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Introduction to Learning and Behavior, 5th

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CHAPTER 2: Research Methods

Test Bank for Chapter 2

Basic Terms and Definitions:
Independent and Dependent Variables

1. A(n) _____ is any characteristic of a person, place, or thing that can change over time or across situations.
a) stimulus
b) response
c) operation
d) variable
Answer: D
Page number: 51
Feedback: A variable is a characteristic of a person, place, or thing that can change (vary) over time or from one
situation to another.

2. Temperature, height, and hair color are all:

a) behaviors.
b) operations.
c) variables.
d) Both a and b are correct.
Answer: C
Page number: 51
Feedback: Temperature is an example of a variable; temperature varies from day to day, season to season, and
place to place. Height and weight are also examples of variables—people come in many different sizes and
shapes.

3. The _____ variable is that factor that varies across the different conditions in an experiment.
a) dependent
b) independent
c) extraneous
d) nondependent
Answer: B
Page number: 52
Feedback: The independent variable is the aspect of an experiment that is made to systematically vary across
the different conditions in the experiment.

4. The _____ variable is the outcome that is measured in an experiment.

RESEARCH METHODS 1
 a) dependent
b) independent
c) extraneous
d) confounding
Answer: A
Page number: 52
Feedback: The dependent variable is the aspect of an experiment that is allowed to vary freely to see if it is
affected by changes in the independent variable. In other words, the dependent variable is what is measured in
an experiment.

5. Cause is to effect as _____ variable is to _____ variable.

a) extraneous; dependent
b) dependent; extraneous
c) dependent; independent
d) independent; dependent
Answer: D
Page number: 52
Feedback: Changes in the dependent variable are dependent upon changes in the independent variable.

6. The outcome or effect in an experiment is the _____variable.

a) independent
b) dependent
c) extraneous
d) confounding
Answer: B
Page number: 52
Feedback: The dependent variable is the aspect of an experiment that is allowed to vary freely to see if it is
affected by changes in the independent variable.
QZ

7. In an experiment concerning the effect of food deprivation on activity level, food deprivation is the _____
variable.
a) dependent
b) confounding
c) independent
d) extraneous
Answer: C
Page number: 52
Feedback: Food deprivation is the independent variable in the experiment.
MD

8. In an experiment concerning the effect of food deprivation on activity level, activity level is the _____ variable.
a) dependent
b) confounding
c) independent
d) extraneous
Answer: A
Page number: 52
Feedback: In the experiment concerning the effect of food deprivation on activity level, activity level is the
dependent variable.

9. In the experiment with the rats and the goal box, the _____ is the independent variable.
a) level of activity
b) food
c) goal box

2 CHAPTER 2
 d) rat
Answer: B
Page number: 52
Feedback: In the experiment with the rats and the goal box, depending on the “experimental condition” to which
rats have been randomly assigned, they receive one, two, or three pellets of food each time they reach the goal
box. Thus, the independent variable in this experiment is the number of food pellets the rats in each group
receive when they reach the goal box.

10. Suppose you are experimenting with the effects of sleep deprivation on memory. In this case, sleep deprivation
is a(n):
a) extraneous variable.
b) dependent variable.
c) independent variable.
d) mediating variable.
Answer: C
Page number: 52
Feedback: If you are experimenting with the effects of sleep deprivation on memory, sleep deprivation is an
independent variable. The independent variable is the aspect of an experiment that is made to systematically
vary across the different conditions in the experiment. In other words, the independent variable is what is
manipulated in an experiment.

11. In the experiment with the rats and the goal box, the _____ is the dependent variable.
a) rat
b) goal box
c) level of activity
d) food
Answer: C
Page number: 52
Feedback: In the rat experiment, the dependent variable could be the total number of errors (i.e., number of
wrong turns) the rat makes while trying to find its way to the goal box. Alternatively, the speed with which the
rat reaches the goal box is also the dependent variable in the experiment.

12. In the experiment with the rats and the goal box, the number of food pellets given when the rats reach the goal
box is the:
a) extraneous variable.
b) confounding variable.
c) dependent variable.
d) independent variable.
Answer: D
Page number: 52
Feedback: The independent variable in this experiment is the number of food pellets the rats in each group
receive when they reach the goal box.
WWW

Functional Relationships

13. The relationship between changes in an independent variable and changes in a dependent variable is known as
a(n) _____ relationship.
a) operational
b) variable
c) mechanistic
d) functional
Answer: D
Page number: 52

RESEARCH METHODS 3
 Feedback: The relationship between changes in an independent variable and changes in a dependent variable is
known as a functional relationship.

14. If a certain diet affects the extent to which one is likely to acquire a certain disease, then there is a(n) _____
relationship between the diet and the disease.
a) operational
b) mechanistic
c) functional
d) independent
Answer: C
Page number: 52
Feedback: If a certain diet affects the extent to which one is likely to acquire a certain disease, then there is a
functional relationship between the diet and the disease. The relationship between changes in an independent
variable and changes in a dependent variable is known as a functional relationship.
FN

15. A cause-and-effect relationship could also be called a(n) _____ relationship.

a) independent
b) functional
c) derivative
d) mechanistic
Answer: B
Page number: 53
Feedback: A functional relationship can also be thought of as a cause-and-effect relationship, with changes in
the independent variable being the cause and changes in the dependent variable being the effect.

16. Every time Randy watches a horror movie, he has a nightmare that same evening. If he never has a nightmare
except when he watches a horror movie, it would indicate a(n) _____ between watching horror movies and
having nightmares.
a) spurious relationship
b) functional relationship
c) establishing operation
d) operational relationship
Answer: B
Page number: 52–53
Feedback: If Randy never has a nightmare except when he watches a horror movie, it would indicate a
functional relationship between watching horror movies and having nightmares. A functional relationship can
also be thought of as a cause-and-effect relationship, with changes in the independent variable being the cause
and changes in the dependent variable being the effect. Behaviorists are typically interested in discovering
functional relationships between changes in environmental events and changes in behavior.
QZ

17. Mosquito repellents that contain the chemical agent DEET are significantly more effective than those that do
not contain DEET. In other words, there is a _____ relationship between the presence of DEET and the number
of mosquito bites.
a) formational
b) nonformational
c) functional
d) nonfunctional
Answer: C
Page number: 52
Feedback: There is a functional relationship between the presence of DEET and the number of mosquito bites.
The relationship between changes in an independent variable and changes in a dependent variable is known as a
functional relationship.

4 CHAPTER 2
Stimulus and Response

18. A stimulus is any event that can:

a) potentially influence behavior.
b) be transformed into a behavior.
c) be measured.
d) be detected.
Answer: A
Page number: 53
Feedback: A stimulus is any event that can potentially influence behavior.

19. A flashing light, a loud bang, and a bad smell are all:
a) extraneous variables.
b) stimuli.
c) confounding variables.
d) responses.
Answer: B
Page number: 53
Feedback: A stimulus is any event that can potentially influence behavior. Light, sound, and odor are examples
of stimuli.

20. The sound of a door slam causes your cat to jump off the couch. The sound of the door slamming is a(n):
a) confounding variable.
b) stimulus.
c) extraneous variable.
d) reaction.
Answer: B
Page number: 53
Feedback: The sound of door slamming is a stimulus. A stimulus is any event that can potentially influence
behavior. Light, sound, and odor are examples of stimuli.

21. A _____ is a specific instance of behavior.

a) stimulus
b) releaser
c) response
d) operation
Answer: C
Page number: 53
Feedback: A response is a particular instance of a behavior.

22. With respect to a rat’s behavior of pressing a lever for food, a single lever press is an example of a(n):
a) operation.
b) stimulus.
c) independent variable.
d) response.
Answer: D
Page number: 53
Feedback: A stimulus is any event that can potentially influence behavior, and a response is a particular
instance of a behavior. With respect to a rat’s behavior of pressing a lever for food, a single lever press is an
example of a response.

23. Jan winks at Tyler. The wink is an example of a(n) _____ by Jan and a _____ for Tyler.
a) response; stimulus
b) stimulus; response
c) operation; dependent variable

RESEARCH METHODS 5
 d) response; response
Answer: A
Page number: 53
Feedback: A stimulus is any event that can potentially influence behavior, and a response is a particular instance
of a behavior. The wink is an example of a response by Jan and a stimulus for Tyler.

Overt and Covert Behavior

24. The term _____ behavior refers to any behavior that has the potential for being directly observed by another
individual.
a) covert
b) dependent
c) overt
d) independent
Answer: C
Page number: 54
Feedback: Overt behavior is behavior that can potentially be observed by an individual other than the one
performing the behavior.

25. The push-ups that I did this morning are best described as an example of a(n):
a) extraneous behavior.
b) impulsive behavior.
c) covert behavior.
d) overt behavior.
Answer: D
Page number: 54
Feedback: The push-ups that I did this morning are best described as an example of an overt behavior. Overt
behavior is behavior that can potentially be observed by an individual other than the one performing the
behavior.
QZ

26. The term _____ behavior refers to any behavior that can be subjectively perceived only by the person
performing the behavior.
a) covert
b) extraneous
c) overt
d) implosive
Answer: A
Page number: 54
Feedback: Covert behavior is behavior that can be perceived only by the person performing the behavior.

27. The dream I had last night is best described as an example of a(n):
a) extraneous behavior.
b) establishing operation.
c) covert behavior.
d) overt behavior.
Answer: C
Page number: 54
Feedback: The dream I had last night is best described as an example of a covert behavior. Covert behavior is
behavior that can be perceived only by the person performing the behavior.

28. Whenever Mehmed listens to a lecture by Dr. Dull, he begins to daydream. From Mehmed’s perspective, the
daydreaming is a(n) _____, while the lecture by Dr. Dull is a _____.
a) overt response; covert response
b) stimulus; covert response

6 CHAPTER 2
 c) overt response; stimulus
d) covert response; stimulus
Answer: D
Page number: 53–54
Feedback: From Mehmed’s perspective, the daydreaming is a covert response, while the lecture by Dr. Dull is a
stimulus. A stimulus is any event that can potentially influence behavior, and a response is a particular instance
of a behavior. Covert behavior is behavior that can be perceived only by the person performing the behavior.
WWW

29. Overt behavior is to _____ as covert behavior is to _____.

a) talking; daydreaming
b) thinking; acting
c) establishing; reacting
d) dreaming; thinking
Answer: A
Page number: 54
Feedback: Overt behavior is to talking as covert behavior is to daydreaming. Overt behavior is behavior that can
potentially be observed by an individual other than the one performing the behavior. Covert behavior is
behavior that can be perceived only by the person performing the behavior.

Appetitive and Aversive Stimuli

30. A(n) _____ stimulus is one that an organism will move toward.
a) functional
b) adversive
c) appetitive
d) aversive
Answer: C
Page number: 54
Feedback: An appetitive stimulus is an event that an organism will seek out.

31. A(n) _____ stimulus is one that an animal will move away from.
a) functional
b) aversive
c) appetitive
d) imperative
Answer: B
Page number: 54
Feedback: An aversive stimulus is an event that an organism will avoid.

32. Pleasant is to _____ as unpleasant is to _____.

a) functional; imperative
b) imperative; adversive
c) adversive; appetitive
d) appetitive; aversive
Answer: D
Page number: 54
Feedback: Pleasant is to appetitive as unpleasant is to aversive. An appetitive stimulus is an event that an
organism will seek out. An aversive stimulus is an event that an organism will avoid.

33. For most children, a bee sting is to _____ as candy is to _____.

a) adversive; imperative
b) appetitive; aversive
c) aversive; appetitive
d) adversive; appetitive

RESEARCH METHODS 7
 Answer: C
Page number: 54
Feedback: For most children, a bee sting is to aversive as candy is to appetitive. An appetitive stimulus is an
event that an organism will seek out. An aversive stimulus is an event that an organism will avoid.

34. If someone goes “looking for a fight,” then fighting must be a(n) _____ stimulus for that individual.
a) aversive
b) appositive
c) appetitive
d) nonfunctional
Answer: C
Page number: 54
Feedback: If someone goes “looking for a fight,” then fighting must be an appetitive stimulus for that
individual. An appetitive stimulus is an event that an organism will seek out.

Motivating Operations

35. Depriving an animal of food is an example of a(n):

a) functional operation.
b) establishing operation.
c) establishing response.
d) stimulus operation.
Answer: B
Page number: 56
Feedback: Depriving an animal of food is an example of an establishing operation. An establishing operation is
a procedure that increases the appetitiveness or aversiveness of an event.

