PHYSICS I B.

TECH

UNIT II
MECHANICS AND THERMODYNAMICS

Mechanics
Moment of inertia (M.I) - Radius of gyration – parallel axes theorem – perpendicular axes theorem - M.I
of rod, circular disc, solid cylinder, hollow cylinder, solid sphere and hollow sphere (Qualitative) - K.E
of a rotating body - Torsional pendulum.
Thermodynamics
Zeroth Law of thermodynamics(Statement only) - first law of Thermodynamics (Statement only) - Work
done by a gas - Heat engines - second law of Thermodynamics (Statement only) - Reversible and
Irreversible process – Entropy - Carnot Engine - Newton's law of cooling.

MECHANICS
No great discovery was ever made without a bold guess.
- Issac Newton

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LEARNING OBJECTIVES

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

• Calculate the moment of inertia for uniformly shaped, rigid
bodies
• Apply the parallel axis theorem to find the moment of inertia
about any axis parallel to one already known
• Calculate the moment of inertia for compound object

2.1 INTRODUCTION
We know that, according to Newton's first law of motion, a body must continue in its
state of rest or of uniform motion along a straight line, unless acted upto by an external force. This
inertness or inability of a body to change. by itself its position of rest, or of uniform motion, is
called Inertia; and is a fundamental property of matter. Thus, it is by virtue of its inertia that a
body at rest resists or opposes being put into motion, and a body, in linear or translatory motion,
opposes not only being brought to rest but also any changes in the magnitude and direction of its
motion. And, we know, by experience. that the greater the mass of a body, the greater its inertia or
opposition to the desired change; for, the greater is the force required to be applied for the purpose.

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Examples for translatory motion

• A car moving in a straight line,
• the path of a bullet out of a gun
• An apple falling from a tree,
• the boy walking on a road,
• the motion of a box when pushed from one
corner of the room to the other, etc.

The mass of a body is thus taken to be a measure of its 'inertia for translatory motion', as
it is this that opposes the acceleration, (positive or negative), desired to be produced in it by the
applied force. Exactly in the same manner, in the case of rotational motion, we find that a body,
free to rotate about an axis, opposes any change desired to be produced in its state of rest or
rotation, showing that it possesses 'inertia' for this type of motion. And, obviously, the greater the
couple or torque, required to be applied to a body to change its state of rotation, i.e., to product in
it a desired angular acceleration, the greater its opposition to the desired change, or the greater its
'inertia for rotational motion'. It is this 'rotational inertia' of the body which is called its moment of
inertia about its axis or rotation, —this name being given to it on the analogy of the moment of the
couple which it opposes.
It will thus be seen that the moment of inertia of a body, in the case of rotational motion,
plays the same part as, or is the analogue of, the mass of a body in the case of translatory motion;
and we may, therefore, for purposes of analogy, describe the moment of inertia of a body, in
rotational motion, as the 'effectiveness of the mass'. Or, pushing the analogy of a little further, we
may define mass as the 'coefficient of inertia' for translatory motion, and the moment of inertia. as
the 'coefficient of rotational inertia'.

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Examples for rotational motion

• The spinning of a top on its axis.
• The rotation of the earth on its axis.
• Turbine
• Ferris wheel
• Spinning wheel

Source: https://physicsabout.com/motion/

Yet, with all this seeming similarity, there is all the difference between the two cases.
For in the case of translatory motion(linear dynamics), the inertia of the body depends wholly upon
its mass and is, therefore, measured in terms of it alone. In the case of rotational motion(rotational
dynamics), on the other hand, the rotational inertia, or the moment of inertia, of the body depends
not only upon the mass (M) of the body but also upon the 'effective distance', (K) of its particles
from the axis of rotation and is measured by the expression MK2.

Table 2.1. Relation analogy between Linear and rotational dynamics

Concept Linear dynamics Rotational dynamics

Displacement 𝑠 𝜃

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Velocity 𝑣 𝜔

Acceleration 𝑎 𝛼

Cause of acceleration Fnet, net force 𝜏𝑛𝑒𝑡 , net torque

Inertia M, mass I, Moment of inertia

Newton’s second law 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 𝜏 = 𝐼𝛼

Work 𝑊 = 𝐹. 𝑠 𝑊 = 𝜏. 𝜃

Kinetic energy 1 1
KT = 2 𝑚𝑣 2 . KR = 2 𝐼𝜔2
Momentum 𝑃 = 𝑚𝑣 𝐿 = 𝐼𝜔

2.2 MOMENT OF INERTIA

Definition:
If a rigid body consists of a finite number of particles of masses 𝑚1 , 𝑚2 , 𝑚3 ⋯ 𝑒𝑡𝑐., at distance
𝑟1 , 𝑟2 , 𝑟3 ⋯ 𝑒𝑡𝑐.,from a given straight line XY (Fig 2.1) the moment of inertia of the body about the
given line is given by,

r m
r m
r m

y
Fig.2.1.

𝐼 = 𝑚1 𝑟1 2 + 𝑚2 𝑟2 2 + 𝑚3 𝑟3 2 + ⋯ = ∑𝑚𝑟 2
Unit: 𝑘𝑔 𝑚2
Dimensional formula [𝐼] = [𝑀𝐿2 ]
Radius of Gyration: Suppose the whole mass of the body (M) is concentrated at a point distance
k from the axis such that 𝑀. 𝑘 2 = ∑ 𝑚𝑟 2 = I.
Then k is called radius of gyration of the body about the given axis. 𝑘 = √𝐼 ⁄𝑀 .
Derivation:

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• Consider a body having n number of particles each having a mass of m.

• Let the perpendicular distance from the axis of rotation be given by r1, r2, r3,…,rn.
• We know that the MOI in terms of radius of gyration is given by the eq (1).
• Sub the values in the eq, we get the MOI of the body as follows
I = 𝑚1 𝑟12 + 𝑚2 𝑟22 + 𝑚3 𝑟32 +………+ 𝑚𝑛 𝑟𝑛2 ----------(3)
If all the particles have the same mass then eq (3) can be rewritten as:
I = 𝑚(𝑟12 + 𝑟22 + 𝑟32 + ………+ 𝑟𝑛2 ) ---------- (4)
Since 𝒎 = M/n being the total mass of the body,
𝑀(𝑟12 + 𝑟22 +𝑟32 +………+ 𝑟𝑛2 )
I= ---------- (5)
𝑛
𝑀(𝑟12 + 𝑟22 +𝑟32 +………+ 𝑟𝑛2 )
𝑀𝑘 2 = ---------- (6)
𝑛
𝑀(𝑟12 + 𝑟22 +𝑟32 +………+ 𝑟𝑛2 )
𝑀𝑘 2 = ---------- (7)
𝑛
(𝑟12 + 𝑟22 +𝑟32 +………+ 𝑟𝑛2 )
𝑘2 = ---------- (8)
𝑛
(𝑟12 + 𝑟22 +𝑟32 +………+ 𝑟𝑛2 )
𝑘= √ ---------- (9)
𝑛
From the equation above, we can say that the
• radius of gyration actually the root-mean-square distance of different particles of the
body.
• It is from the axis of rotation.

