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 Network Routing
Algorithms, Protocols, and
Architectures

Second Edition
 Network Routing
Algorithms, Protocols, and
Architectures

Second Edition

Deep Medhi

Karthik Ramasamy
Morgan Kaufmann is an imprint of Elsevier
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To Karen: the distance cost is now infinite and yet does not feel so
To Deuta: the man who new infinity, probabilistically
To Maa: who has the indefinable ability to see infinity
To Neiloy & Robby: there are infinite paths – take the one you like
— Deep/Debu/Dad

To my wife, Monika, with love

— Karthik
CONTENTS

Foreword (1st Edition) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxv

Preface (2nd Edition) ........................................................... xxvii
Preface (1st Edition) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxix
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

About the Authors . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . ... . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . ... . . . .. . . . .. xxxv

.

PART 1 ROUTING: BASICS ANO FOUNDATIONS

CHAPTER 1 Networking and Network Routing: An Introduction . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1 Addressing and Internet Service: An Over vie w . . . . . . . " . . . . . . . • . . • • . . . . . . . . 4
1.2 Network Routing: An Overview . . . . . . . . • • . . . , . • • . . . • . . 5
1.3 IPv4 Addressing ................................. .. .... .. . . 7
1.3.1 Classful IPv4 Addressing Scheme ... . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . 8
l.3.2 SubnettinglNetmask in IPv4 ................................ 9
1.3.3 Classless Inter-Domain Routi ng (CIDR) ........ . lO
1.4 IPv6 Addressing . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . _ _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II
1.5 On Architectures . . . .. . . . . . . . .... .
. . . . . . . . . . .. 1 I
1.6 Service .Ar chitecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . • • . . . . . . . . , . • . . . • . . . . . . • . . . • . . . . . . . J2
1.7 Protocol Stack Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • • . . . . . • . . . • • . . . . . • . 14
1.7.1 as I Reference Model. ...... . . . ... .. ... . ... . .. .. . . ... .
. . . . . . . . . . J4
1.7.2 IP Protocol Stack Architecture . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . J5
1.8 Router Architecture. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. .. ... ... . .. .. . .
. . . . . .. . .. 20
1. 9 Network Topology Architecture ... .. . . . .. .... . .. . . ..
. . . . 21
1.10 Network Manageme nt A rc hitectur e . . . . . . . . • . . . . 22
1.11 Global Telephone Network......... . . . ..... .... . . . ...... . ... . . . . . . 22
1.12 Communication Technolog i es . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • • . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . • . 24
1.13 Standards Committees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . • . . . • . . . . . . • . . 25
1.\3.1 Internet
Engineering Task Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.13.2 fn ternational Telecommunication Union . . . . . . • • . . . , . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.14 Last Two Bits... . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . . .. . 27
1.14.1 Type.Length. Value (TLV) . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . ... . 27
1.14.2 Network Protocol A nalyzer . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . .... . .. ... . . ... .. 27
1 . 1 5 Summary 28
Further Lookup . . . .. . . . ... . . . . .... . . .. . . . . ..... . . . . . . . . . ... .. . . . . . . 28
Exer ci ses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

CHAPTER 2 Routing Algorithms: Shortest Path, Widest Path, and Spanning Tree ........ 30
2.1 B ackg round . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.2 Bellman-Ford Algorith m and the Di sta nce Vector A ppro ach . ..... . . . .... . . . 33
2.2.1 Centralized View: Bellman-Ford Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • • . . 33
2.2 .2 Di stri buted View: A Distance Vector Approach . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . 36

vii
....�
.. --------------------------------------------
VIII CONTENTS

2.3 Dijks tra's Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . • . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

2.3.1 Centralized Approach..................................... . 38
2.3.2 Distributed Approach . . . .. . . . .... . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . 40
2.4 Compariso n of the Bellman-Ford Algorithm and Dijkstra's Algorithm. . . . • . . . 4J
2.5 Shortest Path Computation with Candidate Path Caching . . . . . . . . . . . _ _ . 43
2.6 Widest Path Computation with Candidate Path Caching . . . . . _ . .. . . .. 45
2.7 Widest Path Algorithm .... . .. . . . . . . . .. . . .... .. .. . .... . . . ... . 47
2. 7.1 Dijkstra-Based Approach.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . 47
2. 7 . 2 Distance Vector-Based Approa ch ...... . . . ... .. . . . 49
2.8 Shortest Widest Path and Widest Shortest Path ..... ... . . ....... . . 49
2.9 Tree, Spanning Tree, and Steiner Tree A lgorithms . . . ...... . . . 49
2. 9.1 Spanning Tree: B r ea dth First Search and Depth First Search ...... .... 50
2. 9.2 Minimum S panning Tree . . . . . . . ..... . . .. . . ..... . . . . . . . . ..... . . 53
2. 9.3 Steiner Tree ... . . ..... . . . . . . . ...... . . .. . . .. . . . . .. 55
2.10 k-Shortest Paths Algorithm . . . . . .... . .... . . . . . . . . . . .....
. . . . . . . • 57
2.11 Summary . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . .... . . . . . . . . .. 59
Further Lookup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • .. . . 60
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