36. A procedure that increases the appetitiveness or aversiveness of a stimulus is called a(n):
a) establishing procedure.
b) establishing operation.
c) consequence strengthening procedure.
d) consequence strengthening operation.
Answer: B
Page number: 56
Feedback: An establishing operation is a procedure that increases the appetitiveness or aversiveness of an event.

37. Jared got sick after eating too much cake. From then onward, he could no longer eat cake. The act of eating too
much cake functioned as a(n) _____ with respect to the subsequent likelihood of again eating cake.
a) establishing response
b) dependent variable
c) extraneous operation
d) establishing operation
Answer: D
Page number: 56
Feedback: Jared getting sick after eating too much cake is an example of an establishing operation. An
establishing operation is a procedure that increases the appetitiveness or aversiveness of an event.
MD

38. Joanna does not feed her dog during the day to ensure that he eats all of his dinner that evening. This is an
example of:
a) shaping.
b) negative punishment.
c) extinction.
d) an establishing operation.
Answer: D

8 CHAPTER 2
 Page number: 56
Feedback: Joanna feeding her dog only in the evening to ensure he eats all his dinner illustrates an establishing
operation. An establishing operation is a procedure that increases the appetitiveness or aversiveness of an event.
FN

39. A(n) _____ is a procedure that decreases the appetitiveness or aversiveness of an event.
a) deprivation procedure
b) establishing operation
c) abolishing operation
d) extinction procedure
Answer: C
Page number: 56
Feedback: An abolishing operation is a procedure that decreases the appetitiveness or aversiveness of an event.

40. Too much is to very little as _____ is to _____.

a) divestiture ; deprivation
b) deprivation; divestiture
c) satiation; deprivation
d) deprivation; satiation
Answer: C
Page number: 56
Feedback: Too much is to very little as satiation is to deprivation. Deprivation is the prolonged absence of an
event, and satiation is the prolonged exposure to or consumption of an event.

41. Deprivation usually _____ the _____ of an event.

a) decreases; appetitiveness
b) increases; appetitiveness
c) decreases; adversiveness
d) increases; imperativeness
Answer: B
Page number: 56
Feedback: Deprivation is an establishing operation that increases the appetitiveness of an event.

42. After eating a dozen hot dogs in one sitting, chances are that you would feel quite:
a) deprived.
b) famished.
c) satiated.
d) deviated.
Answer: C
Page number: 56
Feedback: After eating a dozen hot dogs in one sitting, chances are that you would feel quite satiated. Satiation
is the prolonged exposure to or consumption of an event.
QZ

43. Satiation usually _____ the _____ of an event.

a) decreases; appetitiveness
b) decreases; aversiveness
c) decreases; imperativeness
d) increases; appetitiveness
Answer: A
Page number: 56
Feedback: Satiation is the prolonged exposure to or consumption of an event that results in decrease in the
appetitiveness of an event.

Contiguity and Contingency

RESEARCH METHODS 9
44. Closeness is to _____ as prediction is to _____.
a) functionality; contiguity
b) contingency; functionality
c) contingency; contiguity
d) contiguity; contingency
Answer: D
Page number: 56–57
Feedback: Closeness is to contiguity as prediction is to contingency. Contiguity means “closeness or nearness,”
while contingency is a predictive (or functional) relationship between two events.

45. Prediction is to nearness as:

a) contingent is to noncontingent.
b) noncontingent is to contingent.
c) contiguous is to contingent.
d) contingent is to contiguous.
Answer: D
Page number: 56–57
Feedback: Prediction is to nearness as contingent is to contiguous. Contiguity means “closeness or nearness,”
while contingency is a predictive (or functional) relationship between two events.

46. The term _____ refers to the extent to which events occur close together in time.
a) temporal contiguity
b) spatial contiguity
c) temporal contingency
d) spatial contingency
Answer: A
Page number: 56
Feedback: Temporal contiguity is the extent to which events occur close together in time.

47. The term _____ refers to the extent to which events occur in close physical proximity to each other.
a) temporal contiguity
b) spatial contiguity
c) temporal contingency
d) spatial contingency
Answer: B
Page number: 57
Feedback: Spatial contiguity is the extent to which events are situated close to each other in space.

48. In a residence, students are often most likely to date those who live in units that are relatively near to their own.
In other words, _____ seems to be an important factor in the formation of relationships.
a) spatial contiguity
b) temporal contiguity
c) temporal contingency
d) spatial contingency
Answer: A
Page number: 57
Feedback: In the residence, spatial contiguity seems to be an important factor in the formation of relationships.
Spatial contiguity is the extent to which events are situated close to each other in space.

49. At the sound of the starter’s pistol, the sprinters quickly start running. Thus, the sound of the pistol and the start
of running are:
a) temporally conjunctive.
b) spatially contiguous.
c) temporally contiguous.

10 CHAPTER 2
 d) spatially contingent.
Answer: C
Page number: 56
Feedback: The sound of the pistol and the start of running are temporally contiguous. Temporal contiguity is
the extent to which events occur close together in time.

50. A chair and a table are side by side. This means that they are:
a) temporally contingent.
b) temporally contiguous.
c) spatially contingent.
d) spatially contiguous.
Answer: D
Page number: 57
Feedback: The chair and the table are spatially contiguous. Spatial contiguity is the extent to which events are
situated close to each other in space.
WWW

51. The term _____ refers to a predictive relationship between two events.
a) covariance
b) contiguity
c) contingency
d) correlation
Answer: C
Page number: 57
Feedback: A contingency is a predictive (or functional) relationship between two events, such that the
occurrence of one event predicts the probable occurrence of another.

52. Debbie suffers from insomnia whenever she drinks coffee in the evening. In other words, her insomnia is _____
upon coffee drinking.
a) spatially contiguous
b) contingent
c) covariable
d) functionally contiguous
Answer: B
Page number: 57
Feedback: Debbie’s insomnia is contingent upon coffee drinking. A contingency is a predictive (or functional)
relationship between two events, such that the occurrence of one event predicts the probable occurrence of
another.
FN

53. If there exists a causal relationship between event A and outcome B, then:
a) A is contingent on B.
b) B is contingent on A.
c) A is spatially contiguous with B.
d) B is spatially contiguous with A.
Answer: B
Page number: 57
Feedback: If there exists a causal relationship between event A and outcome B, then B is contingent on A. A
contingency is a predictive (or functional) relationship between two events, such that the occurrence of one
event predicts the probable occurrence of another.

Measurement of Behavior
Behavioral Definitions

54. A good behavioral definition should refer to some _____ aspect of the behavior.

RESEARCH METHODS 11
 a) subjective
b) covert
c) abstract
d) observable
Answer: D
Page number: 58
Feedback: Good behavioral definitions should be objective in the sense that they refer to some observable
aspect of an individual’s behavior.

55. A good behavioral definition should be:

a) objective and ambiguous.
b) subjective and abstract.
c) objective and unambiguous.
d) unambiguous and abstract.
Answer: C
Page number: 58
Feedback: Good behavioral definitions should be objective in the sense that they refer to some observable
aspect of an individual’s behavior.

56. Which of the following would constitute the most important aspect of a good behavioral definition of shyness?
a) Avoidance of groups of individuals
b) Feelings of shyness
c) Thoughts of shyness
d) Both b and c are correct.
Answer: A
Page number: 58
Feedback: Avoidance of groups of individuals would constitute the most important aspect of a good behavioral
definition of shyness. Good behavioral definitions should be objective in the sense that they refer to some
observable aspect of an individual’s behavior.

Recording Methods

57. A(n) _____ measure of behavior is the frequency with which a behavior occurs in a set period of time.
a) duration
b) interval
c) latency
d) rate
Answer: D
Page number: 59
Feedback: Rate of response is the frequency with which a response occurs in a certain period of time.

58. A useful device for measuring the _____ of a behavior is a cumulative recorder.
a) topography
b) rate
c) latency
d) intensity
Answer: B
Page number: 59–60
Feedback: Rate of response is the frequency with which a response occurs in a certain period of time. A
cumulative recorder is a classic device that measures the total number of responses over time and provides a
graphic depiction of the rate of behavior.

59. Rate of response is a favorite measure of behavior for some researchers because it is:
a) a very salient measure of behavior.
b) a very sensitive measure of behavior.

12 CHAPTER 2
 c) a very robust measure of behavior.
d) a very subjective measure of behavior.
Answer: B
Page number: 59
Feedback: Rate is a particularly favored measure among some behaviorists, because it tends to be highly
sensitive to the influence of other variables.

60. If I wish to measure the effect of slight changes in caffeine level on a rat’s behavior, I would need a sensitive
measure of behavior. I should consider using a(n) _____ measure of response.
a) interval
b) latency
c) rate
d) topography
Answer: C
Page number: 59
Feedback: Rate is a particularly favored measure among some behaviorists, because it tends to be highly
sensitive to the influence of other variables.

61. If I wish to test the effects of minor sleep deprivation on a rat’s behavior, it would probably be wise to use a
_____ measure of behavior, because it is very sensitive.
a) duration
b) rate
c) speed
d) topographical
Answer: B
Page number: 59
Feedback: Rate is a particularly favored measure among some behaviorists, because it tends to be highly
sensitive to the influence of other variables.
WWW

62. On a cumulative record, a _____ indicates a _____ of response.

a) flat line; high rate
b) steep line; low rate
c) shallow line; high rate
d) None of these are correct.
Answer: D
Page number: 60
Feedback: On a cumulative record, a low rate of response produces a line that slopes upward at a shallow angle
(because the pen is slowly moving upward while the paper passes beneath it), whereas a high rate of response
produces a line that slopes upward at a steep angle.

63. On a cumulative record, a _____ indicates a _____ of response.

a) flat line; lack of
b) steep line; low rate
c) shallow line: high rate
d) All of these are correct.
Answer: A
Page number: 60
Feedback: On a cumulative record, if there are no responses for a period of time, the pen remains stationary
while the paper unrolls beneath it. This results in a flat, horizontal line along the paper, with longer lines
indicating longer periods of no responding.
QZ

64. On a cumulative record, a _____ indicates a _____ of response.

a) flat line; high rate

RESEARCH METHODS 13
 b) steep line; high rate
c) shallow line; low rate
d) Both b and c are correct.
Answer: D
Page number: 60
Feedback: On a cumulative record, a low rate of response produces a line that slopes upward at a shallow angle
(because the pen is slowly moving upward while the paper passes beneath it), whereas a high rate of response
produces a line that slopes upward at a steep angle.
MD

65. On a cumulative record, a _____ indicates a _____ of response.

a) flat line; high rate
b) steep line; lack of
c) shallow line; low rate
d) Both b and c are correct.
Answer: C
Page number: 60
Feedback: On a cumulative record, a low rate of response produces a line that slopes upward at a shallow angle
(because the pen is slowly moving upward while the paper passes beneath it), whereas a high rate of response
produces a line that slopes upward at a steep angle.
FN

66. On a cumulative record, a _____ line indicates a period of _____ response.

a) vertical; no
b) shallow; rapid
c) steep; slow
d) horizontal; no
Answer: D
Page number: 60
Feedback: On a cumulative record, if there are no responses for a period of time, the pen remains stationary
while the paper unrolls beneath it. This results in a flat, horizontal line along the paper, with longer lines
indicating longer periods of no responding.
WWW

67. The _____ of a behavior is its force or magnitude.

a) topography
b) latency
c) intensity
d) rate
Answer: C
Page number: 60
Feedback: The intensity of a behavior is the force or magnitude of the behavior.

68. The loudness of my voice when I am in a stressful situation would be a(n) _____ measure of my stress level.
a) topography
b) latency
c) duration
d) intensity
Answer: D
Page number: 60
Feedback: The loudness of my voice when I am in a stressful situation would be an intensity measure of my
stress level. The intensity of a behavior is the force or magnitude of the behavior.

69. The number of hours that I clean house each week is a _____ measure of behavior, while the length of time that
I procrastinate before starting to clean house on a particular evening is a _____ measure of behavior.

14 CHAPTER 2
 a) latency; speed
b) duration; latency
c) speed; latency
d) duration; speed
Answer: B
Page number: 61–62
Feedback: The number of hours that I clean house each week is a duration measure of behavior, while the
length of time that I procrastinate before starting to clean house on a particular evening is a latency measure of
behavior. Duration is the length of time that an individual repeatedly or continuously performs a behavior. The
latency of a behavior is the length of time required for a behavior to begin.

