hydrogen atom.

Alkane Hydrogen Alkyl

Nomeculture: Didn’t understand? Watch

the video (Click here)
Write IUPAC names/ structural formulae of the following compounds
(CH₃)₃-C-CH₂C-(CH₃)₃ (CH₃)₂-C(C₂H₅)₂
Maza aa gya!!
CH₃
CH₂ CH₃ | 2 1
2| 4|
3
1 3 5 CH₃ -C-CH₂-CH₃
CH₃-C-CH₂-C-CH₃ |
| | 4 CH₂
CH₃ CH₃ |
5 CH₃

2,2,4,4 Tetramethyl pentane 3,3 Dimethyl Pentagon

Didn’t understand? Watch

Alkanes Preparation the video (Click here)

From unsaturated hydrocarbons

From Alkyl halides
From carboxylic acids
 PREPARATION OF ALKANES FROM UNSATURATED HYDROCARBONS

H H H H Didn’t understand? Watch

the video (Click here)

C=C +H -H H C=C
H

H H H H

Ethene Ethane

H₂ gas is adds to alkenes and alkynes in the presence of finely divided catalysts like
platinum, palladium of Nickel to form Alkanes. This process is called Hydrogenation.
Didn’t understand? Watch
PREPARATION OF ALKANES FROM ALKYL HALIDES the video (Click here)

1. By reduction of Halides
2. By Wurtz Reaction
By reduction of Alkyl Halides
+
Zn.H
1. CH₃-HCl+H₂ CH₄+HCl
+
Zn.H
2. C₃H₇-Cl+H₂ C₃H₈+HCl
+
Zn.H
3. CH₄+CH₃+CH₂+Cl+H₂ CH₃CH₂CH₃+HCl

Exception: Alkyl fluorides cannot be reduced to form Alkanes?

Reason: Carbon-fluorides bond is too strong. C F
By Wurtz Reaction
When an alkyl halide (usually bromide or iodide) is treated with
metallic sodium in dry ethereal solution, a symmetrical alkane
containing twice the number of carbon atoms present in the alkyl
group is obtained.

Used for the preparation of higher alkanes containing even number

of carbon atoms Charles Adolphe Wurtz
Dry Ether
CH₃Br + 2Na + CH₃Br CH₃-CH₃ + 2NaBr
Methyl bromide Ethane

CH₃CH₂I + 2Na + CH₃CH₂I Dry Ether CH₃CH₂CH₃₂CH₃ + 2NaBr

Ethyl Iodide Butane

Padhte rho!
 PREPARATION OF ALKANES FROM CARBOXYLIC ACIDS
Didn’t understand? Watch
the video (Click here)

Decarboxylation Kolbe’s electrolytic method

Decarboxylation: When the sodium salt of carboxylic_acid. is heated strongly

with sodalime (NaOH + CaO), a molecule of carbon dioxide is split of as
carbonate and an alkane is formed. Notice that alkane produced contains one
carbon less then the original carboxylic acid.

R-COONa + NaOH R-H Na₂CO₃

Solium salt of Acid Alkane

CH₃-COONa + NaOH CH₄ Na₂CO₃

Solium Acetate Methane

Kolbe’s electrolytic method: This method involves the

electrolysis of an aqueous solution of sodium or potassium salt
of a carboxylic acid. During electrolysis an alkane is obtained
at the anode For example, on passing electric current through
an aqueous solution of sodium salt of ethanoic acid (CH
COONa) ethane is obtained at the anode. The process takes
place as follows.
- +
2CH₃COONa → CH₃COO + 2Na
- • -
At Anode: 2CH₃COO → 2CH₃COO + 2e
• •
2CH₃COO → 2CH₃ + 2CO₂
•
2CH₃ → CH₃-CH₃
Ethane
- -
At Cathode: 2H₂O + 2e → 2OH + H₂↑

The alkane obtained by this reaction always contains even number of carbon
atoms. Therefore, this reaction cannot be used for the preparation of alkanes
containing odd number of carbon atoms.

