ME3302-Internal Combustion Engines

and
Gas Turbines

Combustion in SI engines
SI engine

In a conventional SI engine, fuel

and air are mixed together in the
intake system, inducted through
the intake valve into the cylinder
where mixing with residual gas
takes place, and then compressed
during the compression stroke.

Under normal operating

conditions, combustion is initiated
towards the end of compression
stroke at the spark plug by an
electric discharge.
Combustion relies on presence of combustible mixture, mean of initiation,
and how it stabilizes and flame speed(rate at which flame front
propagates).
 Flame front

It is the boundary or front surface of the flame that separates the burnt
charge and unburnt charge.

 Flame speed
It is the speed at which the flame moves forward in the cylinder.

The pressure and power developed in SI engine is also influenced by the

flame speed.

The flame speed and engine geometry affect the burning rate of the air
fuel mixture
Motoring curve is a plot drawn between ccylinder pressure and crank
angle for the condition when. no firing occurs in the cylinder. It means
the pressure which build inside the cylinder is basically due to the
compression of the fresh air charge going into the. Cylinder.
The combustion process of SI engines can be divided into three broad
regions:

(i) Ignition and flame development(flame growth),

(ii) Flame propagation, and

(iii) After burning.

The stages of combustion are given in the next page.

Stages of combustion in SI engine
 Ignition Lag;

Ignition lag is the period during which ignition and flame development
of a self propagating nucleus of flame takes place.

It is a chemical process depending upon both temperature and pressure,

nature of the fuel and the proportion of the exhaust residual gas.

It also depends upon the relationship between the temperature and the
rate of reaction.

 Flame Propagation;

During this period flame spreads throughout the combustion chamber.

The starting point of the second stage is where the first measureable
pressure rise is observed in the indicator diagram. This is indicated as
point “B” in the pressure crank angle diagram.
 Flame propagates at a constant velocity.

At the beginning the heat transfer to the cylinder wall is low because only
small amount of burning mixture comes in contact with the cylinder wall
during this period.

The rate of heat release mainly depends upon turbulence intensity, reaction
rate.

The rate of pressure is proportional to the rate of heat release because during
this period the combustion chamber volume remains practically constant.

 After burning

 The starting point of this is taken from the point at which maximum pressure
is reached in the pressure crank angle diagram.

Flame velocity decreases. The rate of combustion becomes low due to lower
flame velocity and reduced flame front surface.

 There is no pressure rise during this stage

 Factors affecting f front propagation

Two factors which influence the propagation of the flame front across the
cylinder of the engine are;
(i)Reaction rate and (ii) transposition rate

Reaction rate is the rate at which the flame eats unburned charge present in
the cylinder.

Transposition rate; It is the rate at which the flame front travels towards the
cylinder wall.

It is also the result of the partial pressure difference between the burning
gases and the unburnt gases in the cylinder.

A-B- flame front travel is slow because of low transposition rate and low
turbulence.
The transposition of the flame front is very little since there is a
comparatively small charge burned at the initial stage.

Low reaction rate plays a dominant role resulting in a slow advance of the
flame.

The lack of turbulence near the spark plug which is close to the cylinder wall
reduces the reaction rate and the flame speed.

When the flame front leaves this inactive zone and proceeds into more
turbulent areas (area-II), it consumes more amont of charge, it progresses
more rapidly and at a constant rate.

The amount of unburned charge becomes low towards the end of the flame
travel and therefore, the transposition rate again becomes negligible thereby
reducing the flame front.
Factors affecting the flame speed

The following are the important factors that affect the flame speed;

(i) Flame speed

(ii) Engine speed
(iii) Compression ratio
(iv) Inlet temperature and pressure
(v) Air fuel ratio

Turbulence

Turbulence is the way by which the mixing and acceleration of chemical

reaction is promoted.

Turbulence plays very important role in combustion of fuel as the flame

speed is directly proportional to the turbulence of the mixture.

This is because, the turbulence increases the mixing and heat transfer
coefficient or heat transfer rate between the burned and unburned mixture.
Insufficient turbulence provides low flame velocity and incomplete
combustion and reduces the power output.

excessive turbulence is also not desirable as it increases the combustion

rapidly and leads to detonation.

Excessive turbulence causes to cool the flame generated and flame

propagation is reduced.

Moderate turbulence is always desirable as it accelerates the chemical

reaction, reduces ignition lag, increases flame propagation and even allows
weak mixture to burn efficiently.

 The turbulence of the air

 fuel mixture may be in three forms (i) tumble (ii) squish and (iii) swirl.
 By adopting this the turbulence will be increased.
 Engine speed
 Flame speed increases with in crease in engine speed.

 Compression ratio

 By increasing compression flame speed increases. Due to reduction in initia

 Phase of combustion, ignition lag is also reduced.

 The density of the charge is also reduced. This increases the peak pressure
 and temperature resulting in reduced combustion duration.

 Inlet pressure and temperature

Flame speed increases with increase in inlet temperature and pressure

 Air fuel ratio

 The air fuel ration influences the flame speed.