70. The amount of time that I spend driving my car each week is an example of a _____ measure of behavior.
a) speed
b) duration
c) latency
d) rate
Answer: B
Page number: 61
Feedback: The amount of time that I spend driving my car each week is an example of a duration measure of
behavior. Duration is the length of time that an individual repeatedly or continuously performs a behavior.
WWW

71. Jonah’s piano teacher is trying to get him to shorten the time it takes for him to learn to play a Beethoven
sonata. The appropriate behavioral measure is therefore:
a) duration.
b) latency.
c) topography.
d) speed.
Answer: D
Page number: 61
Feedback: The appropriate behavioral measure in Jonah’s case is speed. Speed is the length of time it takes for
an episode of behavior to occur from start to finish.

72. In assessing a person’s sleep patterns, you include a measure of how long it takes before the person falls asleep
after he or she goes to bed. This would be regarded as a(n) _____ measure of his or her sleep behavior.
a) speed
b) intensity
c) topography
d) latency
Answer: D
Page number: 62
Feedback: The length of time it takes before a person falls asleep after he or she goes to bed would be regarded
as a latency measure of his or her sleep behavior. The latency of a behavior is the length of time required for a
behavior to begin.
FN

73. The length of time it takes me to finish cleaning my apartment, from start to finish, is a _____ measure of
behavior.
a) duration
b) latency
c) speed
d) interval
Answer: C
Page number: 61
Feedback: Speed is the length of time it takes for an episode of behavior to occur from start to finish.

RESEARCH METHODS 15
74. The amount of time it takes before I get out of bed in the morning is an example of _____; the amount of time it
takes me to finish shaving is an example of _____.
a) latency; speed
b) duration; latency
c) speed; duration
d) latency; duration
Answer: A
Page number: 61–62
Feedback: The amount of time it takes before I get out of bed in the morning is an example of latency; the
amount of time it takes me to finish shaving is an example of speed. The latency of a behavior is the length of
time required for a behavior to begin. Speed is the length of time it takes for an episode of behavior to occur
from start to finish.
QZ

75. As I watch television for four hours one evening, I make a record of whether there occurred at least one
example of sexual humor during each half-hour segment. This is an example of a(n) _____ method of
recording.
a) time-sample
b) duration
c) interval
d) rate
Answer: C
Page number: 62
Feedback: The scenario is an example of an interval method of recording. Interval recording is the measurement
of whether or not a behavior occurs during each interval within a series of continuous intervals.

76. Laura is concerned that her little daughter is watching too much television, and would, therefore, like to
measure the occurrence of this behavior. Given that Laura has a lot of other things to do each evening, her best
bet would be to use:
a) a rate measure.
b) interval recording.
c) time-sample recording.
d) a topographical procedure.
Answer: C
Page number: 63
Feedback: Since Laura has a lot of other things to do each evening, her best bet would be to use time-sample
recording. In time-sample recording, one measures whether or not a behavior occurs during each interval within
a series of discontinuous intervals.
WWW

77. As I watch television for a four-hour stretch one evening, I record the number of aggressive incidents that occur
during each one-hour period. I am taking a(n) _____ measure of the behavior.
a) time-sample
b) interval
c) rate
d) duration
Answer: B
Page number: 62
Feedback: Interval recording is the measurement of whether or not a behavior occurs during each interval
within a series of continuous intervals.

78. At the end of every 30-minute period, Sarah records whether her baby had cried at least once during that 30
minute period. She is using the method of _____ to assess the baby’s tendency to cry.

16 CHAPTER 2
 a) duration recording
b) interval recording
c) time-sample recording
d) latency recording
Answer: B
Page number: 62
Feedback: Sarah is using the method of interval recording to assess the baby’s tendency to cry. Interval
recording is the measurement of whether or not a behavior occurs during each interval within a series of
continuous intervals.

79. In an interval recording procedure, instances of noncompliant behavior are recorded within 4 of the 12 intervals;
no instances of noncompliant behavior are recorded within 8 of the 12 intervals. As a result, the level of
noncompliant behavior calculated is:
a) 33.3%.
b) 50%.
c) 66.7%.
d) This cannot be calculated without knowing the number of noncompliant behaviors within each interval.
Answer: A
Page number: 62
Feedback: The level of noncompliant behavior calculated is 33.3%. The percentage of intervals during which at
least one incident occurred is our overall measure of the behavior.
MD

80. The number of incidents of swearing occurring in each of ten 5-minute intervals is 2, 4, 0, 1, 1, 3, 2, 2, 5, 0.
Using an interval recording procedure, the overall level of swearing calculated is:
a) 2%.
b) 20%.
c) 8%.
d) 80%.
Answer: D
Page number: 62
Feedback: The overall level of swearing calculated is 80%. The percentage of intervals during which at least
one incident occurred is our overall measure of the behavior.

81. In a series of twenty intervals, John bites his nails the following number of times: 2, 0, 1, 2, 0, 1, 1, 1, 0, 1, 0, 2,
1, 1, 1, 2, 2, 1, 1, 0. Using an interval recording procedure, the overall level of nail-biting calculated is:
a) 1%.
b) 20%.
c) 100%.
d) 75%.
Answer: D
Page number: 62
Feedback: The overall level of nail-biting calculated is 75%. The percentage of intervals during which at least
one incident occurred is our overall measure of the behavior.
FN

82. I watch television for several one-hour periods randomly dispersed throughout the month. Each time I watch it,
I also make a note of whether at least one murder was depicted during that period of time. This is best described
as a(n) _____ method of determining the overall depiction of homicide on television.
a) time-sample
b) duration
c) interval
d) rate
Answer: A
Page number: 63

RESEARCH METHODS 17
 Feedback: The scenario illustrates a time-sample method of determining the overall depiction of homicide on
television. In time-sample recording, one measures whether or not a behavior occurs during each interval within
a series of discontinuous intervals.

83. The judges at a high diving competition are mostly concerned with the _____ of the behavior.
a) intensity
b) rate
c) duration
d) topography
Answer: D
Page number: 63
Feedback: The judges at a high diving competition are mostly concerned with the topography of the behavior.
The topography of a behavior is the physical form of the behavior.

84. Learning how to write neatly is an example of a change in:

a) rate.
b) speed.
c) latency.
d) topography.
Answer: D
Page number: 63
Feedback: Learning how to write neatly is an example of a change in topography. The topography of a
behavior is the physical form of the behavior.

85. The topography of a behavior is the:

a) physical intensity of the behavior.
b) physical form of the behavior.
c) amount of time it takes to complete a behavioral episode.
d) amount of time it takes to begin a behavioral episode.
Answer: B
Page number: 63
Feedback: The topography of a behavior is the physical form of the behavior.

86. In a dance competition, the judges are mostly concerned with the _____ of the behavior.
a) topography
b) latency
c) duration
d) intensity
Answer: A
Page number: 63
Feedback: In a dance competition, the judges are mostly concerned with the topography of the behavior. The
topography of a behavior is the physical form of the behavior.

87. If a dog trainer determines whether a dog is correctly performing a complicated trick by examining the physical
form of the behavior, she is measuring the behavior’s _____, but if she records the number of times the dog
makes a mistake, then she is measuring _____.
a) topography; intensity
b) intensity; rate
c) topography; error rate
d) interval; error rate
Answer: C
Page number: 63
Feedback: The topography of a behavior is the physical form of the behavior. Any behavior in which responses
can be categorized as right or wrong can be assessed in terms of the number of errors.

18 CHAPTER 2
88. A restaurant manager keeps track of the number of incorrect orders sent back to the kitchen. In this scenario, the
manager records the:
a) fault ratio.
b) error rate.
c) interval recording.
d) topography.
Answer: B
Page number: 63
Feedback: In the given scenario, the manager records the error rate. Any behavior in which responses can be
categorized as right or wrong can be assessed in terms of the number of errors.

Assessing Reliability

89. Which of the following is an acceptable rate of interobserver reliability?

a) 10%
b) 25%
c) 50%
d) 80%
Answer: D
Page number: 64
Feedback: 80% is often regarded as the minimum acceptable level of interobserver reliability and 90% as the
preferred level.

90. Two researchers have watched the same video in order to determine if incidents of aggression occurred during
various intervals of time during a single day in a daycare. One researcher saw incidents of aggression in 8 out of
10 intervals, and the second researcher saw incidents of aggression in 7 out of 10 intervals. They disagreed on 1
out of the 10 intervals. What is being measured in this example?
a) Fault ratio
b) Error rate
c) Interobserver reliability
d) Topography
Answer: C
Page number: 63–64
Feedback: Interobserver reliability is being measured in this example. This is an important issue when the data
is being gathered by observers who might vary widely in their judgments as to whether or not a particular
behavior has occurred.

Research Designs
Descriptive Research

91. The _____ methods of research do not involve the manipulation of variables.
a) single-subject
b) experimental
c) control group
d) descriptive
Answer: D
Page number: 65
Feedback: Descriptive research involves gathering information about a behavior and the circumstances within
which it occurs. It does not involve the manipulation of any variables.

92. Bird-watching is most similar to what type of research?

a) Case study
b) Naturalistic observation
c) Descriptive research
d) Both b and c are correct.

RESEARCH METHODS 19
 Answer: D
Page number: 65
Feedback: Bird watching is similar to both naturalistic observation and descriptive research. Descriptive
research involves gathering information about a behavior and the circumstances within which it occurs.
Naturalistic observation is one in which one systematically observes and records the occurrence of a behavior in
its natural environment.

93. Innate patterns of behavior in animals are often studied using the:
a) naturalistic observation approach.
b) case study approach.
c) control group design.
d) single-subject design.
Answer: A
Page number: 66
Feedback: Naturalistic observation is one in which one systematically observes and records the occurrence of a
behavior in its natural environment. It is a commonly used approach in ethology (or behavioral ecology), a
branch of zoology that focuses on the study of inherited behavior patterns in animals.

94. Descriptive research methods include:

a) single-subject designs and case studies.
b) the case study approach and the survey approach.
c) naturalistic observation and single-subject designs.
d) control group designs and single-subject designs.
Answer: B
Page number: 65
Feedback: Descriptive methods include the survey approach, in which individuals answer a series of questions,
and the case study approach, which involves the intensive study of a single individual.

95. A rare type of psychiatric disorder is most likely to be studied using the:
a) naturalistic observation approach.
b) case study approach.
c) control group design.
d) comparative design.
Answer: B
Page number: 65
Feedback: A rare type of psychiatric disorder is most likely to be studied using the case study approach. The
case study approach involves the intensive study of a single individual.

96. The intensive examination of a person’s life both prior to and after they have experienced an unpredictable
traumatic event is an example of the:
a) naturalistic approach.
b) case study approach.
c) simple comparison design.
d) reversal design.
Answer: B
Page number: 65
Feedback: The intensive examination of a person’s life both prior to and after they have experienced an
unpredictable traumatic event is an example of the case study approach. The case study approach involves the
intensive study of a single individual.

97. Problems with the descriptive research approach include:

a) the possibility of oversimplifying the behavior pattern.
b) the inability to determine cause-and-effect relationships.
c) the need for sophisticated statistical analysis of the results.
d) Both b and c are correct.

20 CHAPTER 2
 Answer: B
Page number: 66
Feedback: The main problem with descriptive research is that it often leaves us uncertain as to which variables
affect the occurrence of a behavior; in other words, it is difficult to determine cause-and-effect (or functional)
relationships.

Experimental Research

98. The main advantage of experimental research over descriptive research is the ability to:
a) discover salient variables.
b) apply statistical procedures to the results.
c) discover cause-and-effect relationships.
d) study the influence of dependent variables.
Answer: C
Page number: 67
Feedback: In their quest to discover functional relationships between environmental events and behavior,
behavioral researchers have a strong preference for the experimental approach to research. In experimental
research, one or more independent variables are systematically varied to determine their effect on a dependent
variable. Any differences in behavior across the different conditions of the experiment are presumed to be
caused by the differences in the independent variable.

99. The _____ research approach is distinguished by the _____ of variables.

a) experimental; manipulation
b) experimental; systematic observation
c) descriptive; elimination
d) descriptive; manipulation
Answer: A
Page number: 67
Feedback: In experimental research, one or more independent variables are systematically varied to determine
their effect on a dependent variable.

100. If we wish to discover functional relationships, we are likely to use the _____ research approach.
a) descriptive
b) experimental
c) naturalistic
d) deterministic
Answer: B
Page number: 67
Feedback: In order to discover functional relationships between environmental events and behavior, behavioral
researchers have a strong preference for the experimental approach to research.

Group Designs

101. A common control procedure in a group design is:

a) random assignment of subjects to groups.
b) alternating assignment of subjects to groups.
c) recording a 1-week baseline period.
d) recording a 2-week baseline period.
Answer: A
Page number: 67
Feedback: In a simple control group design, individuals are randomly assigned to either an experimental (or
treatment) group or a control group.