CHAPTER 3 Routing Protocols: Framework and Principles 64

3.1 Routing Protocol, Routing Algori thm, and Routing Table . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . • . . . 65
3.2 Routing Information Representation and Protocol Messages, , . . . . . ... , , , , .. . 68
3.3 Distance Vector Routing Protocol . . . . . . . . . . _ . . . . . . _ . . . • • . . . . . • • _ . 69
3.3.1 Conceptual Framework and lllustration . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ _ . . . 69
3.3.2 Why Timers Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
3.3.3 Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
3.3.4 Can We Avoid Loops? ......................................... . 8J
3.3.5 Distance Vector Protocol based on Diffuslng Computation with
Coordinated Updates (DUAL) . .... . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . ...... . 82
3. 3 . 6 B abe l Routing Protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
3.4 Link State Routing Protocol.. . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . ...... . 90
3.4.1 Link State Protocol: In-Band Hop-by-Hop Dissemination ............ . 91
3.4. 2 Link State Protocol: In-Band Based on End-to-End Session . . . . . . .. .. . 98
3. 4.3 Route Computation. .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . 99
3.5 Path Vector Routing Prot ocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . • . . . . • . . . . . JOO
3.5.1 Basic Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . • . . . . . . . . . . • . . . JOl
3.5.2 Path Vec tor with Path Caching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . J03
3.6 Link C ost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . 108
3.6.1 ARPANET R ou tin g Metrics . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . • . . . 108
3.6.2 Other Metrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . 110
3.7 Threats to Routj ng Protocols . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . • . . . • . . . . . . . . . . IlD
38 . Sum.mary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . • . . . • . . . . . . . . . . • • . . . . . • . . . III
Further Looku p . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . • . . . • . . . . . . • . . • • . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . 112
Exercises .. 112
-------------------------------------------- � ......
CONTENTS IX

CHAPTER 4 Network Flow Models. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . • . . . . . . • . . . • . . . .. . . . .. . . . .. 114

4.1 Terminologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . • • . . . . . • • . . • .I 15
. . • . . • . .

4.2 Single-Commodity Network Flow. . .. .. . . . .. . .

. .. . . . . . . .. ..
. .. .. . . . . .. .. 116
4.2.1 A Three-Node Illustration . ... .. . .. . .. . . . . .. ... . . .. . . .... 116
4.2.2 Formal Description and Minimum Cost Routin
g Objective . _ 1 17
4.2. 3 Variat
ion in Objective: Load Balancing . .. . . . . .. . . 120
4.2.4 Variat
ion in Objective: Average Delay. . . . . . . . .. . . . ... . . 122
4.2.5 Summary and Applicability. . . . .... . ..
. 123
4.3 Multicommodity Network Flow: Three-Node Example........... .... 124
4.3.1 MinimuJU Cost Routing: Illustration.. .. . . . . .. . .... .. . . .. .. 124
4.3.2 Load Balancing: Illustration ........ .. .. ....... ..... ...... .. . 130
4.3.3 Minimulll Average Delay: Illustration ............ ... . ... .. ..... 1 33
4.4 Multicommodity Network Flow: Gen eral Lin k-Path Formulation. . . . . . . . . . • .
. ] 36
4.4.1 Background on Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . 137
4.4.2 Minimum Cost Routing: Gen eral Link-Path Fonnu]atlon . . . . , , . . . . . .. 139
4.4. 3 Load Balancing: Link-Path Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . • . . . . . 141
4.4.4 Minimum Average Delay: Link-Path Formulation. . . . . . . . . • . . . .
. . • . . 142
4.4. 5 How Man y Nonzero Flows at O ptima l ity? ... . . ..... . . ..... . 143
4.5 Multicomillodity Network Flow Problem: Non-Splittablc Flow . . . . . . . . . . . • . . 145
4.6 Node-Link Formulation.. . . . .. . ..... . . .. . ... ..... . . . . . . .. ..... 147
4.6.1 Minimum Cost Single-Commodity Network Flow Problem ... 147
4.6.2 Minimum Cost Multicommodity Network Flow Problem.. .. 150
4.6.3 Load Balan cing Multicommodity Network Flow Problem .... 151
4.6.4 Shottest Path Routing. .... .. . . . ... . . . . ... .. . 15 2
4.6.5 Shortest Path Tree. ... .. .. ...... ...... .. . . ... .. .. ... .. 153
4.7 Gene rating Traffic Matrix.. . . .. . . . ............ . . .... ... .. .. .. .. 153
4.8 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . • .
• . . . . . . . .
• 154
Further Lookup . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . .. . .
. . . .... ....
• 154
Exe rcises ....... . , .
. .
. . ISS