Uses:
➢ The radius of gyration is used to compare how various structural shapes will behave
under compression along an axis.
➢ It is used to predict buckling in a compression beam or member
International unit of gyradius or radius of gyration
• The SI unit for the radius of gyration is the length or in inches or millimetres or in feet.
• It is the sq. root of inertia divided by the area of the object.
Factors that radius of gyration depends
• A portion of the elements that impact the estimation of the radius of gyration is the size
and state of the body.
• It is the arrangement of the rotational axis and position.
• It likewise relies upon the mass appropriation regarding the rotational axis of the body.

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Physical significance of M.I.

In translation motion F=ma. In rotational motion 𝜏⃗ = 𝐼𝛼.
This suggests that as we associate a force with the linear acceleration of a body, so we may
associate a torque with the angular acceleration of a body about a given axis. Mass M is a measure
of the resistance of a body offers to having its translation motion changes by given force. Similarly,
moment of inertia I is a measure of the resistance of a body offers to having its rotational motion
changed by a given torque. Thus M.I. plays the same role in rotational motion as mass does in
translation motion.

2.3 THEOREMS OF MOMENT OF INERTIA

There are two general theorems of great importance on moment of inertia which, in some
cases, enable us to determine the moment of inertia of a body about an axis, if its moment of inertia
about some other axis be known.

Theorems of Moment of
inertia

Perpendicular axes
Parallel axes theorem
theorem

2.4 PARALLEL AXIS THEOREM:

Statement: If I is a moment of inertia of a body about an axis through its centre of mass

and 𝐼 ′ is the moment of inertia about a parallel axis at a perpendicular distance h from the

first axis, then 𝐼 ′ = 𝐼 + 𝑀ℎ2 , where M is the mass of the body.

Proof: AB is an axis passing though the centre of the mass of the body G(Fig.2.2). CD is parallel
axis at a perpendicular distance h from AB. M is the mass of the body.

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Fig. 2.2. Parallel axes theorem

Consider a particle P of mass at a distance x from AB.
M.I. of the Particle P about AB = 𝑚𝑥 2
M.I. of the whole body about AB = I = ∑ 𝑚𝑥 2
M.I. of the Particle P about CD = 𝑚(𝑥 + ℎ)2
= 𝑚(𝑥 2 + ℎ2 + 2𝑥ℎ)
= 𝑚𝑥 2 + 𝑚ℎ2 + 2𝑚𝑥ℎ.
M.I. of the whole body about CD
= 𝐼 ′ = ∑𝑚𝑥 2 + ∑𝑚ℎ2 + ∑2𝑚𝑥ℎ.
But ∑𝑚𝑥 2 = 𝐼. ∑𝑚ℎ2 = 𝑀ℎ2
𝐼 ′ = 𝐼 + 𝑀ℎ2 + 2ℎ∑𝑚𝑥
Now ∑𝑚𝑥 is the algebraic sum of the moments of all the particles about G.
Since the body is balanced about the centre of mass 𝐺 . ∑𝑚𝑥= 0.
𝐼 ′ = 𝐼 + 𝑀ℎ2 .

CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

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Using the parallel axis theorem, what is the moment of inertia of the rod of
mass m about the axis shown below?

Answer:
7
𝐼= 𝑚𝐿2
36

2.5 PERPENDICULAR AXIS THEOREM:

Statement: If 𝐼𝑥 and 𝐼𝑦 are the moment of inertia of a lamina about two rectangle axes 𝑂𝑋 and
𝑂𝑌 in its plane. Its moment of inertia about an axis 𝑂𝑍, perpendicular to its plane, 𝐼𝑧 = 𝐼𝑥 + 𝐼𝑦 .
z

X
O
9 Y x
r P

Fig.2.3. Perpendicular axes theorem

Proof: Let 𝑂𝑋 and 𝑂𝑌 be the two perpendicular axes in the plane of the lamina and 𝑂𝑍 an axis
perpendicular to the lamina (Fig 2.3). Consider a particle P, mass m in the plane of the lamina.

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𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑟 are the distance of the particle from 𝑂𝑌, 𝑂𝑋 and 𝑂𝑍 respectively.
Moment of inertia of the particle about 𝑂𝑍 = 𝑚𝑟 2
∴ M.I of the lamina about 𝑂𝑍 = ∑𝑚𝑟 2
Similarly, M.I of the lamina about 𝑂𝑋 = ∑𝑚𝑦 2
M.I of the lamina about 𝑂𝑌 = ∑𝑚𝑥 2
But
𝑟2 = 𝑥2 + 𝑦2
∑𝑚𝑟 2 = ∑m(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ) = ∑𝑚𝑥 2 + ∑𝑚𝑦 2
∑𝑚𝑟 2 = 𝐼𝑧 ; ∑𝑚𝑥 2 = 𝐼𝑦 ; ∑𝑚𝑦 2 = 𝐼𝑥
𝐼𝑧 = 𝐼𝑦 + 𝐼𝑥
2.6 MOMENT OF INERTIA OF SOME RIGID BODIES.
Common Method for Computation of Moment of Inertia:
The moment of inertia of a continuous homogeneous body with definite geometrical shape
about a given axis can be evaluated in the following manner :
(i) First of all, an infinitesimal element of mass dm of the body is so chosen that every
particle of it lies at the same distance from the given axis.
(ii) The mass (dm) of the element is then multiplied by the square of the distance from the
given axis, the expression for moment of inertia of this element (r2 dm) about the
given axis is found.
(iii) The expression r2 dm is then integrated within the limits so as to cover whole of the
body.
2.6.1 Calculation of MOI of rigid bodies

The system is divided into an infinitesimal

element of mass ‘dm’ and if ‘x’ is the
distance from the mass element to the axis Using
of rotation
MOI = ∫ r2 dm

∴ in the calculation of MOI

MOI of continuous mass of various rigid bodies
distribution is found by
using the integration
technique.

2.6.2 MOMENT OF INERTIA OF A UNIFORM ROD:

Let us understand the derivation of the moment of inertia for the two moments.

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1. When the axis is through the centre of the mass.

We have to keep in mind a few things;
• We have to imagine that the rod is divided into many pieces of infinitesimally thin slices.
• Each slice will have a length of dx and a mass of dm.
• We have to identify the variable to be summed.