102. In a simple group experiment on the effects of food deprivation on activity level, the control group would:

RESEARCH METHODS 21
 a) show increased activity level.
b) show decreased activity level.
c) be subjected to food deprivation.
d) eat normally.
Answer: D
Page number: 67
Feedback: In a simple control group design, individuals are randomly assigned to either an experimental (or
treatment) group or a control group; the experimental group is then exposed to a certain manipulation or
treatment, while the control group is not.

103. In a simple group experiment on the effects of punishment on response suppression in rats, the experimental
group would:
a) show decreased responding.
b) show increased responding.
c) be subjected to punishment.
d) not be subjected to punishment.
Answer: C
Page number: 67
Feedback: In a simple control group design, individuals are randomly assigned to either an experimental (or
treatment) group or a control group; the experimental group is then exposed to a certain manipulation or
treatment, while the control group is not.
QZ

104. In a 2 x 3 factorial group design, there are:

a) 3 treatment groups and 4 control groups.
b) 3 dependent variables and 4 independent variables.
c) two independent variables.
d) two dependent variables.
Answer: C
Page number: 68
Feedback: In a 2 x 3 factorial design, there are two independent variables, the first of which has two levels and
the second of which has three levels.

105. In a 2 x 2 factorial group design, there are:

a) 2 treatment groups.
b) 2 independent variables and 2 dependent variables.
c) 2 independent variables.
d) 2 dependent variables.
Answer: C
Page number: 69
Feedback: In a 2x2 factorial control group design, there are two independent variables, each of which has two
levels.

106. A new teaching method is being tested on students. Three age groups of students will receive either the new
method, or a standard (control) method. If the new method is only effective on the youngest age group of
students, you would say that there is _____between the effects of the teaching method and the effects of age.
a) no relationship
b) an interaction
c) a partial effect
d) a control effect
Answer: B
Page number: 68
Feedback: Since the new teaching method is found effective only on the youngest age group of students, it
would imply an interaction between the effects of the teaching method and the effects of age.

22 CHAPTER 2
107. A(n) _____is a type of group design in which the species of animals within the study constitutes one of the
independent variables.
a) evolutionary design
b) comparative design
c) no-treatment design
d) 2 x 2 design
Answer: B
Page number: 68
Feedback: A comparative design is a type of group design in which different species constitute one of the
independent variables.

108. In which of the following studies would you expect to find a control group?
a) Case study
b) Survey
c) A factorial design
d) Naturalistic observation
Answer: C
Page number: 67–68
Feedback: One would expect to find a control group in a factorial design. In a factorial design, one examines
the effects of two or more independent variables (or factors) across groups of subjects.

109. In which of the following designs would you NOT expect to have random assignment to groups?
a) A simple-comparison design
b) A factorial design
c) A comparative design
d) None of these are correct.
Answer: C
Page number: 68
Feedback: A comparative design is a type of group design in which different species constitute one of the
independent variables.

110. Limitations of group designs include:

a) the need for a large number of subjects.
b) an overly strong focus on individual results.
c) an inability to measure interaction effects.
d) All of these are correct.
Answer: A
Page number: 69
Feedback: Group designs usually require a large number of subjects. For statistical reasons, the larger the
number of subjects in a group, the more trustworthy the results.

111. Limitations of group designs include:

a) little attention given to the behavior of individual subjects.
b) the need for a large number of subjects.
c) the fact that results are often interpreted only at the end of a study.
d) All of these are correct.
Answer: D
Page number: 69–70
Feedback: Group designs usually require a large number of subjects; they typically focus on the average
performance of all subjects in each group; the results are often analyzed and interpreted only at the end of an
experiment, rather than during the experiment.

112. Control group designs are useful for studying:

a) the behavior of one individual.
b) the average effect of a variable on a large number of individuals.

RESEARCH METHODS 23
 c) changing patterns of behavior throughout an experiment.
d) Both a and c are correct.
Answer: B
Page number: 69
Feedback: Group designs are excellent for assessing the average effects of certain variables. Cause-and-effect
conclusions are possible due to the strict control over the environment that allows an experimenter to rule out
alternative explanations.

113. Which of the following designs requires the largest number of subjects?
a) A simple-comparison design
b) A control group design
c) A reversal design
d) A multiple baseline design
Answer: B
Page number: 69
Feedback: A control group design requires the largest number of subjects. Group designs usually require a
large number of subjects. For statistical reasons, the larger the number of subjects in a group, the more
trustworthy the results.
WWW

Single-Subject Designs

114. Single-subject designs are research designs that require:

a) random assignment of subjects to groups.
b) sophisticated statistical analysis.
c) only one or a few subjects.
d) Both b and c are correct.
Answer: C
Page number: 70
Feedback: Single-subject designs require only one or a few subjects to conduct an entire experiment.

Simple-Comparison Design

115. In a simple-comparison design, one compares the level of behavior in a(n) _____ with the level of behavior in
a _____.
a) experimental group; control group
b) control group; baseline group
c) baseline group; treatment group
d) baseline condition; treatment condition
Answer: D
Page number: 70
Feedback: In a simple-comparison design, behavior in a baseline condition is compared to behavior in a
treatment condition.

116. Which of the following is a disadvantage of the single-comparison design?

a) It requires constant monitoring of a subject’s behavior throughout the experiment.
b) It requires a large numbers of subjects to conduct an entire experiment.
c) It requires sophisticated statistical analysis.
d) It does not clearly demonstrate a functional relationship between the independent variable and the
dependent variable.
Answer: D
Page number: 72

24 CHAPTER 2
 Feedback: The major problem with the simple-comparison design is that it does not control for the possibility
that some other event occurred at the same time that a treatment was implemented, and it was this other event
that caused the change in the behavior. The simple-comparison design does not allow us to assess this
possibility and thus constitutes a poor experimental design. In other words, it does not clearly demonstrate a
functional relationship between the independent variable and the dependent variable.

117. We measure a child’s homework completion during a week, in which he is consistently rewarded for doing his
homework; versus the following week when he is completely ignored while doing his homework. This is an
example of a _____ design.
a) reversal
b) simple-comparison
c) multiple-baseline-across-time
d) changing-criterion
Answer: B
Page number: 70
Feedback: In a simple-comparison design, behavior in a baseline condition is compared to behavior in a
treatment condition. The condition where the child is consistently rewarded for homework completion is the
baseline condition, and the condition where he is ignored while doing his homework is the treatment condition.

118. The baseline of a behavior is the:

a) normal frequency of that behavior following an intervention.
b) enhanced frequency of that behavior following an intervention.
c) normal frequency of that behavior prior to an intervention.
d) suppressed frequency of that behavior prior to an intervention.
Answer: C
Page number: 71
Feedback: The baseline of a behavior is the normal frequency of the behavior that occurs before some type of
intervention.

119. Murielle has been feeling a lot better these past few weeks after she started avoiding caffeine. The procedure
that Murielle has used to test the effects of caffeine is most similar to the _____ design, which is _____ for
drawing firm conclusions about the effects of caffeine.
a) simple-comparison; inadequate
b) reversal; inadequate
c) multiple-baseline; excellent
d) simple-comparison; excellent
Answer: A
Page number: 70
Feedback: Murielle uses the simple-comparison design, which is inadequate for drawing firm conclusions
about the effects of caffeine. In a simple-comparison design, behavior in a baseline condition is compared to
behavior in a treatment condition.
MD

120. The problem with a simple-comparison design is that:

a) it does not fully control for the influence of other variables.
b) it is insufficient for demonstrating a clear functional relationship.
c) the independent variable cannot be manipulated.
d) Both a and b are correct.
Answer: D
Page number: 72
Feedback: The major problem with the simple-comparison design is that it does not control for the possibility
that some other event occurred at the same time that the treatment was implemented, and it was this other event
that caused the change in the behavior. In other words, it does not clearly demonstrate a functional relationship
between the independent variable and the dependent variable.

RESEARCH METHODS 25
Reversal Design

121. A(n) _____ design involves repeated alternations between a baseline condition and a treatment condition.
a) multiple-baseline
b) ABAB
c) changing-criterion
d) Both b and c are correct.
Answer: B
Page number: 73
Feedback: A reversal design, or ABAB design, consists of repeated alternations between a baseline phase and a
treatment phase.

122. A reversal design is sometimes also called an:

a) AB design
b) ABA design
c) ABAB design
d) Both b and c are correct.
Answer: D
Page number: 73
Feedback: A reversal design, sometimes also called an ABA or ABAB design, consists of repeated
alternations between a baseline phase and a treatment phase.

123. If I want to convince someone that his habit of watching exciting television shows each evening is causing his
insomnia, it would be best to use which type of experimental design?
a) A changing-criterion design
b) A reversal design
c) A Multiple-baseline across-persons design
d) A simple-comparison design
Answer: B
Page number: 73
Feedback: A reversal design consists of repeated alternations between a baseline phase and a treatment phase.
If the behavior systematically changes each time the treatment is instituted and later withdrawn, then a
functional relationship has been demonstrated between the treatment and the behavior.
QZ

124. For a reversal design to clearly demonstrate the effectiveness of a certain treatment, the behavior must:
a) return to its original baseline level during the second baseline phase.
b) remain at the treatment level during the second baseline phase.
c) remain at the baseline level during the treatment phase.
d) Both b and c are correct.
Answer: A
Page number: 73
Feedback: If the behavior systematically changes each time the treatment is instituted and later withdrawn,
then a functional relationship has been demonstrated between the treatment and the behavior.
FN

125. In a reversal design, the level of behavior in the first A phase needs to be _____ the level of behavior in the
second A phase in order to prove that the treatment is effective.
a) greater than
b) less than
c) the same as
d) supplementary to
Answer: C

26 CHAPTER 2
 Page number: 73
Feedback: In a reversal design, the level of behavior in the first A phase needs to be the same as the level of
behavior in the second A phase in order to prove that the treatment is effective. A reversal design consists of
repeated alternations between a baseline phase and a treatment phase.

126. A reversal design that is conducted across four different subjects:

a) constitutes four separate experiments.
b) constitutes only one experiment.
c) constitutes two separate experiments.
d) is inadequate in the absence of a control group.
Answer: A
Page number: 74
Feedback: Since each subject in the study constitutes an entire experiment, each additional subject constitutes a
replication of that experiment.
MD

127. Dr. Alvarez is treating Marcus for a behavioral problem. First, she records a baseline level of the behavior for
several days. The rate of the behavior is quite high. Next, she implements a behavior modification program
based on punishment. When that approach has little success in reducing the behavior, she tries a second
program based on reinforcement. The second treatment appears to work and the behavior is dramatically
reduced. She then goes back to baseline and the behavior reverts back to pre-treatment levels. When Dr.
Alvarez once again implements the second treatment method, the behavior goes away. This is an example of:
a) an ABBAB design.
b) an ABCAC design.
c) an unsuccessful simple comparison design.
d) a multiple-baseline design.
Answer: B
Page number: 74
Feedback: It is also possible to use a reversal design to assess the effectiveness of more than one treatment.
This would then be called an ABCAC design.

128. A reversal design may be inappropriate when:

a) the behavior is expected to change quickly.
b) the change in behavior may be irreversible.
c) Both a and b are correct.
d) Neither a nor b is correct.
Answer: B
Page number: 74
Feedback: A reversal design may be inappropriate if the behavior does not revert to its original baseline level
when the treatment is withdrawn.

129. In treating a child for a tendency to attack other children, the most ethically problematic design to test the
effectiveness of treatment would be a(n) _____ design.
a) multiple-baseline across behaviors
b) multiple-baseline across settings
c) simple-comparison
d) ABAB
Answer: D
Page number: 76
Feedback: A disadvantage with a reversal design (ABAB design) is that it may be ethically inappropriate to
remove a treatment once some improvement has been obtained. An ABAB design consists of repeated
alternations between a baseline phase and a treatment phase, and would therefore be ethically problematic in
this scenario.

RESEARCH METHODS 27
130. Which would be the most ethically problematic design for assessing a treatment procedure that seems to
suppress Bob’s tendency to attack other patients on the ward?
a) An ABAB design
b) A simple-comparison design
c) A multiple-baseline-across-persons design
d) A multiple-baseline-across-behaviors design
Answer: A
Page number: 76
Feedback: A disadvantage with a reversal design (ABAB design) is that it may be ethically inappropriate to
remove a treatment once some improvement has been obtained. An ABAB design consists of repeated
alternations between a baseline phase and a treatment phase, and would therefore be ethically problematic in
this scenario.
WWW

Multiple-Baseline Designs

131. In a multiple-baseline design, the treatment is implemented at different points in times across different:
a) behaviors.
b) situations.
c) persons.
d) All of these are correct.
Answer: D
Page number: 76
Feedback: In a multiple-baseline design, a treatment is instituted at successive points in time for two or more
persons, settings, or behaviors.