Ques- Why Methane can't be prepared by this method?

And- Methane having only one carbon atom, so it can't be prepared
through this method.

Hence Kolbe's electrolytic method is useful for the preparation of ethane and
higher members.
 Didn’t understand? Watch
the video (Click here)
ALKANES: PHYSICAL STATE
Colourless
Odourless
Almost non-polar molecules
Weak Vander waals forces (starting alkanes behaves as gases)
Higher alkanes behaves as solids.
Molecular Mass is directly proportional to Boiling Point
Didn’t understand? Watch

BOILING POINT the video (Click here)

More branched Chains

↓
Surface Area of Contact decreases
↓
Weak vandarwaals forces
↓
Boiling point decreases
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MELTING POINT the video (Click here)

They don’t show smooth increase with increase in molecular mass. -1

Depends on molecular mass & how the molecules are packed in
its Lattice structure

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SOLUBILITY the video (Click here)

Alkanes are non polar covalent compounds hence they dissolve in non
polar covalent compounds only.

Molecular Mass ↑ Density↑

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DENSITY the video (Click here)

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CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF ALKANES the video (Click here)

Substitution reactions
Combustion reactions
Isomerisation, Aromatization
Reaction with steam
 Didn’t understand? Watch

ALKANES: CHEMICAL PROPERTIES: HALOGENATION the video (Click here)

Hydrogen atom of alkane is replaced by chloro group (-Cl)
CH₄ + Cl₂ → CH₃Cl + HCl
hv

CH₃Cl + Cl₂ → CH₂Cl₂ + HCl

hv

hv
CH₂Cl₂ + Cl₂ → CHCl₃ + HCl
CHCl₃ + Cl₂ → CCl₄ + HCl
hv

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CHLORINATION: IN PRESENCE OF SUNLIGHT/ UV RAYS the video (Click here)

Hydrogen atom of alkane is replaced by chloro group (-Cl)

Bromination: slow Reaction
Iodination: Iodination is very slow and a reversible reaction.
Fluorination is too violent to be controlled.
Rate of reaction of alkanes with halagens is F₂>Cl₂>Br₂>I₂
Didn’t understand? Watch
HALOGENATION the video (Click here)

Rate of replacement of hydrogens of alkanes is 3º>2º>1º. FOCUS!!

The rate of replacement is highest for the 3°alkanes due to formation of
more stable free radical intermediate.

Methyl Radical Primary Radical Secondary Radical Tertiary Radical

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COMPLETE COMBUSTION OF ALKANES the video (Click here)

Alkanes on heating in the presence of air or dioxygen are completely oxidized

to carbon dioxide and water with the evolution of large amount of heat.
-1
CH₄(g)+20₂(g) → CO₂(g)+2H₂O(I); H°= -890 kJ mol
-1
C₄H₁₀(g)+13/2 O₂(g) → 4C0₂(g)+5H₂O(I); H°= -2875.84 kJ mol
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INCOMPLETE COMBUSTION OF ALKANES the video (Click here)

In case of incomplete combustion of alkanes with insufficient amount

of air dioxygen, black carbon is formed. This is further used in the
manufacture or ink.

CH₄(g) + O₂(g) incomplete

combustion
C(s) + H₂O(I)
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the video (Click here)
CONTROLLED OXIDATION OF ALKANES
Alkanes on heating with a regulated supply of dioxygen or air at high pressure
and in the presence of suitable catalysts give alcohols, aldehydes or acids.

2CH₄ + O₂ Cu/523K/100atm 2CH₃OH

CH₄ + O₂ HCHO + H₂O
2CH₃CH₃ + 3O₂ (CH₃COO)₂Mn
2CH₃COOH + 2H₂O
 Didn’t understand? Watch
ISOMERISATION the video (Click here)

Isomerization is a chemical process that transforms a molecule into another

molecule with the same atoms but a different arrangement,
e.g. A-B-C→B-A-C.
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ISOMERISATION OF ALKALINE the video (Click here)

n-Alkanes on heating in the presence of anhydrous aluminium chloride and

hydrogen chloride gas isomerise to branched chain alkanes.