PART 2 INTERNET ROUTING

CHAPTER 5 IP Routing and Distance Vector Protocol Family. . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . .. . . ... 160
5.1 Routers, Networks, and Routing [nfonnation: Some Basics. . ... . . . ... . . .. . .. ]61
5.1.1 Routing Tab l e. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . ... . . ]61
5.1.2 Communication of Routing Informatjon . ... . . .. 1 64
5.2 Static Routes .... .. . . .. . ... . . ... . ... ..... ... . 164
5.3 Routing lnformato
i n Protocol, Version I (RIPv I). . . ... . .... .. . . 165
5.3.1 Communication and Message Format....... ....... .......... 165
5.3.2 Gen eraIOperation .................... ............... ......... 167
5.3.3 [s RIPvl Good to Use? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
5.4 Routing Information Protocol. Version 2 (RIPv2) . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . • .. ..
. 168
5.5 Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP) . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . • . . 171
5.5.1 PacketFormat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • • . . . . . . • . . • . . . . . . • . . 171
....�
.. --------------------------------------------
X CONTENTS

5.5.2 Computing Composite Metric. .... ............ ... . ......... . ..... 172
5.6 Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP) . .. . . . ... .... . .. . . . .. 175
5.6.1 Packet Format.. . . .. . . .. . . .... . . . . . . ... .... . . . ... . .. ... . . . . .. .. 175
5.7 Route Redistribution 177
5.8 Summary .. . 179
Further Loo kup . . . . . . . . . 181
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . 182

CHAPTER 6 OSPF and Integrated IS-IS . . .. . . . ... . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . ... . . . .. 184

6.1 From a Protocol Family to an Instance of a Protocol 185
6.2 OSPF: Protocol Features . . . . . . . ..
. . . . . . .. . . . ... . . . 186
6.2.1 Network Hierarchy ..................................... . 186
6.2.2 Router Classification ......... .. ....... .... . . . . ..... 186
6.2.3 Network Types .......................................... 187
6.2.4 Flooding.. .... . . .. ... ... . .. .. .. .. ... . 188
6.2.5 Link State Advertisement (LSA) Types ..................... . 189
6.2.6 Sub-Protocols ................................................. 189
6.2.7 Ro uting Comp u tation and Equal-Cost MuJtipa t h .................... 190
6.2.8 A dditional Feat ures . . . .. ... .... . . . . ... .. ... . . . . . ..... .... . . . ... 194
6.3 MuJtitopo1ogy Routing In OSPF . .. . ..... .. ...... . ........... .. ..... .. .. 195
6.4 OSPF Packet Format. . . .. . . ...... . . . .. .. ..... . . . . . ... ... . .. 195
6.5 Examples of Router LSA and Network LSA . . . . . . .. 202
6.6 Integrated IS-IS. . . ..... . . .... . . .. . . ... .... . . 203
6.6.1 Key Features. . . .. . .. .... .. .... .. .. .. ... .. .. .. .. . . 204
6.7 Similarities and Differences Between IS-[S and OSPF 207
6.8 OSPFv3 an d IS-IS for IPv6 . . .. . ...... .. . . . .. ..... .. . . . .... .. . 209
6.9 Additiona l Extenso
i ns to OSPF and IS-IS. . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . ..... .. 210
6.10 Summary .. ............ ........... .. .......... ... ... 2 11
Further Lo ok up .. . . . ... . ... . . . . . . .... ... . . .. . . ... . . . . .... . . .. . . . ..... 211
Exercises .. 2 12

CHAPTER 7 IP Traffic Engineering. ............................. .... ............ 214

7.1 Traffic, Stochast icity, De l ay, and Utilization .............................. 215
7.1.1 What Is IP Network Traffic? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 2'15
7.1.2 Traffic and Performance Measures ... . ... . . .. . ... . .... ... . . . . ..... 216
7.1.3 Characterizing Traffic. . . . .... .. . ... . ..... ... . .......... . .. ...... 216
7.1.4 Average Delay in a Single Link System. ......... ............. . . ... 217
7.1.5 Nonstationarity of Traffic. .. .... . . . .. ... .... . . .. ..... .... . 2J 9
7.2 Applications' View . . . . . . . . . . ... . . 220
7.2.1 TCP Throughput and Possible Bottlenecks. . . . . .. . . ...... 220
7.2.2 Bandwidth-Delay Product . . . . .. .... . . . ... ........ . 221
7.2.3 Router Buffer Size . .. .... .. ........ .. .. .... 222
7.3 Tra ffic Engine erin g: An Architectural Framework 222
7 .4 Traffic Engineer i ng; A Four-Node Illustration. ... .. . ..... . . .. .. . ...... . .. 224 .