132. Ivan creates a treatment program to alter his family’s tendency to swear at him. He first applies the program to
his sister, then to his mother, and finally to his father. What type of research design is he employing to measure
his family’s improvement?
a) A multiple-baseline-across-behaviors design
b) A multiple-baseline-across-persons design
c) A reversal design across settings
d) A reversal design across behaviors
Answer: B
Page number: 76–77
Feedback: Ivan employs a multiple-baseline-across-persons design across the three individuals. The treatment
is implemented at different points in time. If the improvement in behavior coincides with the implementation
of the treatment for each individual, then a functional relationship between the treatment and the improvement
in behavior has been demonstrated.

133. If you were testing a behavioral treatment for eliminating a severe addiction in a small group of patients, the
most appropriate and ethical design would be a(n) _____ design.
a) multiple-baseline-across-persons
b) control group
c) ABAB
d) ABA
Answer: A
Page number: 77
Feedback: In a multiple-baseline-across-persons design, a treatment is implemented at different points in time.
If the improvement in behavior coincides with the implementation of the treatment for each individual, then a
functional relationship between the treatment and the improvement in behavior has been demonstrated.

134. Jonathan decides to reduce his tendency to crack his knuckles, first at home and then at school. What type of
research design is he employing to measure his improvement?
a) A multiple-baseline-across-behaviors design

28 CHAPTER 2
 b) A multiple-baseline-across-settings design
c) A reversal design across settings
d) A reversal design across behaviors
Answer: B
Page number: 77
Feedback: Jonathan is using a multiple-baseline-across-settings design, since he first tries to reduce his
tendency to crack his knuckles at home and then at school.

135. Bruce decides to first reduce his tendency to smack his lips, then his tendency to spit on the road, and then
finally his tendency to swear. What type of research design is he employing to measure his improvement?
a) A multiple-baseline-across-behaviors design
b) A multiple-baseline-across-settings design
c) A simple-comparison design
d) A changing-criterion design
Answer: A
Page number: 77
Feedback: Bruce uses a multiple-baseline-across-behaviors design. The treatment is implemented at different
times for each behavior. If each behavior shows improvement only when the treatment is implemented, it
shows a functional relationship between the treatment and behavior.

Changing-Criterion Design

136. In a changing-criterion design, one looks to see whether the behavior:

a) matches a particular standard that is being systematically altered.
b) fluctuates between alternating baseline and treatment conditions.
c) changes as the treatment is applied to some other behavior.
d) is in some manner irreversible.
Answer: A
Page number: 79
Feedback: A changing-criterion design is one in which the effect of the treatment is demonstrated by how
closely the behavior matches a criterion that is being systematically altered.

137. What single-subject design can establish the existence of a cause-and-effect relationship and does not require a
reversal to baseline?
a) A simple comparison design
b) A multiple-baseline-across-persons design
c) A changing-criterion design
d) Both b and c are correct.
Answer: D
Page number: 77–79
Feedback: The multiple-baseline-across-persons design and the changing criterion design can help establish the
existence of a cause-and-effect relationship, and do not require a reversal to baseline.
MD

138. If the intent of your program is to gradually increase the amount of weight you lift each day, the most
appropriate design for measuring your improvement would probably be a _____ design.
a) multiple-baseline
b) simple comparison
c) changing-criterion
d) reversal
Answer: C
Page number: 79
Feedback: A changing-criterion design is one in which the effect of the treatment is demonstrated by how
closely the behavior matches a criterion that is being systematically altered.

RESEARCH METHODS 29
139. The most appropriate design for slowly increasing the amount of running that you do each day would be a:
a) changing-criterion design.
b) simple-comparison design.
c) multiple-baseline design.
d) reversal design.
Answer: A
Page number: 79
Feedback: A changing-criterion design is one in which the effect of the treatment is demonstrated by how
closely the behavior matches a criterion that is being systematically altered.

140. A _____ design is most appropriate for situations in which a behavior is expected to change gradually.
a) multiple-baseline-across-persons
b) reversal
c) simple-comparison
d) changing-criterion
Answer: D
Page number: 79
Feedback: A changing-criterion design is one in which the effect of the treatment is demonstrated by how
closely the behavior matches a criterion that is being systematically altered.
QZ

141. Youcef sets up an exercise program in which he will try to gradually increase the number of push-ups he does
each day. The most appropriate design for assessing the effectiveness of his program would be a:
a) multiple-baseline design.
b) changing-criterion design.
c) reversal design.
d) simple-comparison design.
Answer: B
Page number: 79
Feedback: The most appropriate design for assessing the effectiveness of Youcef’s program would be a
changing-criterion design. A changing-criterion design is one in which the effect of the treatment is
demonstrated by how closely the behavior matches a criterion that is being systematically altered.
WWW

Use of Animals in Behavioral Research

142. Advantages of using animals in behavioral research include the ability to:
a) control genetic differences.
b) control learning history.
c) control the experimental environment.
d) All of these are correct.
Answer: D
Page number: 82
Feedback: Advantages of using animals in research are the ability to control their genetic makeup and their
learning history, and the possibility of more strictly controlling the experimental environment for animals than
for humans.

143. Which of the following is a reason for researchers choosing to conduct behavioral research on animals?
a) To control the experimental environment
b) To control learning history
c) To control genetic differences
d) All of these are correct.
Answer: D
Page number: 82

30 CHAPTER 2
 Another Random Document on
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which they easily outdid Archimedes, who employed the awkward
Greek system.

#Among the Chinese.#

With regard to the Chinese, this people operated in ancient times

with the Babylonian value for π, or 3; but possessed knowledge of
the approximate value of Archimedes at least since the end of the
sixth century. Besides this, there appears in a number of Chinese
mathematical treatises an approximate value peculiarly their own, in
which π = 3-7/50; a value, however, which notwithstanding it is
written in larger figures, is no better than that of Archimedes.
Attempts at the constructive quadrature of the circle are not found
among the Chinese.

#Among the Arabs.#

Greater were the merits of the Arabians in the advancement and

development of mathematics; and especially in virtue of the fact that
they preserved from oblivion both Greek and Hindu mathematics,
and handed them down to the Christian countries of the West. The
Arabians expressly distinguished between the Archimedean
approximate value and the two Hindu values the square root of 10
and the ratio 62832 : 20000. This distinction occurs also in
Muhammed Ibn Musa Alchwarizmî, the same scholar who in the
beginning of the ninth century brought the principles of our present
system of numerical notation from India and introduced the same
into the Mohammedan world. The Arabians, however, did not study
the numerical quadrature of the circle only, but also the constructive;
as, for instance, Ibn Alhaitam, who lived in Egypt about the year
1000 and whose treatise upon the squaring of the circle is preserved
in a Vatican codex, which has unfortunately not yet been edited.
 #In Christian times.#

Christian civilisation, to which we are now about to pass, produced

up to the second half of the fifteenth century extremely insignificant
results in mathematics. Even with regard to our present problem we
have but a single important work to mention; the work, namely, of
Frankos Von Lüttich, upon the squaring of the circle, published in six
books, but only preserved in fragments. The author, who lived in the
first half of the eleventh century, was probably a pupil of Pope
Sylvester II, himself a not inconsiderable mathematician for his time,
and who also wrote the most celebrated book on geometry of the
period.

#Cardinal Nicolaus De Cusa.#

Greater interest came to be bestowed upon mathematics in

general, but especially on the problem of the quadrature of the
circle, in the second half of the fifteenth century, when the sciences
again began to revive. This interest was especially aroused by
Cardinal Nicolaus De Cusa, a man highly esteemed on account of his
astronomical and calendarial studies. He claimed to have discovered
the quadrature of the circle by the employment solely of compasses
and ruler, and thus attracted the attention of scholars to the now
historic problem. People believed the famous Cardinal, and marvelled
at his wisdom, until Regiomontanus, in letters which he wrote in
1464 and 1465 and which were published in 1533, rigidly
demonstrated that the Cardinal's quadrature was incorrect. The
construction of Cusa was as follows. The radius of a circle is
prolonged a distance equal to the side of the inscribed square; the
line thus obtained is taken as the diameter of a second circle and in
the latter an equilateral triangle is described; then the perimeter of
the latter is equal to the circumference of the original circle. If this
construction, which its inventor regarded as exact, be considered as
a construction of approximation, it will be found to be more inexact
even than the construction resulting from the value π = 3-1/7. For
by Cusa's method π would be from five to six thousandths smaller
than it really is.

#Bovillius and Orontius Finaeus.#

In the beginning of the sixteenth century a certain Bovillius

appears, who announced anew the construction of Cusa; meeting
however with no notice. But about the middle of the sixteenth
century a book was published which the scholars of the time at first
received with interest. It bore the proud title "De Rebus
Mathematicis Hactenus Desideratis." Its author, Orontius Finaeus,
represented that he had overcome all the difficulties that had ever
stood in the way of geometrical investigators; and incidentally he
also communicated to the world the "true quadrature" of the circle.
His fame was short-lived. For soon afterwards, in a book entitled "De
Erratis Orontii," the Portuguese Petrus Nonius demonstrated that
Orontius's quadrature, like most of his other professed discoveries,
was incorrect.

#Simon Van Eyck.#

In the period following this the number of circle-squarers so

increased that we shall have to limit ourselves to those whom
mathematicians recognise. And particularly is Simon Van Eyck to be
mentioned, who towards the close of the sixteenth century published
a quadrature which was so approximate that the value of π derived
from it was more exact than that of Archimedes; and to disprove it
the mathematician Peter Metius was obliged to seek a still more
accurate value than 3-1/7. The erroneous quadrature of Van Eyck
was thus the occasion of Metius's discovery that the ratio 355 : 113,
or 3-16/113, varied from the true value of π by less than one one-
millionth, eclipsing accordingly all values hitherto obtained.
Moreover, it is demonstrable by the theory of continued fractions,
that, admitting figures to four places only, no two numbers more
exactly represent the value of π than 355 and 113.

#Joseph Scaliger.#

In the same way the quadrature of the great philologist Joseph

Scaliger led to refutations. Like most circle-squarers who believe in
their discovery, Scaliger also was little versed in the elements of
geometry. He solved, however,—at least in his own opinion he did,—
the famous problem; and published in 1592 a book upon it, which
bore the pretentious title "Nova Cyclometria" and in which the name
of Archimedes was derided. The worthlessness of his supposed
discovery was demonstrated to him by the greatest mathematicians
of his time; namely, Vieta, Adrianus Romanus, and Clavius.

#Longomontanus, John Porta, and Gregory St. Vincent.#

Of the erring circle-squarers that flourished before the middle of

the seventeenth century three others deserve particular mention—
Longomontanus of Copenhagen, who rendered such great services
to astronomy, the Neapolitan John Porta, and Gregory of St. Vincent.
Longomontanus made π = 3-14185/100000, and was so convinced
of the correctness of his result that he thanked God fervently, in the
preface to his work "Inventio Quadraturae Circuli," that He had
granted him in his high old age the strength to conquer the
celebrated difficulty. John Porta followed the initiative of Hippocrates,
and believed he had solved the problem by the comparison of lunes.
Gregory of St. Vincent published a quadrature, the error of which
was very hard to detect but was finally discovered by Descartes.

#Peter Metius and Vieta.#

Of the famous mathematicians who dealt with our problem in the

period between the close of the fifteenth century and the time of
Newton, we first meet with Peter Metius, before mentioned, who
succeeded in finding in the fraction 355 : 113 the best approximate
value for π involving only small numbers. The problem received a
different advancement at the hands of the famous mathematician
Vieta. Vieta was the first to whom the idea occurred of representing
π with mathematical exactness by an infinite series of continuable
operations. By comparison of inscribed and circumscribed polygons,
Vieta found that we approach nearer and nearer to π if we allow the
operations of the extraction of the square root of 1/2, and of
addition and of multiplication to succeed each other in a certain
manner, and that π must come out exactly, if this series of
operations could be indefinitely continued. Vieta thus found that to a
diameter of 10000 million units a circumference belongs of 31415
million and from 926535 to 926536 units of the same length.