Anhy. AlCl₃/HCl
CH₃(CH₂)₄CH₃ CH₃CH-(CH₂)₂-CH₃+CH₃CH₂-CH-CH₂-CH₃
| |
CH₃ CH₃
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AROMATIZATION OF ALKANES the video (Click here)
The Process of converting aliphatic & Alicyclic hydrocarbon to aromatic
hydrocarbons in presence of suitable catalyst at high pressure & temperature is
called as aromatisation.

Dehydrogenation &
Cyclisation takes place

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REACTION WITH STEAM the video (Click here)
Methane reacts with steam at 1273 K in the presence of nickel catalyst to form
carbon monoxide and dihydrogen. This method is used for industrial preparation of
dihydrogen gas.
CH₄ + H₂O → Ni
CO + 3H₂
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PYROLYSIS the video (Click here)

Pyrolysis is defined as the conversion of a compound into smaller fragments in

the absence of air through the application of heat.

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CONFORMATIONS the video (Click here)

The spatial arrangements of atoms that can be modified into one another
by rotation around a C-C single bond are called conformations.
Alkanes can therefore have an infinite number of conformations by rotating
around C-C single bonds.
 Didn’t understand? Watch
CONFORMATIONS OF ETHANE the video (Click here)

If Hydrogen atoms are as closed together as possible is called Eclipsed

conformation.
If Hydrogens are as far apart as possible is known as the Staggered
conformation.
Any other intermediate conformation is called a Skew conformation No
change in Bond length, Bond angle.

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REPRESENTATION OF CONFORMATIONS the video (Click here)

Sawhorse Projection Newman’s Projection

i)Eclipsed ii)Staggered i)Eclipsed ii)Staggered

 Chemistry Video Notes
ALKENE ALKYNES ARENES
Hydrocarbons
(ALKENE)
 Didn’t understand? Watch

ALKENES the video (Click Here)

Alkenes are a class of hydrocarbons (e.g, containing only carbon and hydrogen)
unsaturated compounds with at least one carbon-to-carbon double bond.
Another term used to describe alkenes is olefins. Alkenes are more reactive
than alkanes due to the presence of the double bond

Ethane Ethene
Alkenes-Nomenclature
Identify the longest carbon chain
that contains the double bond. Geometric isomers
It have the same molecular formula and
structure, but the arrangement of atoms
CH2=CH-CH=CH2 is different.

but-1,3-diene

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the video (Click Here)

Alkenes: Preparation: From Alkynes

Partial Reduction of Alkynes Addition of "H" using Lindlar's Catalyst.
Lindlar's Catalyst is Partially deactivated palladised charcoal
Palladised charcoal = Palladium metal supported on charcoal
Partially deactivated by poisons Quinoline,Sulphur compounds
Alkenes: Preparation: From Alkynes
Alkynes on reduction with Lindlar's reagent form Cis alkenes
Alkynes on reduction with Sodium in liquid ammonia form Trans alkenes
 Didn’t understand? Watch
the video(Click Here)

Preparation of Alkenes From Alkyl Halides

Alkyl halides + Alcoholic Potassium hydroxide = Alkenes
Dehydrohalogenation = Removal of halogen acid (HX)
-elimination reaction. (X= Cl, Br, I )

Nature of halogen atom and the alkygroup determine rate of the reaction.
* Rate is: iodine > bromine › chlorine, while for alkyl groups it is: tert >
secondary > primary.

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the video (Click Here)

Preparation of Alkenes From Vicinal Dihalides

Vicinal dihalides on treatment with zinc metal lose a molecule of ZnX to form
an alkene. This reaction is known as Dehalogenation.

Two halogen atoms are attached to two adjacent carbon atoms

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the video (Click Here)

Preparation of Alkenes From alcohols by acidic dehydration

Alcohols on heating with concentrated sulphuric acid form alkenes
with the elimination of one water molecule.