Fig.2.4. M.I of a uniform rod

Consider a small element of length 𝑑𝑥 of the rod at a distance 𝑥 from 𝐺,
mass of this element = product of the mass per unit length and length of the element,
𝑀
m = ( 𝑙 ) . 𝑑𝑥
The moment of inertia of the element 𝑑𝑥 about the axis 𝑌𝑌 ′ is,

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𝑀
( 𝑙 . 𝑑𝑥) . 𝑥 2 ⋯1
′
The moment of inertia of the whole rod about 𝑌𝑌 is determined by integrating the eqn.(1) within
the limits
𝑙 𝑙
𝑥 = − 𝑡𝑜 𝑥 = +
2 2
+𝑙⁄2
+𝑙⁄2 𝑀 𝑀 +𝑙⁄2 𝑀 𝑥3
𝐼𝐶𝐺 = ∫−𝑙⁄2 ( 𝑙 . 𝑑𝑥) . 𝑥 2 = ∫−𝑙⁄2 𝑥 2 . 𝑑𝑥= [3]
𝑙 𝑙 −𝑙⁄2
2
𝑀𝑙
𝐼𝐶𝐺 =
12
(𝑖𝑖) About an axis passing through its one end and perpendicular to its length:

The moment of inertia 𝐼 about a parallel axis 𝑌1 𝑌1 ′ passing through one end 𝐴 can be obtained
by using the theorem of parallel axis. According to which,
𝑀𝑙 2 𝑙 2
𝐼 = 𝐼𝐶𝐺 + 𝑀. (𝐺𝐴)2 = + 𝑀. (2)
12
𝑀𝑙2
∴𝐼= 3
2.6.3 MOMENT OF INERTIA OF A CIRCULAR DISC
(i) About an axis through its centre and perpendicular to its plane

Consider a uniform circular disc of mass M. R is the radius of the disc, O the centre and 𝜌 the
mass per unit area. Consider an elementary ring of radius 𝑥 and width 𝑑𝑥 (Fig 2.5) .

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Fig. 2.5. M.I of a circular disc

• In the figure, we can see a uniform thin disk with radius r rotating about a Z-axis passing
through the centre.
• As we have a thin disk, the mass is distributed all over the x and y plane.
• Then, we move on to establishing the relation for surface mass density (σ) where it is
defined as or said to be the mass per unit surface area.
• Since the disk is uniform, therefore, the surface mass density will also be constant where;
σ= m / A
m = σA ; dm=σ(dA)
The area to be made of a collection of rings that are mostly thin in nature.
The thin rings are said to be the mass increment (dm) of radius r which are at equal
distance from the axis.
The small area (dA) of every ring is further expressed by the length (2πr) times the small
width of the rings (dr.)

Area of the ring = A = πr2, dA = d(πr2) = πdr2 = 2πrdr

I = O∫R r2σ(πr)dr
I = 2 π σO∫R r3dr
I = 2 πσ r4 / 4 |oR
I = 2 πσ (R4 / 4 – 0)
I = 2 π (m / 4 )(R4 / 4)
I = 2 π (m / π r2 )(R4 / 4)
1
𝐼 = 2 𝑀𝑅 2 .

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1
(𝑖𝑖) M.I of the disc about the diameter = 𝐼𝑑 = 𝑀𝑅 2 by perpendicular axes theorem.
4
(𝑖𝑖𝑖) Moment of Inertia about a Tangent in its plane.
By the application of theorem of the parallel axes
1 5
𝐼𝑡 = 𝐼𝑑 + 𝑀𝑅 2 = 4 𝑀𝑅 2 + 𝑀𝑅 2 = 4 𝑀𝑅 2 .
2.6.4 MOMENT OF INERTIA OF A SOLID CYLINDER
(𝑖)about the central axis.
➢ The solid cylinder has to be cut or split into infinitesimally thin rings.
➢ Each ring consists of the thickness of dr with length L.
➢ We have to sum up the moments of infinitesimally these thin cylindrical shells.

Fig. 2.6. M.I of a solid cylinder

We will follow the given steps.
1. We will use the general equation of moment of inertia:
dI = r2 dm
Now we move on to finding the dm. It is normally given as;
dm = ρ dV
In order to obtain dm we have to calculate dv first. It is given as;
dV = dA L
Meanwhile, dA is the area of the big ring (radius: r + dr) minus the smaller ring (radius: r).
𝑑𝐴 = 𝜋(𝑟 + 𝑑𝑟)2 − 𝜋𝑟 2
𝑑𝐴 = 𝜋(𝑟 2 + 2𝑟𝑑𝑟 + 𝑑𝑟 2 𝑑𝑟) − 𝜋𝑟 2
Notably, here the (dr)2 = 0.
𝑑𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑟
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2. Substitution of dA into dV we get;

dV = dAL = 2πrdrL
Now, we substitute dV into dm and we will have;
dm = (2πrdr)Lρ
The dm expression is further substituted into the dI equation and we get;
𝑑𝐼 = ∫ 𝑟 2 (2𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑟)𝐿𝜌
𝑅
𝐼 = 2𝜋𝐿𝜌 ∫ 𝑟 3 𝑑𝑟
0
𝐼 = 2𝜋𝐿𝜌[𝑅 4 ⁄4 ]

3. Alternatively, we have to find the expression for density as well. We use the equation;

𝜌 = 𝑀⁄𝑉
𝜌 = 𝑀⁄𝜋𝑅 2 𝐿

4. The final step involves using integration to find the moment of inertia of the solid
cylinder. The integration basically takes the form of a polynomial integral form.
𝐼 = 2𝜋𝐿𝜌[𝑅 4 ⁄4 ]
𝑀
𝐼 = 2𝜋𝐿 2 [𝑅 4 ⁄4 ]
𝜋𝑅 𝐿
𝑀
𝐼 = 2𝜋𝐿 2 [𝑅 4 ⁄4 ]
𝜋𝑅 𝐿
1
= 𝑀𝑅 2
2

2.6.5 MOMENT OF INERTIA OF A HOLLOW CYLINDER

It is quite similar to the derivation of the moment of inertia of a solid cylinder.

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Fig. 2.7. M.I of a hollow cylinder

1. First, let us recall the moment of inertia equation:

dI = r2 dm
Here we have to find dm. It is given as;
dm = ρ dV
Since we have mentioned dV in the above equation, we have to calculate it.
It will be given as;
dV = dA h
Here the dA is considered as the area of the ring on top. Now we get;
dA = π (r + dr)2 – π r2
dA = π (r2 + 2rdr + (dr)2) – π r2
Here, (dr)2 = 0.
dA = 2 π r dr
We can also find dA by differentiating method.
A = π r2
If we differentiate wrt r,
dA = 2 π r dr
2. We have to substitute dA into dV.
dV = 2 π r h dr
If we substitute into dm we get;
dm = ρ 2 π r h dr
We then substitute the dm expression into the dI equation.
dI = r2 ρ 2 π r hdr
dl = ρ 2 π r3 h dr
3. Now, we can find the expression for density. We use the equation;

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ρ = M/V
Now,
ρ = M / hπ(r22 – r12)
4. The next step involves using integration to find the moment of inertia. The integration
basically occurs from the inner radius to the outer radius:
dl = ρ 2 π r3 h dr
I = 2 ρ π h r1∫r2 r3 dr = 2 ρ π h [r24/ 4 – r14/ 4]
= (ρ π h/2) [r24– r14]
I =(π h/2) [ M / π (r22 – r22) h] [ (r22 – r12) (r22 + r12)]
I = ½ M (r22 + r12)
Now, if we take a thin hollow cylinder, setting r = r1 = r2 and replacing it into the first equation
we get;
I = Mr2
2.6.6 MOMENT OF INERTIA OF A SOLID SPHERE

Fig. 2.8. M.I of a solid sphere

The moment of inertia of a sphere expression is obtained in two ways.