#Adrianus Romanus, Ludolf Van Ceulen.#

But Vieta was outdone by the Netherlander Adrianus Romanus,

who added five additional decimal places to the ten of Vieta. To
accomplish this he computed with unspeakable labor the
circumference of a regular circumscribed polygon of 1073741824
sides. This number is the thirtieth power of 2. Yet great as the labor
of Adrianus Romanus was, that of Ludolf Van Ceulen was still
greater; for the latter calculator succeeded in carrying the
Archimedean process of approximation for the value of π to 35
decimal places, that is, the deviation from the true value was smaller
than one one-thousand quintillionth, a degree of exactness that we
can hardly have any conception of. Ludolf published the figures of
the tremendous computation that led to this result. His calculation
was carefully examined by the mathematician Griemberger and
declared to be correct. Ludolf was justly proud of his work, and
following the example of Archimedes, requested in his will that the
result of his most important mathematical performance, the
computation of π to 35 decimal places, be engraved upon his
tombstone; a request which is said to have been carried out. In
honor of Ludolf, π is called to-day in Germany the Ludolfian number.

#The new method of Snell. Huygens's verification of it.#

Although through the labor of Ludolf a degree of exactness for

cyclometrical operations was now obtained that was more than
sufficient for any practical purpose that could ever arise, neither the
problem of constructive rectification nor that of constructive
quadrature was thereby in any respect theoretically advanced. The
investigations conducted by the famous mathematicians and
physicists Huygens and Snell about the middle of the seventeenth
century, were more important from a mathematical point of view
than the work of Ludolf. In his book "Cyclometricus" Snell took the
position that the method of comparison of polygons, which
originated with Archimedes and was employed by Ludolf, need by no
means be the best method of attaining the end sought; and he
succeeded by the employment of propositions which state that
certain arcs of a circle are greater or smaller than certain straight
lines connected with the circle, in obtaining methods that make it
possible to reach results like the Ludolfian with much less labor of
calculation. The beautiful theorems of Snell were proved a second
time, and better proved, by the celebrated Dutch promoter of the
science of optics, Huygens (Opera Varia, p. 365 et seq.;
"Theoremata De Circuli et Hyperbolae Quadratura," 1651), as well as
perfected in many ways. Snell and Huygens were fully aware that
they had advanced only the problem of numerical quadrature, and
not that of the constructive quadrature. This, in Huygens's case,
plainly appeared from the vehement dispute he conducted with the
English mathematician James Gregory. This controversy has some
significance for the history of our problem, from the fact that
Gregory made the first attempt to prove that the squaring of the
circle with ruler and compasses must be impossible. #The
controversy between Huygens and Gregory.# The result of the
controversy, to which we owe many valuable treatises, was, that
Huygens finally demonstrated in an incontrovertible manner the
incorrectness of Gregory's proof of impossibility, adding that he also
was of opinion that the solution of the problem with ruler and
compasses was impossible, but nevertheless was not himself able to
demonstrate this fact. And Newton, later, expressed himself to a
similar effect. As a matter of fact it took till the most recent period,
that is over 200 years, until higher mathematics was far enough
advanced to furnish a rigid demonstration of impossibility.

V.

Before we proceed to consider the promotive influence which the

invention of the differential and the integral calculus had upon our
problem, we shall enumerate a few at least of that never-ending line
of mistaken quadrators who delighted the world by the fruits of their
ingenuity from the time of Newton to the present period; and out of
a pious and sincere consideration for the contemporary world, we
shall entirely omit in this to speak of the circle-squarers of our own
time.

#Hobbes's quadrature.#

First to be mentioned is the celebrated English philosopher

Hobbes. In his book "De Problematis Physicis," in which he chiefly
proposes to explain the phenomena of gravity and of ocean tides, he
also takes up the quadrature of the circle and gives a very trivial
construction that in his opinion definitively solved the problem,
making π = 3-1/5. In view of Hobbes's importance as a philosopher,
two mathematicians, Huygens and Wallis, thought it proper to refute
Hobbes at length. But Hobbes defended his position in a special
treatise, in which to sustain at least the appearance of being right,
he disputed the fundamental principles of geometry and the theorem
of Pythagoras; so that mathematicians could pass on from him to
the order of the day.

#French quadrators of the Eighteenth Century.#

In the last century France especially was rich in circle-squarers.

We will mention: Oliver de Serres, who by means of a pair of scales
determined that a circle weighed as much as the square upon the
side of the equilateral triangle inscribed in it, that therefore they
must have the same area, an experiment in which π = 3; Mathulon,
who offered in legal form a reward of a thousand dollars to the
person who would point out an error in his solution of the problem,
and who was actually compelled by the courts to pay the money;
Basselin, who believed that his quadrature must be right because it
agreed with the approximate value of Archimedes, and who
anathematised his ungrateful contemporaries, in the confidence that
he would be recognised by posterity; Liger, who proved that a part is
greater than the whole and to whom therefore the quadrature of the
circle was child's play; Clerget, who based his solution upon the
principle that a circle is a polygon of a definite number of sides, and
who calculated, also, among other things, how large the point is at
which two circles touch.

#Germany and Poland.#

Germany and Poland also furnish their contingent to the army of

circle-squarers. Lieutenant-Colonel Corsonich produced a quadrature
in which π equalled 3-1/8, and promised fifty ducats to the person
who could prove that it was incorrect. Hesse of Berlin wrote an
arithmetic in 1776, in which a true quadrature was also "made
known," π being exactly equal to 3-14/99. About the same time
Professor Bischoff of Stettin defended a quadrature previously
published by Captain Leistner, Preacher Merkel, and Schoolmaster
Böhm, which made π implicite equal to the square of 62/35, not
even attaining the approximation of Archimedes.

#Constructive approximations. Euler. Kochansky.#

From attempts of this character are to be clearly distinguished

constructions of approximation in which the inventor is aware that
he has not found a mathematically exact construction, but only an
approximate one. The value of such a construction will depend upon
two things—first, upon the degree of exactness with which it is
numerically expressed, and secondly on the fact whether the
construction can be more or less easily made with ruler and
compasses. Constructions of this kind, simple in form and yet
sufficiently exact for practical purposes, have for centuries been
furnished us in great numbers. The great mathematician Euler, who
died in 1783, did not think it out of place to attempt an approximate
construction of this kind. A very simple construction for the
rectification of the circle and one which has passed into many
geometrical text books, is that published by Kochansky in 1685 in
the Leipziger Berichte. It is as follows: "Erect upon the diameter of a
circle at its extremities perpendiculars; with the centre as vertex,
mark off upon the diameter an angle of 30°; find the point of
intersection with the perpendicular of the line last drawn, and join
this point of intersection with that point upon the other
perpendicular which is at a distance of three radii from the base of
the perpendicular. The line of junction thus obtained is then very
approximately equal to one-half of the circumference of the given
circle." Calculation shows that the difference between the true
length of the circumference and the line thus constructed is less
than 3/100000 of the diameter.

#Inutility of constructive approximations.#

Although such constructions of approximation are very interesting

in themselves, they nevertheless play but a subordinate rôle in the
history of the squaring of the circle; for on the one hand they can
never furnish greater exactness for circle-computation than the
thirty-five decimal places which Ludolf found, and on the other hand
they are not adapted to advance in any way the question whether
the exact quadrature of the circle with ruler and compasses is
possible.

#The researches of Newton, Leibnitz, Wallis, and Brouncker.#

The numerical side of the problem, however, was considerably

advanced by the new mathematical methods perfected by Newton
and Leibnitz, commonly called the differential and the integral
calculus. And about the middle of the seventeenth century, some
time before Newton and Leibnitz represented π by series of powers,
the English mathematicians Wallis and Lord Brouncker, Newton's
predecessors in a certain sense, succeeded in representing π by an
infinite series of figures combined by the first four rules of
arithmetic. A new method of computation was thus opened. Wallis
found that the fourth part of π is represented more exactly by the
regularly formed product

2/3 × 4/3 × 4/5 × 6/5 × 6/7 × 8/7 × 8/9 × etc.

the farther the multiplication is continued, and that the result

always comes out too small if we stop at a proper fraction but too
large if we stop at an improper fraction. Lord Brouncker, on the
other hand, represents the value in question by a continued fraction
in which all the denominators are equal to 2 and the numerators are
odd square numbers. Wallis, to whom Brouncker had communicated
his elegant result without proof, demonstrated the same in his
"Arithmetic of Infinites."

The computation of π could hardly be farther advanced by these

results than Ludolf and others had carried it, though of course in a
more laborious way. However, the series of powers derived by the
assistance of the differential calculus of Newton and Leibnitz
furnished a means of computing it to hundreds of decimal places.

#Other calculations.#

Gregory, Newton, and Leibnitz next found that the fourth part of π
was equal exactly to

1 - 1/3 + 1/5 - 1/7 + 1/9 - 1/11 + 1/13 - …

 if we conceive this series, which is called the Leibnitzian,
indefinitely continued. This series is indeed wonderfully simple, but
is not adapted to the computation of π, for the reason that entirely
too many members have to be taken into account to obtain π
accurately to a few decimal places only. The original formula,
however, from which this series is derived, gives other formulas
which are excellently adapted to the actual computation. This
formula is the general series:

α = a - 1/3_a_^3 + 1/5_a_^5 - 1/7_a_^7 + …,

where α is the length of the arc that belongs to any central angle
in a circle of radius 1, and where a is the tangent to this angle. From
this we derive the following:

π/4 = (a + b + c + …) - 1/3(a^3 + b^3 + c^3 + …) +

1/5(a^5 + b^5 + c^5 + …) - …,

where a, b, c … are the tangents of angles whose sum is 45°.

Determining, therefore, the values of a, b, c …, which are equal to
small and easy fractions and fulfil the condition just mentioned, we
obtain series of powers which are adapted to the computation of π.
The first to add by the aid of series of this description additional
decimal places to the old 35 in the number π was the English
arithmetician Abraham Sharp, who following Halley's instructions, in
1700, worked out π to 72 decimal places. A little later Machin,
professor of astronomy in London, computed π to 100 decimal
places; putting, in the series given above, a = b = c = d = 1/5 and e
=-1/239, that is employing the following series:

π/4 = 4. [1/5 - 1/3.5^3 + 1/5.5^5 - 1/7.5^7 + …] - [1/239 -

1/3.239^3 + 1/5.239^5 - …]
 #The computation of π to many decimal places.#

In the year 1819, Lagny of Paris outdid the computation of

Machin, determining in two different ways the first 127 decimal
places of π. Vega then obtained as many as 140 places, and the
Hamburg arithmetician Zacharias Dase went as far as 200 places.
The latter did not use Machin's series in his calculation, but the
series produced by putting in the general series above given a =
1/2, b = 1/5, c = 1/8. Finally, at a recent date, π has been computed
to 500 places.

#Idea of exactness obtainable with the approximate values of π.#

The computation to so many decimal places may serve as an

illustration of the excellence of the modern method as contrasted
with those anciently employed, but otherwise it has neither a
theoretical nor a practical value. That the computation of π to say 15
decimal places more than sufficiently satisfies the subtlest
requirements of practice may be gathered from a concrete example
of the degree of exactness thus obtainable. Imagine a circle to be
described with Berlin as centre, and the circumference to pass
through Hamburg; then let the circumference of the circle be
computed by multiplying its diameter with the value of π to 15
decimal places, and then conceive it to be actually measured. The
deviation from the true length in so large a circle as this even could
not be as great as the 18 millionth part of a millimetre.

An idea can hardly be obtained of the degree of exactness

produced by 100 decimal places. But the following example may
possibly give us some conception of it. Conceive a sphere
constructed with the earth as centre, and imagine its surface to pass
through Sirius, which is 134-1/2 million million kilometres distant
from us. Then imagine this enormous sphere to be so packed with
microbes that in every cubic millimetre millions of millions of these
diminutive animalcula are present. Now conceive these microbes to
be all unpacked and so distributed singly along a straight line, that
every two microbes are as far distant from each other as Sirius from
us, that is 134-1/2 million million kilometres. Conceive the long line
thus fixed by all the microbes, as the diameter of a circle, and
imagine the circumference of it to be calculated by multiplying its
diameter with π to 100 decimal places. Then, in the case of a circle
of this enormous magnitude even, the circumference thus calculated
would not vary from the real circumference by a millionth of a
millimetre.

This example will suffice to show that the calculation of π to 100

or 500 decimal places is wholly useless.