7.4.1 Network Flow Optimization ..................................... 224

-------------------------------------------- � ......
CONTENTS XI

7.4.2 Shortest Path Routing and Network Flow ........... . 226

7.5 IGP Metric (Link Weight) Determination Problem for the Load Balan cing
Objective: Pre li minary Di sc ussion _ _ . . . . . . . . . . _ _ _ . . . . . . . . . . _ _ _ _ . 231
7.6 Det ermining IGP Link Weigh ts via Duality of MCNF Problems ... . 233
7.6. 1 TIIustration of Duality Through a Thre e-Node Network for Minimu m
Cost Routing .... . _ . ..... . .. . . . . ... .. .. . . . .. .... . . . 233
7.6.2 Minimum Cost Routing, Duality. and Link Weights . . . . . . . . . 235
7.6.3 m ustrati on of D ual i ty Through a Three-Node Network for the Load
B alan cing Obje ctive . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
7.6.4 Load Balancing Prob lem, Duality, and Link Weights . . . . . . . . . 240
7.6.5 A Composite Objective Function, Duality, and Link Wei gh ts . 242
7.6.6 Minim.izatjon of Aver age Delay, D u ali t y, and Link We igh t s .. 243
7.7 Illustration of Link Wejght Determination Through Duality 247
7.7.1 Case Study: I .......................................... . 247
7.7.2 Case Study: 11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . 2 52
7.8 Link Weight Detennlnation: Large Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . • . . 253
7.9 IP Traffic Engineering of PoP-ta-Datacenter Networks . . . . . . . . _ _ 256
7 . 1 0 Sumn1ary . .. . . , . , . . . . . , . . , . . , . . . . . . , , , , , , , . . . . . , , , , , , , • . . . • , , . , , , . , . 25 6
Further Lookup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
Exercises . . . . , ' , . . . . . . . . • . " . , . . • . . . . . . . ' , . • . . . • . . . . . . • . . . • ' , . . . . . . . 257

CHAPTER 8 Multicast Routing _ . . . . _ . . . _ _ . . . . _ _ . . . . . . . . . . . . • . _ . • . . _ _ . . . _ _ . . . . _ _ 260

8. 1 Multicast [P Addressi ng . . . . . . . _ . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 261
8.2 Internet Group Managem ent Protocol (IGMP) . .. _ . . . . . . . . . . • . 266
8.3 Multicast Listener Discovery Protocol (MLD) . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . 267
8.4 Reverse Path Forwarding (RPF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . • . . . . . . . . 268
8.5 Dista nc e Vector Multicast Routing Protocol (DVMRP) . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . 269
8.6 Mult icast OS PF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . • • . . . . . . 270
8.7 Core Based Trees.................................................. . 273
8.8 Protocol Independent Multicast (P[M) . . ... . . . . . . • . 274
8.8.1 PIM-Dense Mode . . .. .. . .. . . . . .. .. . .. . . . .. . . ... .. .. . . .. 275
8.8.2 PIM-Sparse Mode .................................... . 277
8.8.3 SeJectjng and Ad vertis in g Rendezvous Point for PIM Sparse Mode 279
8.8.4 Source Specific Multicast . .. . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
8.9 Inter-Domain Multicast Routing .......................... . 280
8.9.1 Border Gateway Multicast Protocol (BGMP) .. 280
8.9.2 Multiprotocol Extension of BGP and a Composite Approach ... 2Sl
8. 1 0 Internet Protocol Television (IPTV) Multicasting.... . . . . . . . ...... . . 283
8 . 1 1 Summar y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . .. 284
Further Lookup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . • . . . • . . . . . . . .. 284
Exerci ses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . 285

CHAPTER 9 BGP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . • . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286

9.1 BGP: A Brief Over v iew . . . . . . . • . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . • . . . . • . . .. . ... 287
9 2 . 8GP: B as ic Terminology . . . . . . • . . . • . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . .. 290
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XII CONTENTS

9.3 BOP Operations.................................................... . 291 .

9.3.1 Message Op erations . .. ..

. . . . .. . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . 291
9.3.2 BOP Timers .................................................. . 292
9.4 BGP Configur3tjon Initialization ....................................... . 293
9.5 Two Face s of BOP: External BOP (eBOP) and Internal BOP (iBOP) ......... . 295
9.6 Path Attributes... ... .... ..... . .. .... ..... . . .. .... .... .. 298
.

9.7 BGP Dec ision Process _ _ . . . . . . . . . . _ _ _ . . . . . . . . . . . .

. 302
9.7.1 BOP Path Selection Process 302
9.7.2 Roule Aggregation and Dissemination .. .... .. ... .. . ..... . . . 304
9.7.3 Recap. .. ... .... ... .. . .... . .. ... .. ...... .. ... . ..... 305
9.8 Internal BOP Sca labi lity ... .. ... .... ... ... .. .... ..... .. . ........ 306
9.8.1 Route R efle cti o n A ppr oach . .. ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
9.8.2 Confederation Ap proac h . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . 309
9.9 Route Flap Damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
9.10 BOP Additional Features and Extensions........................... . 3'13
9.10.1 Communities................................................. . 3'13
9.10.2 BOP 4-byte Autonomous Systems Number Space ............ . 314
9.10.3 BOP Mulliprotocol Extension (MP-BOP) ......................... . 314
9.10.4 BOPforIPv6................................................. . 314
9.10.5 BOP/MPLS .. . . . . .. ...... . . .. . ... .. . . .. . . ..... . . .
. . 314
9.11 BOP Vulnerabilities ..... . .. ... .. 316
9.12 Securing BOP ... . . . .......... ... ......... .... . 317
9.12.1 Secure BOP (S-BOP) .... .. .......... .. . . . .. .... ...
. 317
9.12.2 Secure Origin BGP (soBGP). 318
9.12.3 Resource Public Key Infrastructure (RPKI) Architecture 318
9.13 Fi nit e State Machine of A BGP Connection. ... . . . . . .... . . .... . . 320
9.14 BGP4 Protocol Message Fonna t .. . . . . ........ . . . .......... . . ..... 324
9.14.1 CommonHeader ...... ................... .. 324
9.14.2 Message Type: OPEN .................. . .. . . .. .. 324
9.14.3 Message Type: UPDATE. . . ... .. . .... . .. .... ... ..
. 326
9.14.4 Message Type: NOTIFICAT[ON ............................ 328
9.14.5 Message Type: KEEPALIVE .................................. . . 328
9.14.6 Message Type: ROUTE-REFRESH . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
9.14.7 Path Attribute in UPDATE message .............................. . 330
9.1 5 Summary . .. . . ....... .... . ........ .... . ..... .. . ............ . . ...... 331
.