First, we take the solid sphere and slice it up into infinitesimally thin solid cylinders.
Then we have to sum the moments of exceedingly small thin disks in a given axis from
left to right.
We will look and understand the derivation below.
First, we take the moment of inertia of a disc that is thin. It is given as;
I = (½ )MR2
In this case, we write it as;
dI (infinitesimally moment of inertia element) = ½ r2dm
Find the dm and dv using;
dm = ρ dv

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ρ = density of a thin disk of mass dm, dv = volume of the thin disk

dv = π r2 dx
Now we replace dV into dm. We get;
dm = ρ π r2 dx
And finally, we replace dm with dI.
dI = (½) ρ π r4 dx
The next step involves adding x to the equation. If we look at the diagram we see that r, R
and x forms a triangle. Now we will use the Pythagoras theorem which gives us;
r2 = R2 – x2
Now if we substitute the values we get;
dI = ½ ρπ (R2 – x2)2 dx
This leads to:
I = ½ ρ π -R∫R (R2 – x2)2 dx
= 2M/R3 × 0∫R x4 dx
Limits:
As x increases from 0 to R, the elemental shell covers the whole spherical surface.
I = 2M/R3 [x5/5]R0
= 2M/R3 × R5/5
Therefore, the moment of inertia of a uniform solid sphere
I = 2MR2/5

2.6.7 MOMENT OF INERTIA OF A HOLLOW SPHERE

• Consider or recall the moment of inertia of a circle which is
I = mr2
If we apply differential analysis we get;
dl = r2 dm
• We have to find the dm,
dm = (M/A) dA
Here, A is the total surface area of the shell = 4πR2
(Total surface area of the shell)
dA is the area of the ring formed by differentiation and is expressed as;
dA = R dθ × 2πr [2πr is the circumference of the ring]

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Fig. 2.9. M.I of a hollow sphere

R dθ is the thickness of the circular ring

Note: We get R dθ from the equation of arc length which is
S = Rdθ
• The next step involves relating r with θ.
If we look at the diagram that is given above, we will see that a right angle triangle with angle θ
is present.
We get, sin θ = r /R
r = R sin θ
Now dA becomes:
dA = Rdθ × 2πRsinθ
dA = 2πR2sinθ dθ
If we substitute the equation for dA into dm, we get:
dm = (M/A) dA
dm = (M/4πR2)2πR2sinθ dθ
dm = (M/2)sinθ dθ
We will now substitute the equation given above and for r into the equation for dI.
We will get;
dI = r2(M/2)sin2θ dθ
= (Rsinθ)2(M/2)sin2θ dθ
= (MR2/2)sin3θ dθ
Now, we need to split the sin3θ into two, as it depicts the case of integral of odd powered
trigonometrical functions.
We get;
𝑀𝑅 2
dI = sin2 θ sin θ dθ
2
However, sin2 θ is normally given as sin2 θ = 1- cos2 θ.
Now,

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𝑀𝑅 2
dI = = (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃
2
Integrating within the limits of 0 to π radians. From one end to another.
𝑀𝑅 2 𝜋
𝐼= ∫ (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃) 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃
2 0
we use substitution where u = cos θ.
𝑀𝑅 2 −1 2
𝐼= ∫ (𝑢 − 1) 𝑑𝑢
2 1
−1
𝑀𝑅 2 𝑢3
𝐼= [ − 𝑢]
2 3 1
𝑀𝑅 2 (−1)3 (1)3
𝐼= [ − (−1) − ( − (1))]
2 3 3
𝑀𝑅 2 −1 1
𝐼= [ + 1 − + 1]
2 3 3
𝑀𝑅 2 2+6
𝐼= [− ]
2 3
𝑀𝑅 2 4
𝐼= [ ]
2 3
2
𝑰 = 𝑴𝑹𝟐
3

Table 2.2 : MOMENT OF INERTIA OF SOME REGULAR BODIES OF MASS M

S.No Name of the body Axis of rotation Moment of
inertia
1. (𝒂) About the mid-point of the 1
𝐼= 𝑀𝑙 2
Thin rod of length 𝑙 perpendicular to length 12
(𝒃) About one end of the rod 1
𝐼 = 𝑀𝑙 2
3
2. (𝒂) About an axis passing 1
𝐼 = 𝑀𝑅 2
through its centre and 2
Circular disc of radius perpendicular to its plane
R (𝒃) About Diameter 1
𝐼 = 𝑀𝑅 2
4
(𝒄) About any tangent (parallel 5
𝐼 = 𝑀𝑅 2
to diameter) 4
3. Solid Cylinder (𝒂) About an axis passing 1
𝐼 = 𝑀𝑅 2
through its centre 2

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4. Hollow Cylinder (𝒂) About an axis passing I = Mr2

through its centre
5. (𝒂) About a diameter 2
𝐼 = 𝑀𝑅 2
Solid sphere of radius 5
R (𝒃) About a tangent 7
𝐼 = 𝑀𝑅 2
5
6. Hollow Sphere (𝒂) About a diameter 2
𝐼 = 𝑀𝑅 2
3

2.7 EXPRESSION FOR ROTATIONAL KINETIC ENERGY

A rigid rotating body about a fixed axis possesses kinetic energy because its constituent articles
are in motion, even though the body as a whole remains in its place.
The energy of body by virtue of its rotational motion is called rotational energy.

The rotational kinetic energy of the grindstone is converted to heat, light, sound, and vibration.
(source: Zachary David Bell, US Navy)

A KERS (kinetic energy recovery system) flywheel used in cars. (source: “cmonville”/Flickr)

In order to derive an expression for the rotational kinetic energy, suppose a rigid body is rotating

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about an axis 𝑋𝑌 with a uniform angular velocity 𝜔. Let the body be composed of a large number
of tiny particles of masses 𝑚1 , 𝑚2 , 𝑚3 ⋯etc. situated at a distance 𝑟1 , 𝑟2 , 𝑟3 , ⋯etc. from the axis of
rotation (Fig.2.10).