#Professor Wolff's curious method.#

Before we close this chapter upon the evaluation of π, we must

mention the method, less fruitful than curious, which Professor Wolff
of Zurich employed some decades ago to compute the value of π to
3 places. The floor of a room is divided up into equal squares, so as
to resemble a huge chess-board, and a needle exactly equal in
length to the side of each of these squares, is cast haphazard upon
the floor. If we calculate, now, the probabilities of the needle so
falling as to lie wholly within one of the squares, that is so that it
does not cross any of the parallel lines forming the squares, the
result of the calculation for this probability will be found to be
exactly equal to π - 3. Consequently, a sufficient number of casts of
the needle according to the law of large numbers must give the
value of π approximately. As a matter of fact, Professor Wolff, after
10000 trials, obtained the value of π correctly to 3 decimal places.

#Mathematicians now seek to prove the insolvability of the

problem.#

Fruitful as the calculus of Newton and Leibnitz was for the

evaluation of π, the problem of converting a circle into a square
having exactly the same area was in no wise advanced thereby.
Wallis, Newton, Leibnitz, and their immediate followers distinctly
recognised this. The quadrature of the circle could not be solved;
but it also could not be proved that the problem was insolvable with
ruler and compasses, although everybody was convinced of its
insolvability. In mathematics, however, a conviction is only justified
when supported by incontrovertible proof; and in the place of
endeavors to solve the quadrature there accordingly now come
endeavors to prove the impossibility of solving the celebrated
problem.

#Lambert's contribution.#

The first step in this direction, small as it was, was made by the
French mathematician Lambert, who proved in the year 1761 that π
was neither a rational number nor even the square root of a rational
number; that is, that neither π nor the square of π can be exactly
represented by a fraction the denominator and numerator of which
are whole numbers, however great the numbers be taken. Lambert's
proof showed, indeed, that the rectification and the quadrature of
the circle could not be possibly accomplished in the particular way in
which its impossibility was demonstrated, but it still did not exclude
the possibility of the problem being solvable in some other more
complicated way, and without requiring further aids than ruler and
compasses.

#The conditions of the demonstration.#

Proceeding slowly but surely it was next sought to discover the

essential distinguishing properties that separate problems solvable
with ruler and compasses, from problems the construction of which
is elementarily impossible, that is by solely employing the postulates.
Slight reflection showed, that a problem elementarily solvable, must
always possess the property of having the unknown lines in the
figure relating to it connected with the known lines of the figure by
an equation for the solution of which equations of the first and
second degree alone are requisite, and which may be so disposed
that the common measures of the known lines will appear only as
integers. The conclusion was to be drawn from this, that if the
quadrature of the circle and consequently its rectification were
elementarily solvable, the number π, which represents the ratio of
the unknown circumference to the known diameter, must be the root
of a certain equation, of a very high degree perhaps, but in which all
the numbers that appear are whole numbers; that is, there would
have to exist an equation, made up entirely of whole numbers,
which would be correct if its unknown quantity were made equal to
π.

#Final success of Prof. Lindemann.#

Since the beginning of this century, consequently, the efforts of a

number of mathematicians have been bent upon proving that π
generally is not algebraical, that is, that it cannot be the root of any
equation having whole numbers for coefficients. But mathematics
had to make tremendous strides forward before the means were at
hand to accomplish this demonstration. After the French
Academician, Professor Hermite, had furnished important
preparatory assistance in his treatise "Sur la Fonction Exponentielle,"
published in the seventy-seventh volume of the "Comptes Rendus,"
Professor Lindemann, at that time of Freiburg, now of Königsberg,
finally succeeded, in June 1882, in rigorously demonstrating that the
number π is not algebraical,[52] thus supplying the first proof that
the problems of the rectification and the squaring of the circle, with
the help only of algebraical instruments like ruler and compasses are
insolvable. Lindemann's proof appeared successively in the Reports
of the Berlin Academy (June, 1882), in the "Comptes Rendus" of the
French Academy (Vol. 115. pp. 72 to 74), and in the
"Mathematischen Annalen" (Vol. 20. pp. 213 to 225).

[52] For the benefit of my mathematical readers I shall present

here the most important steps of Lindemann's demonstration, M.
Hermite in order to prove the transcendental character of

e = 1 + 1/1 + 1/1.2 + 1/1.2.3 + 1/1.2.3.4 + ….

developed relations between certain definite integrals (Comptes

Rendus of the Paris Academy, Vol. 77, 1873). Proceeding from the
relations thus established, Professor Lindemann first
demonstrates the following proposition: If the coefficients of an
equation of _n_th degree are all real or complex whole numbers
and the n roots of this equation z{1}, z{2}, …, z{n} are different
from zero and from each other it is impossible for

e^z{1} + e^z{2} + e^z{3} … + e^z{n}

to be equal to a/b, where a and b are real or complex whole

numbers. It is then shown that also between the functions
 e^{rz{1}} + e^{rz{2}} + e^{rz{3}} + … e^{rz{n}},

where r denotes an integer, no linear equation can exist with

rational coefficients variant from zero. Finally the beautiful
theorem results: If z is the root of an irreducible algebraic
equation the coefficients of which are real or complex whole
numbers, then e^z cannot be equal to a rational number. Now in
reality e^{t√-1} is equal to a rational number, namely,-1.
Consequently, π√-1, and therefore π itself, cannot be the root of
an equation of _n_th degree having whole numbers for
coefficients, and therefore also not of such an equation having
rational coefficients. The property last mentioned, however, π
would have if the squaring of the circle with ruler and compasses
were possible.

#The verdict of mathematics.#

"It is impossible with ruler and compasses to construct a square

equal in area to a given circle." These are the words of the final
determination of a controversy which is as old as the history of the
human mind. But the race of circle-squarers, unmindful of the
verdict of mathematics, that most infallible of arbiters, will never die
out so long as ignorance and the thirst for glory shall be united.

HERMANN SCHUBERT.
THE CRITERION OF TRUTH.

A DISSERTATION ON THE METHOD OF VERIFICATION.

Modern science rests upon the recognition of the truth that all
knowledge is a statement of facts. The formulation of natural laws is
nothing but a comprehensive description of certain kinds of natural
processes. Natural laws are generalisations of facts. Similarly, any
philosophical theory is, or from the modern standpoint ought to be,
simply a systematised representation of facts. Facts are the bottom-
rock to which, everywhere, we have to go down.

The recognition of this maxim is called, most appropriately,

positivism; and I take it that as a matter of principle all modern
thinkers can and perhaps do agree to it. A Roman Catholic
philosopher may consider some things as facts which a scientist of
heretic England, for instance, does not; yet it is from facts, or what
is thought to be facts, that every one derives his conception of the
world.

It is natural that the range of individual experience should be very

limited in comparison with the knowledge indispensably needed for
acquiring an adequate conception of the world in which we live. We
have, to a great extent, to rely on statements of facts which we
ourselves have not observed. To enrich and to enlarge our own
experience we have to imbibe the experience of others. Sometimes
we can, but sometimes we cannot, verify what we have been told.
For instance, that stones fall through empty space with a velocity of
32·18 English feet at the end of the first second can be verified by
experiment, i. e., the experiment can be repeated under the same
circumstances. But historical data such as whether Buddha died
under a fig-tree, or whether Christ was crucified under Pontius
Pilate, cannot be verified by experiment. Historical data are
statements, not of general truths, but of single facts, which, if they
are accepted at all, have to be taken on authority. The authority may
be weak or strong; it may be strong enough to be equivalent
practically to a certainty, which latter case occurs, for instance, when
the fact in question in its direct consequences perceptibly affects our
life, and its causal connection can thus be directly and indubitably
traced.

It is not intended here to emphasise the difference between facts

verifiable by experiment, and historical facts; yet it is desirable with
reference to all kinds of facts stated on authority, to understand the
importance of a criterion of truth. We do accept and we have to
accept, every one of us, without any exception, the most
discriminate scientist even and most of all the philosopher,
innumerable statements of facts as they have been observed by
others. We all have to rely on the authority of others. The time of
the longest human life would be too short to repeat all the
experiments made by others, with a view to verifying them in detail.
On the other hand, it is obvious that no statement of facts should be
accepted on pure authority. We must have a means, a sieve as it
were, by which the wheat can easily be winnowed from the chaff; a
sieve that will enable us to discard at once those statements that are
positively erroneous. In this way our attention can be confined to
statements of things that are possible, those that need not, but may
be true. "Possible" in German is very appropriately called möglich, i.
e. mayable.

The criterion of that which 'may be' true is the first step towards
ascertaining truth; and although it does not exhaust the methods of
arriving at truth it is of greatest consequence, for if properly
understood and applied, it would save from the start many useless
efforts in the investigation of truth.

*****

The question arises then, What is the criterion of the possible? We

reject statements, sometimes, as prima facie untrue. Have we a
right to do so? And if we have, by what standard do we determine
this?

Let us first take into consideration how people really behave when
a statement of new facts is made. Take, for instance, the following
case. Two strangers meet; A. and B. Mr. A. relates to Mr. B. some
incident of his life. He is apparently a very trustworthy person and
during the conversation remains perfectly serious. He tells a ghost
story in detail, how a departed friend of his appeared to him in
distinctly visible form; he says that the spirit spoke to him and told
him many strange things, and that he pointed out to him an
imminent danger.

We suppose that on the one hand A. makes his statement in good

faith and that on the other hand B. is a spiritualist. Will B. consider
A.'s story as possible? B., being a spiritualist, most probably will
consider A.'s story as possible, and, if he is convinced of A.'s
honesty, he will believe the story the same as if he had experienced
it himself; no less than a scientist will rely on the statement of an
experiment made by one of his colleagues whose scientific veracity
he has no reason to doubt.

Suppose A. tells the same story to C. Mr. C. is an infidel and a

materialist. As characteristic features of his personality we might
mention that he considers religion as pure superstition originated by
the fraud of cunning priests. This man will, we may fairly suppose,
laugh at A.'s story, because it appears to him an out and out lie. Mr.
A. as well as Mr. B., he who tells and he who believes the story, C.
will declare, are either insane or they are both impostors.

The difference of opinion in B. and C. indicates that the criterion

of truth is different with different persons and that it depends upon
their conception of the world. Men who have the same world-
conception will also have the same criterion of truth.

The problem consequently is, whether this criterion of truth (i. e.

the criterion of what is possible) is necessarily wholly subjective, or
whether we can arrive at an objective criterion. It is apparent that
this question is intimately connected with another problem, namely,
Is every world-conception necessarily subjective, or, Is it possible to
arrive at an objective world-conception? It appears to me that we
can; and the ideal of philosophy to-day is just such an objective
representation of facts.

The difficulty that presents itself lies mainly in the confusion

between facts and our interpretation of facts. If A. declares that he
saw a ghost, he does not relate a fact, but his interpretation of a
fact. Let us suppose that he tells his story again to a third person D.,
who is a psychologist. D. most likely will not think him a liar. D. will
accept the statement bona fide as a mere interpretation of a fact
and will inquire after the causes that produced the hallucination. He
may be able, possibly, to lay bare the facts disfigured by the wrong
interpretation of A. And having clearly stated the objective state of
things he may with the assistance of his experience explain the
origin of the whole process, partly from the mental condition and the
physiological constitution of A., partly from individual circumstances
that gave rise to the hallucination. He will not doubt that something
extraordinary has happened to Mr. A. The latter's mind has been,
and perhaps still is in an abnormal state. And as to B.'s believing the
ghost story, Mr. D. will not think that he is insane; though we may
presume that he will regard B.'s views of the world as resting upon
unfirm grounds; and he will not believe him to be a man of critical
ability.

The notion is very common among idealists that we can never go

beyond our subjective states of consciousness. This would be
tantamount to saying that there is no difference between dreams
and real life, except that a dream is cut off by awaking while life
lasts comparatively much longer and ceases with death, which may
also be an awakening from a dream. In that case hallucinations
would be of the same value as sensations. Both would be
interpretations of facts for which we do not have an objective
criterion of truth. Interpretations of facts would be the sole facts,
and it would be quite indifferent whether they were
misinterpretations or correct interpretations.

Take a simple instance. We see a tree. The perception of a tree is

an interpretation of a set of facts. Interpretations of facts, whether
correct or not, are of course also facts. Thus the perception of a tree
is a fact which, if all matter were transparent, would, physiologically
considered, appear to the eye of an observer as special vibrations in
the brain. But the peculiarity of this fact is that it represents other
facts. The question is no longer whether there is a perception of a
tree taking place in a brain, but whether this perception is true, i. e.,
whether it agrees with the facts represented. Every perception has a
meaning beyond itself; every perception is a fact representing other
facts, and the question of truth or untruth has reference to the
agreement between representations and facts represented.

Professor Mach says in his essay "The Analysis of Sensations" (The

Monist, Vol. I. No. I, p. 65):

"Bodies do not produce sensations, but complexes of sensations

(complexes of elements) form bodies."[53]

[53] Professor Mach in thus speaking of bodies uses the

word in the sense of representations and not in the sense of
objects represented. He calls them in the sentence next
following "thought-symbols for complexes of sensations
(complexes of elements)."