 The flame speed is different for different air fuel ratio
Effect of air fuel mixture strength on burning rate
Variation of flame speed with air fuel ratio
 Combustion takes place
before the compression
stroke, when the spark
occurs too early. The
pressure developed opposes
the piston movement and the
engine power is reduced.

When the spark occurs too

late, the piston would have
already surpassed a portion
of the expansion stroke
before the pressure rise
occurs and a corresponding
amount of engine power is
lost.

Hence, the correct time at which introduction of the spark is decided by

the ignition lag.
Rate of pressure rise
The rate of pressure rise in the
combustion chamber influences
the peak pressure developed, the
power produced and smoothness
in operation.

The rate of pressure rise depends

upon the rate of combustion of
mixture.

P-θ diagram for three different

combustion rates is shown in the
figure.

a. High combustion rate(Curve I) .

b. Normal combustion rate(Curve II) .
c. Low combustion rate(Curve III) .
High combustion rate (Curve I)

High rate of combustion results in high rate of pressure rise

It produces higher peak pressures at a point closer to TDC

This is desirable because high peak pressure closer to TDC produce more
force acting through larger part of the power stroke, increasing the power
output of the engine.

Higher rate of pressure rise causes rough running of the engine because of
vibrations produced in the crank shaft.

This tends to knocking.

 Normal combustion rate (Curve II)

A compromise between these opposing factors is accomplished by

designing and operating the engine approximately one-half of the maximum
pressure is reached by the time the piston reaches TDC.

This result in the peak pressure being reasonably close to the TDC, yet
maintaining smooth engine operation.

Low combustion rate (Curve III)

Low rate of combustion requires long time to complete combustion.

It initiates the burning at an early point on the compression stroke and
the peak pressure occurs very late.

This will result in poor power output of the engine.

 Types of Combustion in SI engines

Normal combustion Abnormal combustion

 Normal combustion
In normal combustion, the flame initiated by the spark travels across the
combustion chamber in a fairly uniform manner.

 Abormal combustion
Under certain operating conditions the combustion deviates from its
normal course of action resulting in loss of performance and possible
damage to the engine. This is called abnormal combustion. It may also
cause preignition of the air fuel mixture.
 Knocking in SI engines

In an SI engine, once the air fuel

mixture is ignited by the spark plug
electrodes, a definite flame front
separates the fresh mixture from the
products of combustion travels from
the spark plug to the other end of the
combustion chamber.
(a) Normal combustion
Heat release due to combustion increases the temperature and consequently
the pressure of the burned part of the mixture above those of the unburned
mixture.

In order to effect pressure equalization the burned part of the mixture will
expand and compress the unburned mixture adiabatically. This increases its
pressure and temperature.
This process continues as the flame front advance through the mixture and
the temperature and pressure of the unburned mixture are increased further.

If the temperature of the unburned charge exceeds the self ignition(auto

ignition temperature) of the fuel and remains at or above this temperature
during the period the period of preflame reactions(ignition lag), spontaneous
ignition or auto ignition occurs at various pin-point locations. This is called
knocking. This process will lead to engine knock.

In normal combustion (refer Figure(a)], the flame travels across the

combustion chamber from A toward D.

The advancing flame compresses the end charge B’BD which is far from the
spark plug. This increases the temperature. Due to heat transfer from the
advancing flame also the temperature of the unburned charge increases. Due
to some preflame oxidation also temperature of the charge will increase.

Inspite of these, if the temperature of the end charge does not reach its self
ignition temperature, then the charge will not autoignite and will advance
further and consume the charge B’BD. This is referred as normal combustion.
If the end charge temperature reaches the auto ignition temperature and
remains upto the time of preflame reactions the charge will then autoignite
leading to knocking combustion. .

(b)Abnormal combustion

According to this figure, when the flame reaches the position BB’, the
charge ahead of it has reached critical auto ignition temperature.

During the preflame reaction period, if the flame front could move from BB’
to only CC’ then the charge ahead of CC’ would autoignite.
 Factors affecting knock

The following are the factors affecting engine knock

A. Density factors
(a) Compression ratio (b)Mass of inducted charge
(c) Inlet temperature of charge (d) Temperature of the combustion
chamber wall
(e)Retarding the spark timing (f) Power output of the engine

B. Time factors
(a) Turbulence (b) Engine speed (c) Flame travel distance
(d) Engine size (e) Combustion chamber shape (f) Location of the spark plug

C. Composition factors
(a) Fuel air ratio (b) Heating value of fuel
 Compression ratio

Increasing the compression ratio increases both the temperature and

pressure (density of the unburned mixture).

 Increase in temperature reduces the delay period of the end gas which in
turn increases the tendency to knock.

 Mass of inducted charge

A reduction in the mass of the inducted charge into the cylinder by t

throttling or by reducing the amount of supercharging reduces both the
temperature and density of the charge at the time of ignition.

This decreases the tendency of knocking.

 Inlet temperature of the mixture

Increasing the temperature of the unburned mixture increase the

possibility of knock in SI engine. It decreases volumetric efficiency also.
Lower inlet temperature is preferred.
Temperature of the combustion chamber walls

Higher combustion chamber wall increases the knocking tendency.