X
r1 m1
r2
r3
r4 m2
r5
r6
m3

y
Fig. 2.10. A rigid rotating body about a fixed axis

As the body rotates, all the particles of the body have the same angular velocity 𝜔, but move with
different linear velocities. Let 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , 𝑣3⋯ etc. be the linear speeds of masses 𝑚1 , 𝑚2 , 𝑚3⋯ etc.
respectively. A particle of mass 𝑚1 at a distance 𝑟1 from the axis of rotation has a linear velocity
1 1
𝑣1 = 𝑟1 𝜔. Its kinetic energy is, therefore, 2 𝑚1 𝑣12 = 2 𝑚1 𝑟12 𝜔2 .
Similarly the kinetic energy of another particle of mass 𝑚2 at a distance 𝑟2 from the axis rotation
1
is 2 𝑚2 𝑟22 𝜔2 and so on. The total kinetic energy E of the body is the sum of kinetic energies of the
various particles with which the body is made. Hence the kinetic energy of the body,
1 1 1
𝑇 = 𝑚1 𝑟12 𝜔2 + 𝑚2 𝑟22 𝜔2 + 𝑚3 𝑟32 𝜔2 + ⋯
2 2 2
1 2
= 𝜔 (𝑚1 𝑟12 + 𝑚2 𝑟22 + 𝑚3 𝑟32 + ⋯ )
2
1 2 1
= 𝜔 ∑𝑚𝑟 2 = 𝐼𝜔2 [∴ 𝐼 = ∑𝑚𝑟 2 ]
2 2
𝟏
𝑻 = 𝑰𝝎𝟐
𝟐
Hence the kinetic energy of rotation of the body is half the product of moment of the inertia of
the body about the axis of rotation and the square of the angular velocity of the body.
Now if 𝜔 = 1, 𝐼 = 2.K.E
Thus the moment of inertia of the body about its axis of rotation is equal to the kinetic energy
of the body when it rotates with unit angular velocity about that axis.

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CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING

A nuclear submarine propeller has a moment of inertia of 800.0 kg·m2. If the

submerged propeller has a rotation rate of 4.0 rev/s when the engine is cut,
what is the rotation rate of the propeller after 5.0 s when water resistance has
taken 50,000 J out of the system?

Answer:
The initial rotational kinetic energy of the propeller is
1 1
K0 = 𝐼𝜔2 = (800)(4 × 2𝜋)2 = 2.53 × 105 J
2 2

At 5.0 s the new rotational kinetic energy of the propeller is

K f = 2.53 × 105 J
and the new angular velocity is
2(2.53×105 )
𝜔=√ =22.53rad/s
800.0
which is 3.58 rev/s.

2.8 TORSIONAL PENDULUM THEORY

A body suspended by a thread or wire which twists first in one direction and then in the
reverse direction, in the horizontal plane is called a torsional pendulum. The first torsion pendulum
was developed by Robert Leslie in 1793.
A simple schematic representation of a torsion pendulum is given below,

Fig.2.14. Torsional Pendulum

The period of oscillation of torsion pendulum is given as,

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𝐼
𝑇 = 2𝜋√𝐶 ⋯ (1)
Where I=moment of inertia of the suspended body; C=couple/unit twist
But we have an expression for couple per unit twist C as,
1 𝜋𝜂𝑟 4
𝐶=2 ⋯ (2)
𝑙
Where 𝑙 =length of the suspension wire; r=radius of the wire; 𝜂=rigidity modulus of the
suspension wire
Substituting (2) in (1) and squaring,
we get an expression for rigidity modulus for the suspension wire as,
8𝜋𝐼𝑙
𝜂 = 𝑟 4𝑇 2 ⋯ (3)
We can use the above formula directly if we calculate the moment of inertia of the disc,I as
(1/2)MR2.

Now, let I0 be the moment of inertia of the disc alone and I1 & I2 be the moment of inertia of the
disc with identical masses at distances d1&d2 respectively. If Ig is the moment of inertia of each
identical mass about the vertical axis passing through its centre of gravity, then
𝐼1 = 𝐼0 + 2𝐼𝑔 + 2𝑚𝑑12 ⋯ (4)
𝐼2 = 𝐼0 + 2𝐼𝑔 + 2𝑚𝑑22 ⋯ (5)
𝐼2 − 𝐼1 = 2𝑚(𝑑22 − 𝑑12 ) ⋯ (6)

But from equation (1) ,

𝐼
𝑇02 = 4𝜋 2 𝐶0 ⋯ (7)
𝐼
𝑇12 = 4𝜋 2 𝐶1 ⋯ (8)
𝐼
𝑇22 = 4𝜋 2 𝐶2 ⋯ (9)
4𝜋 2
𝑇22 − 𝑇12 = (𝐼2 − 𝐼1 ) ⋯ (10)
𝐶

Where T0,T1,T2 are the periods of torsional oscillation without identical mass,with identical pass
at position d1,d2 respectively.
Dividing equation (7) by (10) and using (5),
𝑇02 𝐼0 𝐼0
[𝑇22 −𝑇12 ]
= [𝐼 = ⋯ (11)
2 −𝐼1 ] 2𝑚(𝑑22 −𝑑12 )
Therefore, the moment of inertia of the disc,
𝑇02
𝐼0 = 2𝑚(𝑑22 − 𝑑12 ) [𝑇2 −𝑇12 ]
2 ⋯ (12)

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Now substituting eq (2) and (5) in (10),

16𝜋𝑚(𝑑22 − 𝑑12 ) 𝑙
𝜂= ( 2 ) ⋯ (13)
𝑟 4 𝑇2 − 𝑇12
Applications of Torsional Pendulum
➢ Haller torsion pendulum anniversary clock: The working of “ Torsion pendulum
clocks " ( shortly torsion clocks or pendulum clocks), is based on torsional oscillation.
➢ The freely decaying oscillation of Torsion pendulum in medium (like polymers), helps
to determine their characteristic properties.
➢ New researches, promising the determination of frictional forces between solid surfaces
and flowing liquid environments using forced torsion pendulums.

Solved Problems
1. A 200-gram ball, m1 and a 100-gram ball, m2, connected by a rod with length of 60 cm.
Ignore rod’s mass. The axis of rotation located at ball m2. What is the moment of inertia of
the balls. Ignore rod’s mass.

Mass of ball 1 (m1) = 200 gram = 200/1000 = 0.2 kg

The distance between ball 1 and the axis of rotation (r1) = 60 cm = 60/100 = 0.6 m
Mass of ball 2 (m2) = 100 gram = 100/1000 = 0.1 kg
The distance between ball 2 and the axis of rotation (r2) = 0 m
I = m1 r12 + m2 r22
I = (0.2 kg)(0,6 m)2 + (0.2 kg)(0)2
I = (0.2 kg)(0.36 m2) + 0
I = 0.072 kg m2
2. The mass of each ball is 100 gram, connected by cord. The length of cord is 60 cm and the
width of cord is 30 cm. What is the moment of inertia of the balls about the axis of rotation.
Ignore cord’s mass.