Further Lookup . .. ... . ... . . . ... .. . . .. .. . . ... . . . . ... ....... . . . . .. .. .. 332

.

Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

CHAPTER 10 Routing in the Global Internet ...................................... , 334

10.1 Internet Routing Evolution................ .................... 335
10.2 Addressing and Routing: Illustrations. ... ........ ............ 337
10.2.1 Scenari o A: Routi ng a Packet (Same S ub net ) . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . 339
10.2.2 Scenari o B: Routing a Packet (Intra-Domain) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
10.2.3 Sc enari o C: Routing a Packet (lnter-Domain) . . . . . . . . • . . . • . . . . . . . . . . 343
-------------------------------------------- � ......
CONTENTS XIII

10.2.4 Scenario D: Ro uting a Packet (End-to-End R outing for Fix e dfMobi l e

Devices) . .... . . . ... ... .... . . .... . .... . ..... ...... . . ..
. . 345
10.3 Allocation ofIP Prefixes and AS N umbers....................... 34 8
10.4 Curren t Architectural View of the Internet....................... 349
10.4.1 Custo me rs and Providers. Peers and Tiers, and Internet Exchang e Points 350
10.4.2 An Illustration on Customer-Provider and Peers . . . . . . . . .. . . . ..... . . 353
10.4.3 A Representative Internet Connectivity . .. ....... .... 353
10.4.4 Customer Traffic Routing: A Geographic Perspective 356
10.5 Traffic En g ine erin g Implications . .. . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 358
10.6 Point of Presen ce (PoP) for Large (SPs .. .. . . . . .... .. . .... . . ... ... . ... . 359
10.7 Pohcy-Based Routing ........................................ 361
10.7.1 BGPWedgies . ....... ............. ....... ........ 363
10.8 IP Prefix Hijacking .. .. . . . . . . .. .. . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 365
10.9 Detecting and Preventing (P Prefix Hijacking . .. ............ . . 368
10.10 Internet Routing Instability. . ... . .. .. . ... 369
10.11 Size and Growth of thelnternet R outing Architecture. . . . . . . . . .. . . 370
10.12 Addressi ng the Growth: LocatorflD Separation Protocol (LISP). .... 37 3
10.13 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
Further Look up ..................................................... 375
Exercises.. . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ..... . . .. . . .. . .. . . . . .... . . . ... . .. 37 6

CHAPTER 11 Routing and Traffic Engineering in Software Defined Networks. . . . .. . . . ... 378
11.1 Software Defined Networks: An Over view . . ... . ... . ... . ..... . . 379
11.2 OpenFlow .. .... . . .... . . . .. . . . . .... . . . . .. . . ..... .. . ... . .. . . . .. . . 382
11.3 Rou tin g D ecisi on s . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ _ . . . . . . . . . . _ _ _ . . . . • . _ _ . . . .
. 386
11.4 Traffic Engineering for Aggregated Flow Rou tin g. . . . . . . _ . .
. 388
J 1.4.1 Aggregation at Origin-Dest.ination Level .......................... 388
11.4.2 Traffic Engineering for Mul t iple Se rvices . . . ... ........ .... .... . 389
1 1.4.3 Traffic Engi neeri ng in the Presence of Flow Table Limits .......... 390
1.1.4.4 Remark: Using Optimization Models in Practice 392
11.5 Flow Management Approaches ..................................... . 392
11.6 Summary ...... ............ . ..... ........ .... ..... 394
Furrher Lookup .. ..... .. . . . . .... . . . . .. .. .. ..... 394
Exercises. . ...... ....... . 394

CHAPTER 12 Routing and Traffic Engineering in Data Center Networks . .. ............. 396
12.1 Cloud Services and Data Center Applications 397
12.2 Data Center Network: A Simple Illustration.. 39 8
12.3 Data Center Network: RoutingfForwarding Requirements . . ..... . .. 400
12.4 Fat-Tree Data Center Topology ......................... . 401
12.4.1 Addressi ng...... ...... ... ... . ...... ... ... ............. .. 402
12.4.2 Routing Table ... . . . .... . ... .. .... ... ... 404
12.4.3 Routing Paths ........................................ 40 5
12.5 Portland Approach for the Fat-Tree To pology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . 405
12.6 Multipath Ro ut ing and Traffic Engine ering for Fat-Tree Topology . . . . . . . . . . . 40 7
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XIV CONTENTS

12.7 BCube ................................................... . 409

12.7.1 RoutiJlgPaths .... . .............. ............. ......... 411
12.7.2 Rou ting ProtocoL . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .. .
. . . . . . . . . . . .. 412
12.8 M ult ip a th Rou ting and Traffic Engineering for BCube Architecture. . . . . . . . .. 412
12.9 Border Ga te way ProtocoL (BGP) in Ultra Large Data Center Ne two rks . 413
12.9.1 5 -stage CLos Topology and eBGP for Rou tin g.. .............. ...... 414
12.10 Software-Defined Network.ing for Data Center Networks. . ... . . . . . . . . . .... 417 .