Hot spots in the combustion chamber must be avoided.

Retarding the spark timing

By retarding the spark timing (close to TDC), the peak pressure is attained
far away from the TDC with lower magnitude. This will help in reducing
knocking tendency.

Power output

A decrease in the power output of the engine decreases the temperature of

the cylinder and the combustion chamber walls, and pressure of the charge.

This reduces the mixture and end gas temperatures and hence knocking
tendency would be reduced.
Time factors
Turbulence;
Decreasing the turbulence of the mixture decreases the flame speed and
hence increases the tendency to knock. Turbulence depends on the design of
combustion chamber and one engine speed.

Engine speed;
Increase in the engine speed increases the turbulence. This increases the
preflame reaction; this results in less time available for the end charge to
autoignite. Therefore, the knocking tendency would be low.

Flame travel distance

If the distance of flame travel is more, then possibility of knocking is also
more.
This problem can be solved by combustion chamber design, spark plug
location and engine size.
Compact combustion chamber will have better anti-knock characteristics,
since the flame travel and combustion time will be shorter.
 Combustion chamber

Smaller combustion chambers have less tendency for knocking.

Spherical chambers will have shorter flame travel distance. This will offer
lesser knocking tendency.

 Location of spark plugs

The spark plug must be located in such as way that the flame will reach the
other end of the combustion chamber quicker and reduces the tendency of
knocking.

Large engines will have two spark plugs to avoid knocking tendency,
Composition factors
 Fuel air ratio

Fuel air ratio influences knocking tendency. Flame temperature and reaction
rate also influence knocking tendency.

 Octane value;

Paraffin series fuel have higher tendency to knocking while aromatic series
have low knocking tendency.

Combustion chambers for SI engines

A combustion chamber for SI engine must have the following,
(a) Minimum flame travel
(b) Exhaust valve and spark plug should be close together
(c) Good turbulence
(d) Fast combustion and low variability
(e) High volumetric efficiency at WOT
(f) Minimum heat loss to combustion walls
(g) Low fuel octane requirement
(h) Moderate rate of pressure rise
 T-Head combustion chamber

This was used in Ford famous model T car.

It was however very successful as it had two cam

shafts and the prone to detonation even at a low
compression ratio of 4:1.

In this T head combustion chamber both the inlet

and the exhaust valves are located at the opposite
types of the combustion chamber.

This type of combustion chamber was common as

it those days the fuel available was of octane rating
about 45 and highly prone to self igniting.

A far and isolated exhaust valve lead to fewer self

ignitions.
 I-Head combustion chamber

These were also called Side Valve Combustion

Chambers or Flat-heads, and both the inlet and the
exhaust valves were placed on side of the engine
together.

This type of the engine was easier to manufacture

and the maintenance was also easy as the complete
valve block could be removed for overhaul.

However it was prone to detonation as large flame

length was large and the air had to take two right
turns to reach the combustion space resulting in less
turbulence
 F Head Combustion Chamber
In this type of combustion chamber one
valve is located in the side pockets and the
other is located in the cylinder head.

The F head type engine was better than the T

head engine but the valve operating
mechanism was a bit complicated.

This is a modification of T head combustion chamber. In this type, both

inlet and exhaust valves are provided on the same side of the cylinder and
are opened by tappets actuated by a single camshaft.

It is easy to lubricate the valve mechanism with a detachable head.

Cylinder head can be removed for cleaning without disturbing the valves.
 L Head Combustion Chamber
It is the modification of L-head combustion
chamber which provides two valve on the same
side of the cylinder and the valves are operated by a
single crankshaft.

In this type, it is easy to lubricate the valve

mechanism. L-head

With the detachable head it may be noted that the

cylinder head can be removed without disturbing
valve gear etc.

Ricardo L-head
It provides fast flame speed and reduced knock.
The main body of the combustion chamber is
connected over the valves leaving a slightly
restricted passage communicating with the
cylinder. This gives more turbulence. And reduces Ricardo L-head
knocking tendency.
 References
1. V. Ganesan, Internal Combustion Engines, 4th Edition, TMH Publications,
New Delhi.
2. J.B. Heywood, Internal Combustion Engines Fundamentals, TMH
Publications, New York.
3. https://www.ingenieriaymecanicaautomotriz.com/valve-timing-
diagram-of-two-stroke-and-four-stroke-engines-theoretical-and-actual/
4. https://www.theengineerspost.com/types-of-ignition-system/
5. R. K. Rajput, Thermal Engineering, 6th Edition, Laxmi Publications. New
Delhi
6. https://www.aa1car.com/library/copign.htm
7. https://marketrealist.com/2016/11/crude-oil-refining/
8. https://www.pei.org/wiki/octane-number
9. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cetane_number#Definition
10. https://www.brainkart.com/article/Combustion-In-SI-Engines_6296
11. https://www.andreadd.it/appunti/polimi/ingegneria/corsi/en_mec_ae
s/ing_meccanica/anno5/internal_combustion_engines/appunti/11-
Normal-vs-AbnormalCombustion.pdf