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Mass of ball = m1 = m2 = m3 = m4 = 100 gram = 100/1000 = 0.1 kg

The distance between ball and the axis of rotation (r1) = 30 cm = 30/100 = 0.3 m
The distance between ball 2 and the axis of rotation (r2) = 30 cm = 30/100 = 0.3 m
The distance between ball 3 and the axis of rotation (r3) = 30 cm = 30/100 = 0.3 m
The distance between ball 4 and the axis of rotation (r4) = 30 cm = 30/100 = 0.3 m
3. What is the moment of inertia of a 2-kg long uniform rod with length of 2 m. The axis of
rotation located at the center of the rod.
Mass of rod (M) = 2 kg
The length of rod (L) = 2 m
The formula of the moment of inertia when the axis of rotation located at the center of long
uniform rod :
I = (1/12) M L2
I = (1/12) (2 kg)(2 m)2
I = 8/12 kg m2
I = 2/3 kg m2
4. What is the moment of inertia of a 2-kg long uniform rod with a length of 2 m? The axis of
rotation located at one end of the rod.
Mass of rod (M) = 2 kg
The length of rigid rod (L) = 2 m
The formula of the moment of inertia when the axis of rotation located at one end of the rod :
I = (1/3) M L2
I = (1/3) (2 kg)(2 m)2
I = 8/3 kg m2
5. A 20-kg uniform sphere with the length of 0.1 m. The axis of rotation located at the center of
the sphere shown in the figure below.
Mass of sphere (M) = 20 kg
The radius of sphere (L) = 0.1 m
The formula of the moment of inertia when the axis of rotation located at the center of the
sphere :
I = (2/5) M R2
I = (2/5)(20 kg)(0.1 m)2
I = 0.4/5 kg m2
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I = 0.08 kg m2
CONCEPT MAP

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SUMMARY

• Moments of inertia can be found by summing or integrating over every ‘piece of

mass’ that makes up an object, multiplied by the square of the distance of each ‘piece
of mass’ to the axis. In integral form the moment of inertia is I=∫r2dmI=∫r2dm.
• Moment of inertia is larger when an object’s mass is farther from the axis of rotation.
• It is possible to find the moment of inertia of an object about a new axis of rotation
once it is known for a parallel axis. This is called the parallel axis theorem given
by Iparallel-axis=Icenter of mass+md2, where d is the distance from the initial axis to
the parallel axis.
• Moment of inertia for a compound object is simply the sum of the moments of inertia
for each individual object that makes up the compound object.
• The magnitude of a torque about a fixed axis is calculated by finding the lever arm to
the point where the force is applied and using the relation |→τ|=r⊥F|, where r⊥ is the
perpendicular distance from the axis to the line upon which the force vector lies.
• The rotational kinetic energy is the kinetic energy of rotation of a rotating rigid body
or system of particles, and is given by K=1/2Iω2, where I is the moment of inertia, or
“rotational mass” of the rigid body or system of particles.

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THERMODYNAMICS
“Iron and heat are… the supporters, the bases, of the mechanic arts.”
— Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Thermodynamics is a branch of physics that deals with heat, work, temperature, and
their relation to energy, radiation, and physical properties of matter. Thermodynamic system
employs the four laws of thermodynamics that form an axiomatic basis.

Thermodynamic system:

Figure 2.14 Thermodynamic system

A thermodynamic system is a finite part of the universe. It is a collection of large
number of particles (atoms and molecules) specified by certain parameters called pressure (P),
Volume (V) and Temperature (T). The remaining part of the universe is called surrounding.
Both are separated by a boundary. We can classify thermodynamics system into three types:

Figure 2.15. Different types of thermodynamic systems

Heat

When an object at higher temperature is placed in contact with another object at lower
temperature, there will be a spontaneous flow of energy from the object at higher temperature
to the one at lower temperature. This energy is called heat.

Temperature:

Temperature is the degree of hotness or coolness of a body. Hotter the body higher is its
temperature. The temperature will determine the direction of heat flow when two bodies are in
thermal contact.
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➢ The SI unit of temperature is kelvin (K).

➢ In our day to day applications, Celsius (˚C) and Fahrenheit (°F) scales are used.
Temperature is measured with a thermometer.

2.2 FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS:

The first law of thermodynamics is a statement of the law of conservation of energy.
The law states that ‘Change in internal energy (ΔU) of the system is equal to heat supplied
to the system (Q) minus the work done by the system (W) on the surroundings’.

Mathematically it is written as

∆𝑈 = 𝑄 − 𝑊

The internal energy of a thermodynamic system can be changed either by heating or by work
as shown in the Table 2.1
Table 2.1 Internal energy changes
Heat flows into the Internal energy
System gains heat Q is positive
system increases
Heat flows out of the Internal energy
System loses heat Q is negative
system decreases
Work is done on the Internal energy Work done on the
W is negative
system increases system
Work is done by the Internal energy Work done by the
W is positive
system decreases system

Based on the above table the sign convention is introduced to use first law of thermodynamics
appropriately. It is shown in the following Table 2.2 and the Figure 2.3

Figure 2.3 The Sign convention for heat and work

Even though we often explain first law of thermodynamics using gases, this law is universal
and applies to liquids and solids.

Quasi-static process:

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Consider a system of an ideal gas kept in a cylinder of volume V at pressure P and

temperature T. When the piston attached to the cylinder moves outward the volume of the gas
will change. As a result the temperature and pressure will also change because all three
variables P,T and V are related by the equation of state 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑁𝑅𝑇. If a block of some mass
is kept on the piston, it will suddenly push the piston downward. The pressure near the piston
will be larger than other parts of the system. It implies that the gas is in non-equilibrium state.
We cannot determine pressure, temperature or internal energy of the system until it reaches
another equilibrium state. But if the piston is pushed very slowly such that at every stage it is
still in equilibrium with surroundings, we can use the equation of state to calculate the internal
energy, pressure or temperature. This kind of process is called quasi-static process.

A quasi-static process is an infinitely slow process in which the system changes its variables
(P, V, T) so slowly such that it remains in thermal, mechanical and chemical equilibrium with
its surroundings throughout. By this infinite slow variation, the system is always almost close
to equilibrium state.

2.2.2 Work done by a Gas

Consider a gas contained in the cylinder fitted with a movable piston. Suppose the gas is
expanded quasi-statically by pushing the piston by a small distance 𝑑𝑥 as shown in Figure 2.4
Since the expansion occurs quasi-statically the pressure, temperature and internal energy will
have unique values at every instant.

Figure 2.4 Work done by the gas

The small work done by the gas on the piston
𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹𝑑𝑥 (1)

The force exerted by the gas on the piston 𝐹 = 𝑃𝐴. Here A is area of the piston and P is
pressure exerted by the gas on the piston.
Equation (1) can be rewritten as
𝑑𝑊 = 𝑃𝐴 𝑑𝑥 (2)
But 𝐴𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑉 = change in volume during this expansion process. So the small work done
by the gas during the expansion is given by
𝑑𝑊 = 𝑃𝑑𝑉 (3)

Note here that 𝑑𝑉 is positive since the volume is increased. So 𝑑𝑊 is positive. In general the
work done by the gas by increasing the volume from 𝑉𝑖 𝑡𝑜𝑉𝑓 is given by
𝑉
𝑊 = ∫𝑉 𝑓 𝑃𝑑𝑉 (5)
𝑖
Suppose if the work is done on the system, then Vi > Vf . Then, W is negative. Note here the
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pressure P is inside the integral in equation (5). It implies that while the system is doing work,
the pressure need not be constant. To evaluate the integration we need to first express the
pressure as a function of volume and temperature using the equation of state.