12.11 Convergence Time and Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • • . . • . . . . . . 4 19

12.12 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
Further Lookup . . . . • . . . • . . . . . . . • . . • . . . . . . • • . . • • . . . . . . • . . . • . . . . . . 420
Exercises _ . 4 21

PART 3 ROUTER ARCHITECTURE & DESIGN

CHAPTER 13 Router Architectures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . .. . . . . .. . ... ..... .... 424
13.1 Functions of a Router . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . , . . . , . . • . . . • . . . . , , . . . . • . . . . . . 425
13. '1.1 Basic Forwar ding Functions . _ _ . . . . . . . • . . . • . . . . . . . . . . • • . . 426
] 3.1.2 Complex FOlwardjng Functions . . . . . . . . . . .
. . 426
13.1.3 Rou ting Proce<s Functions. .. . . .
. . . . .. . . ...
. . . . 42 7
13.1.4 Routing TabLe Versus Forwarding Table . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . _ . _ . . . 428
13.1.5 Performance Indicator of Routers . . . . . . . . . . .. . 428
13.2 Types of Routers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
13.3 E1elnents of a Router . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . • . . .. . . . 430
13.4 Packet FLow .............................................. . 433
13.4.1 Jngress Packet Processing . . . ,.,', .. ,. . . ., . . ,.,',. ," , . .,. 434
13.4.2 Egress Packet Processing. . . . . . . . . . . .. . .
. . . ... . .
. . . . 435
13.5 Packet Processing: Fast Path Versus Slow P ath . . . . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
13.5.1 Fas t Path Functions. .... ... ............ . 43 7
13.5.2 SLow Path Operations.................................. . 43 9
13.6 Rou ter A rchi tec tures . . . . , . . . ... . . , . . , . . . . . .. . , . . ., . . . .., . . . . . . . , . .. , , 4 41
13.6.1 Shared CPU Architectures............................... . 441
13.6.2 Shared Forwarding E ngine Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . • . . • . . . 444
13.6.3 Shared Nothing Architectures. . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . _ • • . . 447
] 3.6.4 Clustered Architectures . . . . ... . . . . . . . • . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . 4 49
13.7 Summary . . . . . . . . ....... . . ... . . .... . ...
. . . . 450
Further Lookup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . • _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . • _ . . . 451
Exercises . . 451

CHAPTER 14 IP Address Lookup Algorithms.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . • . . . . . .. . ... ..... .... 454

14.1 Impact of Addressing On Lookup. . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . ... . .. 455
14.1.1 Address Aggregation . ..... ...... .. ..... .... ............. 457
14.2 Longest Prefix Matching. ..... ... .............. .. . 458
14.2.1 Trends, Observations, and Requirements . . . . _ . . . . . . . . . . • _ . . . 459
14.3 NaIve Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . .
. . . . • . 460
14.4 Binary Tries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • • . . . . . . . . . . • . . . • . . . . . . . . . . 461
-------------------------------------------- � ......
CONTENTS XV

14.4.1 Search and Update Operations . . . . . . . . . . • . . . • . . . . . . • . . . • . . 462

14.4.2 Path Compression. ...... . ...... .............. ............. ... . 464
1 4.5 Multibit Tries .................................................. 465
14.5.1 Prefix Transformations. 466
14.5.2 Fixed Stride Multibit Trie 468
14.5.3 Search Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • • . . . . . . • . . • . . . . . . . 468
14.5.4 Update Algorithm . . . . . • . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . • . . • . . . • • . . . . . . . . 469
14.5.5 Implementation................ . . . , . . . .... . . . . . . . . 471
14.5.6 Choice of Strides . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . 471
14.5.7 Variable Stride Multibit Trie 472
1 4.6 Compressing Multibit Tries ..... . . . . . .. ... . . .. . . . . . .... .. .. . 472
14.6. 1 Level Compressed Tries . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . • . . . • . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . 473
14.6.2 Lulea Compressed Tries . . . . • . . . • . . . . . . . . . . • . . . • . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
14.6.3 Tree Bitmap................................................. . 480
1 4.7 Search by Length Algorithms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . 484
14.7.1 Linear Search on Prefix Lengths ........... .... . 48 5
14.7.2 Binary Search on Prefix Lengths............ . ...... . ...... . 485
1 4.8 Search by Value Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . • • . . . • . . . . . . . . 48 7
14.8.'1 Prefix Range Search.. . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487
1 4.9 Hardware A.lgorithl.ns . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . 490
14.9.1 RAM-Based Lookup. . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . • • . . • • . . . 490
14.9.2 Ternary CAM-Based Lookup . .. .... . . . . . . . . . ..
. . . . 491
14.9.3 Multibit Tries in Hardware.. ... . . . . . . . ...... . . . ..... 494
14.9.4 Field-Programmable G ate Array (FPGA) . . . . • . . . • . .... . . . 495
1 4.10 Comparing Different Approaches. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . • . . . . . . • . . . . . . . .. 496
1 4.11 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . 497
Further Lookup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . 497
Exercises. _ _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ _ ... . . . . . . . _ . . .. . . ... . _ . . . . . . . . . 498