Since a water molecule is eliminated from the alcohol molecule in the presence of
an acid, this reaction is known as acidic dehydration of alcohols. This is
β-elimination reaction.
 Physical Properties of Alkenes
Didn’t understand? Watch
Higher Alkenes are Colourless and Odourless the video (Click Here)

Ethene is Colourless with faint sweet smell

Alkenes are Partially Polar molecules due to double bond
Insoluble in water
Fairly soluble in nonpolar solvents like benzene, petroleum ether.
Posess Weak vander Waals forces.

Physical Properties of Alkenes

Changes in these state is because when we increase number of carbon ,
Molecular size increases due to which vander walls force increases
First three members - C to C are found in gasesous state.
Next 14 are liquids & Higher ones are found in Solids state.

Physical Properties- Boiling & Melting Point

Molecular size Area of contact

Boiling Point Vanderwaals forces
Vanderwaals Forces Boiling Point
Physical Properties- Boiling & Melting Point
MP & BP
>
MP & BP
Cis isomers Trans isomers

Straight chain Alkenes have Higher Boiling Point

Branched chain Alkenes have Lower Boiling Point
Didn’t understand? Chemical Properties of Alkenes
Watch the video
(Click Here) ADDITION OF DIHYDROGEN
Alkenes add up one molecule of dihydrogen gas in the presence of
finely divided nickel. palladium or platinum to form alkanes.

ADDITION OF HALOGENS
Halogens like bromine or chlorine add up to alkene to form vicinal
dihalides. Reddish orange colour of bromine solution in CCl is
discharged when bromine adds up to an unsaturation site.

CCl 4

This reaction is used as a test for unsaturation.

ADDITION OF HYDROGEN HALIDES

HYDROGEN + HALOGEN = HYDROGEN HALIDE
Hydrogen + Chlorine = Hydrogen chloride
Hydrogen + Bromine = Hydrogen bromide
Hydrogen + lodine = Hydrogen lodide
Alkenes + Hydrogen halide = Alkyl halides
HI > HBr > HCl

Markovnikov's Rule Didn’t understand? Watch the

video (Click Here)

In case of unsymmetrical olefins, the negative part of the addendum

(HCI, HBr, H2SO4 etc.) goes to that carbon atom of the double bond
which has lesser number of H- atoms.
 Anti Markonikov/Peroxide Effect/KharaschEffect
In the presence of peroxides such as benzoyl peroxide (C H COO) , the
addition of HBr only(not HCl or HI takes place against the Markovnikov's
rule. Thus in the presence of peroxide, Br goes to that carbon atom of the
double bond which has more number of H-atoms.

Didn’t understand? Watch

the video (Click Here)

Chemical Properties of Alkenes - Addition of Water

In the presence of a few drops of concentrated sulphuric acid alkenes react
with water to form alcohols, in accordance with the Markovnikov rule.

Didn’t understand? Watch

the video (Click Here)

Chemical Properties of Alkenes- Oxidation

Alkenes on reaction with cold, dilute, aqueous solution of potassium
permanganate (Baeyer's reagent) produce vicinal glycols. Decolorisation of
KMnO4 solution is used as a test for unsaturation.

Alkenes: Chemical Prop: Polymerization

Polythene is obtained by the combination of large number of ethene molecules
at high temperature, high pressure and in the presence of a catalyst. The large
molecules thus obtained are called polymers. This reaction is known as
polymerisation. The simple compounds from which polymers are made are called
monomers.
 Didn’t understand? Watch
the video (Click Here) Alkynes
Unsaturated Compounds which contain atleast one
triple bond First stable member is Ethyne

Pi (π) bond Alkynes behave as sources of loosely held mobile

electrons. Alkynes are easily attacked by Electrophiles
Hence Alkynlesl are less stable than alkanes