PV diagram:

Figure 2.5 Work done by the gas during expansion

PV diagram is a graph between pressure P and volume V of the system.
• The 𝑃 − 𝑉 diagram is used to calculate the amount of work done by the gas during
expansion or on the gas during compression.
• The area under the PV diagram will give the work done during expansion or
compression.
• The shape of PV diagram depends on the nature of the thermodynamic process.

2.2.6 Heat Engine

• In the modern technological world, the role of automobile engines plays a vital role in
for transportation.
• In motor bikes and cars there are engines which take in petrol or diesel as input, and
do work by rotating wheels.
• Most of these automobile engines have efficiency not greater than 40%.
• The second law of thermodynamics puts a fundamental restriction on efficiency of
engines. Therefore, understanding heat engines is very important.

Heat engine is a device which takes heat as input and converts this heat in to work by
undergoing a cyclic process.

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Figure 2.11 Heat Engine

A heat engine has three parts:
(a) Hot reservoir
(b) Working substance
(c) Cold reservoir

Reservoir: It is defined as a thermodynamic system which has very large heat capacity. By
taking in heat from reservoir or giving heat to reservoir, the reservoir’s temperature does not
change.

Example:
A Schematic diagram for heat engine is given below in the figure 2.11

1. Hot reservoir (or) Source:

It supplies heat to the engine. It is always maintained at a high temperature TH.

2. Working substance:
It is a substance like gas or water, which converts the heat supplied into work.

A simple example of a heat engine is a steam engine. In olden days steam engines were used
to drive trains. The working substance in these is water which absorbs heat from the burning
of coal. The heat converts the water into steam. This steam is does work by rotating the wheels
of the train, thus making the train move.

3. Cold reservoir (or) Sink:

The heat engine ejects some amount of heat (QL) in to cold reservoir after doing work. It is
always maintained at a low temperature TL.

For example, in the automobile engine, the cold reservoir is the surroundings at room
temperature. The automobile ejects heat to these surroundings through a silencer.

Figure 2.11(a) Heat Engine

The heat engine works in a cyclic process. After a cyclic process it returns to the same state.
Since the heat engine returns to the same state after it ejects heat, the change in the internal
energy of the heat engine is zero.

The efficiency of the heat engine is defined as the ratio of the work done (output) to the heat
absorbed (input) in one cylic process.
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Let the working substance absorb heat QH units from the source and reject QL units to the sink
after doing work W units, as shown in the Figure 2.11(a).
We can write
Input heat = Work done + ejected heat
𝑄𝐻 = 𝑊 + 𝑄𝐿
𝑊 = 𝑄𝐻 – 𝑄𝐿

Then the efficiency of heat engine

useful output 𝑊 𝑄 – 𝑄𝐿
η= = = 𝐻
input 𝑄𝐻 𝑄𝐻

𝑄𝐿
η=1−
𝑄𝐻

Note here that 𝑄𝐻 , 𝑄𝐿 and W all are taken as positive, a sign convention followed in this
expression.

Since 𝑄𝐻 < 𝑄𝐿 the efficiency (η) always less than 1. This implies that heat absorbed is not
completely converted into work. The second law of thermodynamics placed fundamental
restrictions on converting heat completely into work.

We can state the heat engine statement of second law of thermodynamics. This is also
called Kelvin-Planck’s statement.

Kelvin-Planck statement
It is impossible to construct a heat engine that operates in a cycle, whose sole effect is to
convert the heat completely into work. This implies that no heat engine in the universe
can have 100% efficiency.

2.2.7 Second law of Thermodynamics

According to second law of thermodynamics “Heat always flows from hotter object to colder
object spontaneously”. This is known as the Clausius form of second law of
thermodynamics.
𝑄 𝑄 𝑄
• We have seen in the equation that the quantity 𝑇 𝐻 is equal to 𝑇 𝐿.The quantity is called
𝐻 𝐿 𝑇
entropy. It is a very important thermodynamic property of a system.
• It is also a state variable.
𝑄𝐻 𝑄𝐿
• is the entropy received by the Carnot engine from hot reservoir and is entropy
𝑇𝐻 𝑇𝐿
given out by the Carnot engine to the cold reservoir.
• For reversible engines (Carnot Engine) both entropies should be same, so that the
change in entropy of the Carnot engine in one cycle is zero.
• But for all practical engines like diesel and petrol engines which are not reversible
𝑄 𝑄
engines, they satisfy the relation 𝑇 𝐻 > 𝑇 𝐿.
𝐻 𝐿

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Reversible process
A thermodynamic process can be considered reversible only if it possible to retrace the path in
the opposite direction in such a way that the system and surroundings pass through the same
states as in the initial, direct process.

Conditions for reversible process:

1. The process should proceed at an extremely slow rate.
2. The system should remain in mechanical, thermal and chemical equilibrium state at all the
times with the surroundings, during the process.
3. No dissipative forces such as friction, viscosity, electrical resistance should be present.

Irreversible process:
All natural processes are irreversible. Irreversible process cannot be plotted in a PV diagram,
because these processes cannot have unique values of pressure, temperature at every stage of
the process.

The first law of thermodynamics is the statement about conservation of energy in a

thermodynamic process. For example, if a hotter object is placed on a colder object, heat flows
from hotter to colder object.
In nature all process occur only in one direction but not in the reverse direction, even if the
energy is conserved in both the processes. Thus the first law of thermodynamics has no
explanation for this irreversibility. When the scientists of the eighteenth century tried to explain
this irreversibility, they discovered a new law of nature. This is called the second law of
thermodynamics.

2.2.8 Entropy
• Entropy is also called ‘measure of disorder’.
• All natural process occur such that the disorder should always increases.
• For reversible process entropy will not change”. Entropy determines the direction in
which natural process should occur.
• The heat always flows from a state of higher temperature to one of lower temperature
and not in the opposite direction. Because entropy increases when heat flows from hot
object to cold object.
• If heat were to flow from a cold to a hot object, entropy will decrease leading to
violation of second law thermodynamics.

Concept of entropy

In fact, it is very difficult to form a physical concept of entropy, as there is nothing physical to
represent it. Moreover, it cannot be felt like temperature, pressure etc. But according to
definition

Change of entropy = Heat added or subtracted/ absolute temperature = dQ/T

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Figure 2.11(b) Changes of entropy

Unit of Entropy
Unit of entropy depends on the unit of heat used and the absolute temperature. It is measured
calories (or ergs or Joules) per degree Kelvin i.e., cal./K. S.I unit is Joule /K or Kcal/K.