CHAPTER 1 5 IP Packet Filtering and Classification . . . . . • . • . . . . • . • . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500

1 5.1 Importance of Packet Classification.................................... . 501
1 5.2 Packet Classification Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . 503
15.2.1 Expressing Rules....... ..... . 504
] 5.2.2 Performance Metrics . . . . . . .... . . . ... . ...... . . . . . . . .... .. . . 50 5
1 5.3 Packet Classification Algorithms 505
1 5.4 Nai've Solutions . .. ... . . . .. . . . . _ _ . . . . . . . . . . _ _ _ . 506
1 5.5 Two-Dimensional Solutions, .. , . . . . . . , . ,
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,
. . . . 507
15.5.1 Hierarchical Tries: Trading Time for Space ..................... . 507
15.5.2 Set Pruning Tries: Trading Space for Time ... , . , . , , , , . . . . , , . , , , , , . 510
1 5.5.3 Grid-of-Tries: Best of Both Worlds...................... . 511
1 5.6 Approaches for d Dimensions ................................. 5 14
15.6.1 Geometric View of Classification: Thinking DifFerently 5 14
15.6.2 Characteristics of Real Life Classifiers - Thinking Practically 517
1 5.7 Extending Two-Dimensional Solutions.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 18
15.7.1 Naive Extensions ......................... . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 518
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XVI CONTENTS

I S.7. 2 Native Extensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 19

15.8 Divide and Conquer Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . • . . . 520
l S .8.1 Lucent Bit Vector . . . . ........ . . . ........ . . . . ..... 522
I S .8.2 Aggregated Bit Vector (ABV) . . . ..... . . 524
15.8.3 Cross-Producting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 25
1 5 .8.4 Recu rsive Flow Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528
15.9 Tuple Space Approaches . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
IS.9.1 Tuple Space Search.. . .. . .. ... .... ... . .... ....... .... . 534
IS.9.2 Tuple Space Pruning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535
15.10 Decision Tree Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . 537
1 5 . 1 0 . 1 Hierarchical I ntel l ige nt Cuttings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538
1 5 . 1 0.2 HyperCuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540
15.11 Hardware-Based Solutions. . . . ..... . . ... . . . .... . . . ... . ...... . . . . .. ... . 542
1 5 . 1 1 . 1 Ternary Content Addressable Memory (TCAM) . . . . . . . . . . 542
15.12 Lessons Learned . . . ... . . .... . . .. . .. . .. . . . . . . . . 543
15.13 Summary . . . .. . ...... . ....... ...... ....... .... .... . ......... .... . 544
Further Lookup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . 545
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . S46

CHAPTER 1 6 Switch Fabric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548

16.1 Generic Switch Archilccture 549
16.2 Req ui relnents and Metrics . . . . . . . • . . . • . . • . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . 550
16.3 Shared Backp l ane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5S1
16.3. I Shared Bus . . . . . . .... . . 551
16.4 Switched Backp l ane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . . ..... ... . . . . .... 553
16.5 Shared Memory . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554
16.5.1 Scal ing Memory Bandwidth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . 555
16.6 Crossbar . , , . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . , . , . . . • . . . . . . . , , . . . . . • . . . . , , . . . . 556
1 6.6.1 Take-a-Ticket Scheduler . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558
1 6.6.2 Factors That Limit Performance . .... . . . .... . ... .. . . ... 561
16.7 Head-of-Line (HOL) Blocking . ..... . . ... . . . .... . . .... . . ...... . . . 561
16.8 Output Queueing . . . . .. . . . . ... . . . . . ..... . 56 3
16.9 Virtual Output Queueing. .. . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . 56 5
1 6.9.1 Maximum B i partite M atc hi ng . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 6
16.9.2 Parallel Iterative M at ching . . . . . ... . . . .. . . . . .... . . .. . 568
1 6.9.3 iSLIP Scheduling . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ . .. . . . ... . 573
1 6.9.4 Priorities and Multicast in iSLIP . ........ 577
16.10 Input and Output Blocking. . ... . . . .. .. . . .... . . . .. 578
1 6 .11 Scaling Switches to a Large Number of Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579
16.12 Clos etworks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580
1 6. 1 2. 1 Complexity of Scheduling Algorithms . 583
1 6 .13 Torus Netw orks . . ... . . . .. . .. . .. . ...... .... . 585
16.1 3 . 1 Packaging Using Short Wires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 588
1 6 .14 Scaling Switches for High-Speed Links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 589
16 14 1 Bit Slici ng
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . 59 0
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CONTENTS XVII