Preparation of Alkynes From Calcium carbide

Prepare calcium carbide: Heat quicklime (CaO) with coke to produce
calcium carbide
•CaCO → CaO + CO
•CaO + 3C → CaC + CO
React calcium carbide with water: To form calcium hydroxide and acetylene:
•CaC + 2H O → Ca(OH) + C H
Preparation of Alkynes From Vicinal dihalides
Two halogen atoms are attached two adjacent carbon atoms
Didn’t understand? Process is known as Dehydrohalogenation.
Watch the video 
(Click Here)

Physical Properties of Alkynes - Physical State

Alkynes are Partially Polar molecules. Didn’t understand?
Watch the video
Possess Weak vander Waals forces.
(Click Here)
First three members-C ,C , C , are found in gases state.
Next 8 are found in liquids whereas the Higher ones are found in Solid
states.
 Physical Properties of Alkynes - Solubility
Like dissolves Like Fairly soluble in polar solvents like benzene, ether.
Insoluble in water and Alkynes float on water

Alkynes: Physical Properties Density

Didn’t understand? Density of Alkynes > Density of Water
Watch the video
(Click Here)

Didn’t understand?
Watch the video

Alkynes: Chemical Properties (Click Here)

Alkynes - Weak acids (Alkynes + Strong base = Acid base Reaction

Strong base ( Na, NaNH )(Acid + Base = Salt)
Acid - base reaction is not seen - Alkanes,Alkenes

Chemical Properties of Alkynes - Acid Base Reaction

Sodium metal and sodamide (NaNH ) are strong bases. They react with ethyne
to form sodium acetylide with the liberation of dihydrogen gas.


Chemical Properties of Alkynes - Addition of Dihydrogen

Alkynes add up one molecule of dihydrogen gas in the presence of finely
divided nickel, palladium or platinum to form alkanes

 Chemical Properties of Alkynes - Addition of Halogens

Chemical Properties of Alkynes -

Didn’t understand?
Watch the video Reaction with Hydrogen Halide
(Click Here)
Two molecules of hydrogen halides (HCl, HBr, HI) add to
alkynes to form gem dihalides

Chemical Properties of Alkynes - Reaction with Water

One molecule of water adds to alkynes on warming with mercuric sulphateand
dilute sulphuric acid at 333 K to form carbonyl compounds
Didn’t understand?
Watch the video
(Click Here)

Chemical Properties of Alkynes - Linear Polymerisation

(Poly-Ethyne) - Uses
•Good conductor of electricity
Didn’t understand?
•Lighter & Cheaper than metal conductor Watch the video
•Used as Electrodes in batter (Click Here)

Chemical Properties of Alkynes - Cyclic Polymerisation

Ethyne on passing through red hot iron tube at 873K undergoes cyclic
polymerisation Three molecules polymerise to form benzene

Didn’t understand? Watch
the video (Click Here) ARENES
An Arene, or aromatic hydrocarbon, is a
hydrocarbon with alternating double and single
bonds between carbon atoms forming rings.
AROMATIC COMPOUNDS

Benzoids Non Benzoids

Arenes are typically split into two
categories - benzoids, that contain a
benzene derivative and follow the
benzene ring model, and non-benzoids
that contain other aromatic cyclic
derivatives.

Didn’t understand? Watch ARENES NOMENCLATURE AND ISOMERISM

the video (Click Here)
2 hydrogen atoms in benzene are replaced by
2 similar or different monovalent atoms or
groups

3 different position isomers are possible

STRUCTURE OF BENZENE Didn’t understand? Watch

the video (Click Here)

RESONANCE AND STABILITY OF BENZENE

3 double bonds

Delocalised pi-electrons

Didn’t understand? Watch Stable

the video (Click Here)

PREPARATION OF BENZENE
Coal tar electrons (or
(A thick black liquid produced by
bonds) are not
distilling bituminous coal)
Laboratory methods-
fixed in position
Cyclic polymerisation of ethyne
Decarboxylation of Aromatic acids
Reduction of phenol
Didn’t understand ?Watch
the video (Click Here)
Physical Properties of Arenes
•Solubility LikeDissolve in Non-polar solvents
Immiscible with water Miscible with organic
solvents Ether etc
•Burn with a sooty flame (yellow colour)
incomplete combustion in lack of oxygener
etc..