And, certainly, we do not deny that upon a closer analysis the

perception of a tree appears as a bundle, or a complex of
sensations; there is the green of the leaves, the color of the bark,
the different shades of the color indicating its bodily form, the shape
of the branches, and their slight motions in the breeze that gently
shakes the tree. Yet the perception of a tree does not consist of
these sensations alone. All these sensations might be so many
isolated sensations; and if they remained isolated, they would not
produce the percept of a tree. These sensations are interpreted;
they have acquired a meaning and are combined into a unity. It is
this unity which constitutes the perception of a tree. This unity has
grown from sensations; and that process which develops and, as we
have learned, naturally must develop sensations from sense-
impressions, and from sensations perceptions that are representative
of a group of facts outside of the perceptions themselves,—that
process we define as mind-activity.

What does the 'perception of a tree' mean? It means that if the

person perceiving it moves in a certain direction and over a certain
distance, he will have certain sensations which upon the whole can
be correctly anticipated. Every perception and also every sensation
contains a number of anticipations. The perception of a tree is in so
far to be considered correct, as the anticipations which it contains,
and of which it actually consists, can be realised. If and in so far as
these anticipations when realised tally with the perception, if and in
so far as they justify it, or can justify it, if and in so far as they fulfil
the expectations produced by the perception, if and in so far as they
make no alteration of the perception necessary, but being in
agreement with it confirm the representation it conveys: the
perception is said to be true. Moreover, we can predict similar results
with regard to beings of a similar constitution.

*****

Now let us suppose that an apple falls from a considerable height

to the ground. Knowing, from former experiences, the hardness of
the soil as well as the density of the apple, we can anticipate the
effect of the fall. The soil will not show any considerable impression,
yet one side of the apple will be crushed. In predicting this result we
anticipate sensations that we shall have under a certain set of
circumstances. In so far as we shall necessarily have these
sensations we have to deal with facts. Not as if our sensations
constitute the entire existence of facts; our sensations, being the
effects of so-called objective processes upon our senses, are only
one end of a relation, which as a matter of course never exists
without the other end. Sensations are the one end; they depend
upon and vary with the other end. Showing within certain limits as
many varieties here as occur there, they represent the other end.

We can, and for certain purposes we must, entirely eliminate the

subjective and sensory part of our sensations, in order to represent
in our minds not how two objects affect our senses of sight or touch
but how two or more objects affect each other. Thus we arrive at an
objective statement of facts, how the falling apple affects the soil,
and the soil the apple; while the relation of both to our senses is to
be eliminated. This objective statement of facts is the ideal of all
natural sciences. The physicist states the interaction between the
falling apple and the soil. He does not care how many sentient
beings witness the fall; he does not care about the psychological
element in their observations. He abstracts from the subjective
elements in their observations as well as in his own, and confines his
attention to the objective facts represented in their minds.

The objection to this conception of things is made by a consistent

idealist, that these observations must always exist in some mind,
they do not exist outside of a mind, and mind can as little go beyond
itself as a person can walk outside of his skin. Certainly, observations
always exist in some mind; they have always a subjective element.
But they have also an objective element. No sensation, no
perception, no observation is without an objective feature. This
objective feature in a sensation or a perception, and also in an
abstract idea, is the element that if true has to agree with other
facts outside of the sentient being of whose mind the perception is a
part. An idealist who is pleased to deny this would either have to
identify hallucinations with sensations, or he would be obliged to
consider the objective elements of his mind merely and solely as
subjective states, having no representative value. In that case he
would necessarily be obliged to consider the facts represented, i. e.
the things outside the body, as parts of his mind. This being granted,
every mind would appear as congruent and coextensive with the
universe. We should have as many universes as there are minds,
and yet all universes would be only one and the same universe, their
sole difference being that of a difference of centres. With the death
of every living creature a universe would die; but notwithstanding
the chain of consciousness were broken forever in death, the
existence of his mind, being that which is commonly considered as
the objective universe, would not cease; merely a view-centre would
be lost. That which we have characterised as representations in
feeling-substance (which according to our terminology constitutes
mind) would be a transient and unessential feature of mind only;
and if it should cease to be, mind would still exist in what we have
defined as the outside facts, the facts represented in mental
symbols. In short, mind would be the All, it would be a synonym of
God. And not only all mental beings actually existing or having
existed would each, one and all, constitute the universe, but also all
potential minds, every atom and all possible combinations of atoms
that possibly might play a part in the mental activity of a sentient
being, would constitute it.

The views of an idealist who accepts these consequences are

undeniably correct, although we may quarrel about the propriety of
his terminology. Yet an idealist of this type, we may fairly assume,
will have little difficulty in adapting himself to our terminology, and in
that case we might easily agree about the possibility of arriving at a
criterion of truth; for his world-conception (aside from a difference in
terms) might, or rather would be practically the same as ours.

If truth is the agreement of certain mental facts with other facts

outside of the mind—if it is the agreement of subjective
representations with objective things or states of things represented,
the problem is whether we have any means of revising or examining
this agreement.

*****

If the world were a chaos, i. e. if the facts of nature were not

ruled by law; if every fact were not only individually but also
generically different from every other fact, so that no single fact had
anything in common with other facts; if they thus had no features in
common, there would exist no general properties, and we could
form no concepts of genera; facts would vary radically and totally,
without exhibiting regularities or uniformities other than such as
might occasionally and without any reason incidentally originate by
haphazard,—in short, if our world were a world of chance and not of
law, there would be no criterion of truth. Our world, however, is a
world of law and not of chance. Thus all facts, although individually
different, are found generically to agree among themselves. No two
atoms are, with regard to their position, the same at a given
moment; all of them are different somehow in their operation and
effectiveness. Nevertheless every one of them moves in strict
accordance with exactly the same law of causation. There is not the
least change taking place in the universe which is not the precise
effect of a special cause. There is rigidity in mutability, unity in
variety, determinateness in irregularity, law in freedom, order in
anarchy. The unity of law, which in its oneness is comprised in the
universality of causation, is so perfect that the different facts cannot
be thought of as being generically different. However much they
differ specifically, they represent the action of the same law, and this
same oneness of nature is the basis of all monism.

Monism of this kind, it has been remarked by a critic of ours,[54]

is identical with philosophy. Certainly it is. Every philosophy is or at
least attempts to be monism, and in so far only as a philosophy
recognises monism does it possess a criterion of truth. This monism
may be based upon a correct or a mistaken conception of unity.
Upon the correctness of this monism will depend the correctness of
the criterion of truth. But it must be understood that without a
monism there can be no criterion of truth, and philosophy must
become either scepticism, mysticism, or agnosticism.

[54] The Nation quotes the following passage from a former

essay of mine: "The philosophy of the future will be a philosophy
of facts, it will be positivism; and in so far as a unitary
systematisation of facts is the aim and ideal of all science, it will
be monism." The Nation rejects this definition of monism and
adds: "The search for a unitary conception of the world or for a
unitary systematisation of science would be a good definition of
philosophy; and with this good old word at hand we want no
other."

Very well. Call that which we call monism or a unitary

systematisation of knowledge, "philosophy"; we will not quarrel
about names—dummodo conveniamus in re. We agree perfectly
with our critic; for we also maintain that monism (at least, what
we consider monism) is philosophy; it is the philosophy.
 What then is the criterion of truth for a single fact, be it a
sensation, a perception, or an observation? It is this, that if the
observation be repeated under the same circumstances it will, to the
extent that the circumstances are the same, be again the same; the
observer will always make the same observation.

This maxim will do for a statement of facts. If according to this

maxim we are in the position to ascertain that the same observation
can be made again and again under certain conditions, we gain the
assurance that we have to deal with a fact of some kind. But how
shall we inquire into the correctness of the interpretation of the fact?

*****

Every living creature and furthermore among human beings every

individual man has an idiosyncracy of his own. How can we avoid
the errors arising therefrom? We substitute other observers so that
we can detect to what extent the individual way of observation
influences the result of the experiment. Thus we shall find that some
persons are color-blind with reference to red or to green, and we
can in this way explain certain mistakes caused by such conditions.

Supposing that all human beings were color-blind we should

consider this state as normal; and the discovery of science that
certain colors which appear alike to us, are after all, considering
their wave-lengths and other qualities, more different than certain
other tints which are easily discerned by the eye, would be an
unexpected surprise. It would to some extent be analogous to the
well-known fact that there are rays of light which are not perceptible
to the eye, namely, the so-called chemical rays; their existence has
been discovered by their chemical effects.
 It might be, although it is not probable, that what appears green
to me and what I call green, may appear different to other people,
perhaps gray, red, or brown, or some other color that I know not of:
yet other people will—just as much as I do—call that peculiar
sensation green which they experience under the same conditions,
for instance, when seeing the fresh leaves of a tree. It is quite
indifferent how variegated in single minds the feelings may be that
accompany each kind of sensation. So long as they have for every
special objective state a special analogue, they can map out in their
minds their surroundings, they can have a correct representation of
the world, and so long as they employ the same symbols (words or
other signs) for indicating the same objective states, it is quite
indifferent whether or not the feelings that are produced in the
process of observation vary. It would make no more difference for
the general purpose of mental operations, than it would if we were
to employ Roman letters, or Italics, or Greek or Hebrew characters
to designate the lines and points in explaining a mathematical figure.
The main thing is that certain points are marked and represented by
some sign which stands for this or that point and for that alone.

To cite another example in illustration of the subjective element of

feeling in cognition, we may compare our knowledge of the world to
the map of a city. The map may be printed in black, green, red,
blue, or any other color. The color in which the map is printed
represents the subjective element of feeling, while the form of the
lines, their geometrical configuration, contains the objective element
of the things represented. The map is good, i. e. its representations
are true, if the squares and the streets of the city stand in the same
relation among each other, as the little blocks and divisions on the
map do. Whether the map is printed in green or blue will make no
difference so long as we find everything we want to know about the
city represented in a way such that we should be able to set
ourselves aright and to find our bearings if we went astray.

The subjective element in mind is not of one half the importance

generally attributed to it. The objective element, being that which is
represented, is paramount, and it is the aspiration of all the sciences
to concentrate their entire attention upon the objective features of
observation. Objective truth is what we want, and objective truth is
identical with a scientific description of facts.

*****

What then is the criterion of objective truth for the interpretation

of facts? Is it not wanting? May it not be that a person, Mr. A., will
under given circumstances regularly see a ghost. Indeed we do not
doubt that he will, and we can even prove it by experiment. This
being so, is not the interpretation of facts as to whether the
phenomenon is a real ghost or a mere vision, beyond any criterion of
truth?

If the methods of science are reliable, (and they have been

justified by their brilliant success,) we have indeed a criterion for the
interpretation of facts; and this criterion for the interpretation of
facts, no less than the criterion of single observations is based upon
monism. If the world is really a universe, if there is oneness in the
All, if there is a unity of law throughout nature, our interpretations of
the different facts must agree among themselves. They cannot and
should not contradict one another; and whenever they do, it is a
certain sign that somewhere there is something wrong in our
interpretation of facts.
 Philosophy has ceased to be a metaphysical world-theory. The
interpretation of facts no longer means a hypothetical assumption
which will square all the irregularities among facts that we are
unable to account for, but simply a methodical systematisation of
facts, enabling us to recognise the sameness of law in the
irregularities apparent in innumerable individual instances.
Interpretation in this sense means harmonisation; it means an
orderly arrangement; classification with due discrimination. An
explanation of natural phenomena is not the carrying of an
hypothesis in to facts out of the realms of our imagination, out of
depths unknown, by what might be styled revelation or inspiration,
but it is a comparison of facts with facts. The hypothesis we apply to
facts must come from facts and must cover facts. That element in an
hypothesis which does not cover facts is redundant as an
explanation; it is useless as such, or even dangerous; and unless it
serves as an aid to thought where ignorance of facts requires some
assistance, some allegorical symbol, some auxiliary construction,—
unless it is to the scientist what crutches are to the lame,—it must
be dropped.

Accordingly, the criterion of truth is the perfect agreement of all

facts, of all interpretations and explanations of facts among
themselves. If two facts (such as we conceive them) do not agree
with each other, we must revise them; and it may be stated as a
matter of experience, that our mind will find no peace until a
monistic conception is reached. A monistic conception is the perfect
agreement of all facts in a methodical system, so that the same law
is recognised to prevail in all instances, and the most different
events are conceived as acting under different conditions yet in
accord with the same law.