2.2.9 Carnot’s ideal heat engine:

In the year 1824 a young French engineer Sadi Carnot proved that a certain reversible engine
operated in cycle between hot and cold reservoir can have maximum efficiency. This engine is
called Carnot engine.

Figure 2.12 Carnot engine

The Carnot engine has four parts which are given below.

i. Source:
It is the source of heat maintained at constant high temperature TH. Any amount of heat can be
extracted from it, without changing its temperature.
ii. Sink:
It is a cold body maintained at a constant low temperature TL. It can absorb any amount of heat.

iii. Insulating stand:

It is made of perfectly non-conducting material. Heat is not conducted through this stand.

iv. Working substance:

It is an ideal gas enclosed in a cylinder with perfectly non-conducting walls and perfectly
conducting bottom. A non-conducting and frictionless piston is fitted in it.

Carnot’s cycle:
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The working substance is subjected to four successive reversible processes is called Carnot’s
cycle.

Let the initial pressure, volume of the working substance be P1,V1.

Step A to B: Quasi-static isothermal expansion from (P1,V1,TH) to (P2,V2,TH):

The cylinder is placed on the source. The heat (QH) flows from source to the working substance
(ideal gas) through the bottom of the cylinder. Since the process is isothermal, the internal
energy of the working substance will not change. The input heat increases the volume of the
gas. The piston is allowed to move out very slowly (quasi-statically).
W1 is the work done by the gas in expanding from volume V1 to volume V2 with a decrease of
pressure from P1 to P2. Then the work done by the gas (working substance) is given by
𝑉2
𝑄𝐻 = 𝑊𝐴→𝐵 = ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑉
𝑉1

Figure 2.13 PV diagram for Carnot cycle

Since the process occurs quasi-statically, the gas is in equilibrium with the source till it reaches
the final state. The work done in the isothermal expansion is given by
𝑉
𝑄1 = 𝑊𝐴→𝐵 = ∫𝑉 2 𝑃𝑑𝑉
1

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Step B to C: Quasi-static adiabatic expansion from (P2,V2,TH) to (P3,V3,TL)

The cylinder is placed on the insulating stand and the piston is allowed to move out. As the gas
expands adiabatically from volume V2 to volume V3 the pressure falls from P2 to P3. The
temperature falls to TL. This adiabatic process also occurs quasi-statically and implying that
this process is reversible and the ideal gas is in equilibrium throughout the process.

Work done by the gas in an adiabatic expansion is given by

𝑉3
𝑊𝐵→𝐶 = ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑉
𝑉2

𝑅
= [𝑇 − 𝑇𝐿 ] = Area under the curve BC
𝛾−1 𝐻

Step C → D: Quasi-static isothermal compression from (P3,V3,TL)to (P4,V4,TL)

The cylinder is placed on the sink and the gas is isothermally compressed until the pressure
and volume become P4 and V4 respectively. Let WC→D be the work done on the gas.
𝑉4
𝑄𝐿 = 𝑊𝐶→𝐷 = ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑉
𝑉3

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Here V3 > V4. So the work done is negative, implying work is done on the gas.

Step D→A: Quasi-static adiabatic compression from (P4,V4,TL) to (P1,V1,TH)

The cylinder is placed on the insulating stand again and the gas is compressed adiabatically till
it attains the initial pressure P1, volume V1 and temperature TH.
𝑉1
𝑊𝐷→𝐴 = ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑉
𝑉4

= Area

In the adiabatic compression, work is done on the gas so it is negative.

Net workdone by the gas:

𝑊 = 𝑊𝐴→𝐵 + 𝑊𝐵→𝐶 + 𝑊𝐶→𝐷 + 𝑊𝐷→𝐴

𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑊𝐷→𝐴 = − 𝑊𝐵→𝐶

= 𝑊𝐴→𝐵 + 𝑊𝐶→𝐷

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Figure 2.16 Net work done in Carnot cycle

Efficiency of a Carnot engine:

Efficiency is defined as the ratio of work done by the working substance in one cycle to the
amount of heat extracted from the source.

𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 W
η= =
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 QH

From the first law of thermodynamics, 𝑊 = QH − QL

QH − Q QL
L
η= =1−
QH QH
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Applying isothermal conditions, we get,

𝑉2
QH = 𝑅𝑇𝐻 𝑙𝑜𝑔 [ ]
𝑉1

𝑉2
QL = 𝑅𝑇𝐿 𝑙𝑜𝑔 [ ]
𝑉1
Here we omit the negative sign. Since we are interested in only the amount of heat (QL) ejected
into the sink, we have

2.2.12 Newton’s law of cooling:

Newton’s law of cooling states that the rate of
loss of heat of a body is directly proportional to the
difference in the temperature between that body and its
surroundings.
𝑑𝑄
∝ −(𝑇 − 𝑇𝑠 )
𝑑𝑇

Let us consider an object of mass m and specific heat

capacity s at temperature T. Let
Ts be the temperature of the surroundings. If the
temperature falls by a small amount dT
in time dt, then the amount of heat lost is,
𝑑𝑄 = 𝑚𝑠𝑑𝑇 (1)

Dividing both sides by 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑄 𝑚𝑠𝑑𝑇
= (2)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
From Newton’s law of cooling
𝑑𝑄
∝ −(𝑇 − 𝑇𝑠 )
𝑑𝑇
𝑑𝑄
= −𝑎 (𝑇 − 𝑇𝑠 ) (3)
𝑑𝑇
Where ‘a’ is some positive constant.
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From equation (2) and (3)

𝑑𝑇
−𝑎 (𝑇 − 𝑇𝑠 ) = 𝑚𝑠
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑇 𝑎
= 𝑑𝑡 (4)
𝑇−𝑇𝑠 𝑚𝑠
Integrating equation (4) on both sides,

𝑑𝑇 𝑎
∫ =∫ 𝑑𝑡
𝑇 − 𝑇𝑠 𝑚𝑠
𝑎
𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑇 − 𝑇𝑠 = − 𝑡 + 𝑏1
𝑚𝑠
Where b1 is the constant of integration. Taking exponential both sides, we get
𝑎
𝑇 = 𝑇𝑠 + 𝑏2 𝑒 −𝑚𝑠𝑡
Here, b2 = eb1 = constant.

The cooling curve is an exponential decay curve. It is observed from the graph that the
logarithm of the excess of temperature of hot body over that of its surroundings varies
linearly with time as the body cools.

Applications
1. It helps to find the temperature of a soda placed in a refrigerator by a certain amount of
time.
2. It helps to predict that how long it will take for a hot body to cool down at a certain
temperature.
3. It helps to indicate the time of death given the probable body temperature at the time of
death and current body temperature.
4. It helps to determine the specific heat capacity of a substance.
5. It also helps to design radiators/cooling systems in thermal machines.

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