Chemical Properties of Arenes

Halogenation
Nitration
Sulphonation
Friedel-Crafts alkylation
Friedel-Crafts acylation

NITRATION Didn’t understand?

Watch the video
(Click Here)

CHLORINATION FRIEDEL-CRAFTS ALKYLATION

Mechanism Of Electrophilic Substitution Reactions

(a) Generation of an electrophile
(b) Formation of carbocation
intermediate
(c) Removal of (proton from the
carbocation intermediate
Didn’t understand?
Watch the video
(Click Here) Ortho and para directing groups
These groups increase the electron density at the ortho and
para positions, guiding the incoming group to those locations.
For example, the –OH group is an ortho-para director.

Didn’t understand? Clickch

the video (Click Here)

Meta directing groups

These groups increase the electron
density at the meta position, directing
the electrophilic attack on the meta
positions of the benzene ring. For
example, the –NO2 group is a meta
directing group.

Didn’t understand? Watch

the video (Click Here) Carcinogenicity & Toxicity
Carcinogenicity is the process by which substances, radiations, or
radionuclides can cause cancer, while toxicity is the degree to which a
chemical substance can damage the body's cells:
Chemistry Video Notes
Chem Notes

Redox
Reactions

Class 11ᵗʰ
 REDOX REACTIONS Didn’t understand? Watch
the video (Click here)

Redox

Red Ox
Reduction Oxidation
(gain of e−) (loss of e-)

Find the Oxidation State of Following Compounds:

Zn + HCl ZnCl₂+ H₂
WOW!
0 + +2 0
Zn + HCl ZnCl₂+ H₂
Oxidation
Reduction

Oxidation- Zn Oxidising agent- HCl

Reduction- HCl Reducing agent- Zn
Didn’t understand? Watch

How to Find Oxidation State: the video (Click here)

0xidation State of Alkali Metal is always +1

0xidation State of Alkaline Earth Metal is always +2
0xidation State of Fluorine is always -1
0xidation State of all the atom in its elemental form is always 0
Oxidation State of Halogens is generally -1
Oxidation State of Oxygen is :
-2 (max) , -1 (peroxide) , -1/2 (Superoxide) eg: KO₂
Sum of O.S of all atoms in a specie =Total Charge on species

Find the Oxidation State of Following Compounds:

1. S in SO₃: x+(-2)3=0; x=6
-1
2. Cl in ClO₄: x+(-2)4=-1; x=7
-1
3. N in NO₃: x+(-2)3=-1; x=5

4. S in H₂SO₄: 2(1)+x+(-2)4=0; x=6

5. P in PCl₃: x+(-1)3=0; x=3

6. P in H₃PO₄: (1)3+x+(-2)4=0; x=5

Types of Redox Reactions Didn’t understand? Watch
the video (Click here)

Combination Reaction: The chemical combination of two elements of

the same or different type is called a combination reaction. In general,
a combination reaction can be expressed as:
A+B C
0 0 +2 -3 0 0 +1 -1
3Mg (S) + N₂(g) Mg₃N₂(S) 2Na (S) + Cl₂(g) 2NaCl(S)
0 0 +2 -3
Ca (S) + 2C(S) CaC₂(S)

Decomposition Reactions: The reactions involving the breakdown of a

compound into two or more compounds are called decomposition reactions.
In general, a decomposition reaction can be expressed as:
C A+B
1 -2 0 0 +1 -1 0 0
2H₂O(l) 2H₂(g) + O₂(g)
Electric Current
2NaH(S) 2Na(S) + H₂(g)
+1 +5 -2 +1 -1 0
2KCl0₃ 2KCl(S) + 3O₂(g)

Displacement Reactions: The reactions involving the replacement of an

ion or an atom in a compound by the ion or atom of some other element,
are called displacement reactions. In general, a displacement reaction can
be expressed as:
X + YZ XZ + Y

Displacement Reaction
Metal displacement reactions Non-Metal displacement reactions

Disproportionation Reactions: The reactions, in which an element in one

oxidation state is simultaneously oxidised and reduced, are called
disproportionation reactions.
Oxidation

-1 -2 0
2H₂0₂ 2H₂0 + 0₂

Reduction
 Didn’t understand? Watch
Balancing Equations by Ion Electron Method: the video (Click here)

1. Write the given equation in Ionic form

2. Identity elements undergoing Oxidation
3. Break the equation into two halves
i) Oxidation Half
ii) Reduction Half
4. Balance the half equations.
i)Balance all other atoms except O & H.
ii) Balance O by Adding H O to the side in O.
iii) Balance H by Adding H ions
iv) Balance charge by adding electrons
5. Add the too halves such that the electrons in the two halves get cancelled
6. For Basic Medium , add as many OH- to both side as many H+ were added
to to one side.

+2 -2 +3 -3
Q1. Fe + Cr₂0₇ Fe + Cr Video Solution

So:
Oxidation
+2 -2 +3 -3
Fe + Cr₂0₇ Fe + Cr

2(x)+(-2)7=-2
x=6

+2 6 -2 +3 -3
Fe + Cr₂0₇ Fe + Cr
Reduction

REDUCTION HALF OXIDATION HALF

-2 -3 +2 +3
Cr₂0₇ Cr Fe Fe
+ 2- +3
14H + Cr₂0₇ → 2Cr + 7H₂0 +2 +3 -
14-2 = 12 6 [Fe → Fe + 1e]6
12-6e = 6 = 6

+2 2- + +3 +3
6Fe + Cr₂0₇ + 14H → 6Fe + 2Cr + 7H₂O
 -1 -1 -1
Q2. Br + Mn0₄ → BrO₃ + Mn0₂ (basic medium) Video Solution
So: -1 -1 -1
Br + Mn0₄ BrO₃ + Mn0₂

x+(-2)4=-1 x+(-2)3=-1 x+(-2)2=0

x=7 x=5 x=4

Oxidation

-1 +7 -1 +5 -1 +4
Br + Mn0₄ BrO₃ + Mn0₂
Reduction

REDUCTION HALF OXIDATION HALF

-1 -1 -1
MnO₄ MnO₂ Br BrO₃
+ -1 -1 -1 +
4H+ MnO₄→ MnO₂ + 2H₂0 Br + 3H₂0 → BrO₃ + 6H
-1 -1+6= 5
4 + (-1) = 3e 0+0=0
-1 -1 + -
[4H+ MnO₄→ MnO₂ + 2H₂0]2 Br + 3H₂0 → BrO₃ + 6H + 6e
-1 + -1 -1 +
Br + 3H₂O + 8H + 2MnO₄ → BrO₃ + 6H+ 2Mn0₂ + 4H₂0

Q3. Cu + HNO₃ → Cu(NO₃)₂ + NO₂ + H₂O Video Solution

So: Cu + HNO₃ Cu(NO₃)₂ + NO₂ + H₂O

1+x+(-2)3=0 x+(-1)2=0 x+(-2)2=0

x=5 x=2 x=4

2+2x+(-2)6=0
x=5

Oxidation Bindaas Stuff!

5 2 5 4
Cu + HNO₃ Cu(NO₃)₂ + NO₂ + H₂O
Reduction
 REDUCTION HALF OXIDATION HALF
+2
NO₃ NO₂ Cu Cu
- + -1 +2 -
[1e + 2H +NO₃→ NO₂ + H₂0]2 Cu→ Cu + 2e
-1+(-1)=0 0+0=0 0 2+(-2)=0
+ -1 +2

2NO₃ + Cu + 4H + 2NO₃ → Cu + 2NO₂ + 2H₂0 + 2NO₃

Cu + 4HNO₃ → Cu(NO₃)₂ + 2NO₂ + 2H₂0

Didn’t understand? Watch

Oxidation Number Method: the video (Click here)

1. Write the given skeleton redox reaction.

2. Indicate the oxidation numbers of all atoms volved in the
reaction above the respective symbols.
3. Identify the atoms showing a change in oxidation number.
4. Balance the total number of atoms undergoing the change in
oxidation number.
5. Find the total number of electrons gained and lost by the
oxidising and reducing agents respectively.
6. Find the suitable coefficients to balance the electrons gained
by the oxidising agent with those lost by the reducing agent.
7. Multiply oxidising and reducing agents and the corresponding
products with these coefficients.
8. Balance the equation with respect to all other atoms except
hydrogen and oxygen.
9. In case of a molecular equation, hydrogen and oxygen can be
balanced in the usual way.
10. If the given equation is ionic and proceeds in acidic solution,
balance oxygen by adding sufficient number of H O molecules
on the side deficient in oxygen. Now add sufficient number of
H+ ions to balance hydrogen atoms. This gives the final
balanced equation in acidic medium.
11. If the given equation is ionic and proceeds in basic solution,
balance oxygen atoms by adding sufficient number of OH ions
on the side deficient in O atoms. To balance H atoms, add
one molecule of water for each H atom needed on the side
deficient in H atom and add an equal number of OH ions to
the opposite side. This gives the final balanced equation in
basic medium.
 Q1. FeCl₃ + H₂S → FeCl₂ + HCl + S
Video Solution
Change = 1 x 2
Change = 2 X 1

So: FeCl₃ + H₂S FeCl₂ + HCl + S

x+(-1)3=0 2(1)+x=0 x+(-1)2=0 Fantastic 😎

x=3 x=-2 x=2

2FeCl₃ + H₂S 2FeCl₂ + HCl + S

2FeCl₃ + H₂S 2FeCl₂ + 2HCl + S
Q2. Cu + HNO₃ Cu(NO₃)₂ + NO₂ + H₂0 Video Solution
Change = 2 X 1

Change = 1 X 2

So: Cu + HNO₃ Cu(NO₃)₂ + NO₂ + H₂0

1+x+3(-2)=0 x+(-1)2=0 x+(-2)3=0

x=5 x=2 x=6

Cu + 2HNO₃ Cu(NO₃)₂ + 2NO₂ + H₂O

Cu + 4HNO₃ Cu(NO₃)₂ + 2NO₂ + 2H₂O

Q3. K₂Cr₂O₇ + HCl KCl + CrCl₃ + H₂O + Cl₂ Video Solution

Change = 6(6X2-3X2) X 2 ⇒ 3x1

Change = 2 X 6 ⇒ 1x3

K₂Cr₂O₇ + 2HCl KCl + 2CrCl₃ + H₂O + Cl₂

(1)2+2x+7(-2)=0 -1X2=(-2) x+(-1)3=0 0X2=0

x=6 x=3
 K₂Cr₂O₇+ 6HCl KCl + 2CrCl₃ + H₂O + 3Cl₂

K₂Cr₂O₇+ 14HCl 2KCl + 2CrCl₃ + 7H₂O + 3Cl₂

HOMEWORK QUESTIONS
i) KMnO₄ + H₂SO₄ + H₂C₂O₄ → K₂SO₄ + MnSO₄ + CO₂ + H₂O

So:
Change = 5X1
Change = 1X5

KMnO₄ + H₂SO₄ + H₂C₂O₄ → K₂SO₄ + MnSO₄ + CO₂ + H₂O

1+x+4(-2)=0 (1)2+2x+4(-2)=0 x+(-2)=0 x+(-2)2=0

x=7 x=3 x=2 x=4

KMnO₄ + H₂SO₄ + 5H₂C₂O₄ → K₂SO₄ + MnSO₄ + 5CO₂ + H₂O

2KMnO₄ + 3H₂SO₄ + 5H₂C₂O₄ → K₂SO₄ + 2MnSO₄ + 10CO₂ + 8H₂O