1 6 . 1 4.2 Time S lici ng . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . • . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . • . . . • . . 591

1 6 . 1 4.3 Dis trib uted Scheduling , , , . • , , , . , ' ' ' , , . . . . . . . , . , . . . . . . . . , ' ' ' ' ' ' 592
1 6 . 1 5 Concl usions . " " " , . . • ' , . . . . . ' , . . . . , ' , . , . . " . . . • . , ' , . . , . , 592
1 6 . 1 6 Summary " . . . . "" . . . " . . . ".. . . 593
Further Look up . . .. . . . ... . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . , .. . . . . . 593
Exerci ses . . _ . . 594

CHAPTER 1 7 Packet Queueing and Scheduling . . . . , , . . . , , , . . , • , . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . 596

17.1 Packet Scheduling , . ' , , , , , , ' , , , . . ' , , , , , , . ' , . . . . , • , , , , . . • . . . • . , 597
17,1.1 First-In, First-Out Queueing , , , , , , , , ,.,. .' . ' ' . , , , . , , , , , , 597
1 7 , 1 .2 Priority Qu euei ng . , . . . , . . . . . , , . , . . , . . ... . , . . . , . , . . . .. . , , . , . . . 598
1 7. 1 .3 Round-Robin and Fair Queueing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599
]7,1.4 Weighted Round-Robin (WRR) and Weigh ted Fair Queueing (WFQ) , 600
] 7 , 1 .5 Deficit Round-Robin Queueing , . 60 l
1 7 . 1 .6 Modified Deficit Round-Robin Queueing . . . 604
17.2 TCP Congestion Control . . . . . . . . _ _ . . . . . . . . . . _ _ _ . 604
1 7.2.1 Slow Start . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606
1 7.2.2 Addit ive
Increase, M ultiplicative Decre as e . . . , . . . . .. . . . . 607
17,2.3 Fast Retransmit and Fast Recovery , , , , , , . . , , , , . " . . . • . , , 607
17.3 Implicit Feedback Schemes " " , . . , " " " " , . • . . , ' " , ' , . . • " 608
17,3, I Drop P osi ti on " " " " , . . , " " " " , . . . . . • • " " ' . • . . • . . , " " 608
1 7,3.2 Proactive Versus Reactive Dropping , , , , . . . , • ' , . ' , , • ' . . • . ' 610
1 7 .4 Random Early Detection (RED) " " " " " " ".., .." .. " ".." " " " ,. 611
17.4.1 Computing Average Length of Queue , . . . , ' . " ' , . , ' , . . • , " " " " 613
1 7.4.2 Computing Drop Probability . . . . . . . . . . . 614
1 7.4.3 Selting Qmin and Qmax . . . . . . . . • • . . • • . . 615
17.5 Variations of RED , . , . . . . . . ., . 615
17,5.1 Weighted Random Early Detection (WRED) " " " ' . ,..." " " ' " 615
]7,5.2 Adaptive Random Early Detection , , , , . . . . , , , , , , , ' . .... . . . 618
1 7 .6 Explicit Feedback Schemes " " " " " ...." """." 619
17.6.1 Choke Packets . . . . ". . . . .. . . . . ....... " . . . . , . , . . .... . . . . 620
]7,6.2 Explicit Congestion Notification , , , , , , , . . . . , • , , , , , • . . . " , ,, , ,," 620
17.7 New Class of Algorithms . . " " . . . " " " " , . . " . " " " ,, ,..., , , , , , , , , , 622
17.8 Analyzing System Behavior , , , . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . .. . . , , , , . . . . . . . , , ,.. 623
17.9 Summary . . " " " . " " . " " " . . • " . " , . " . • . . , • ' , . ' , , . ' . . • ' , . , , ,. " 624
Further Lookup " .. , ...... . . . ......." , . . ........,.. , . . ...... , .. " 624
Exercises , . . , , , , , , . , , , , . . ' , , , , . . • ' , . ' , , . ' , . • . . , • ' , . ' , , • . . . • ' , 625

CHAPTER 1 8 Traffic Conditioning . . . • . . . • • . . . . • • . " . . . , . , . . , . , • • • . . • • • . . . • • . . . • • 626

18.1 Service Level Agreements 627
18.2 Differentiated Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 628
18.3 Traffic Condi ti oning Mechani sms . . , , , . ' , , . ' , . • ' , • • ' , . ' , , • ' . , • . ' . ' , , 628
1 8.4 Traffic Shaping , , , . . , , , , . . , , , , . . . . , . . . , , . . . . . . . .. . . " , . . . . . . . . " , , , " 630
1 8.4.1 Leaky Bucket " .. , " ,..." .., ' , . , ....... ,. . , ' , ...." , . " .. , ' 63 I
1 8.4,2 Token Bucket. , . . , . . . . . . . . . , . . , , . . . . . . . .. . . , ' , . . . . . . . . , , , , , " 632
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XVIII CONTENTS

1 8.5 Traffic Policing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . 636

18.5.1 Compari ng Traffic PoJ icing and Shaping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . • . . . 637
1 8.6 Packet Marking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 639
1 8 .6.1 Graded Profi les . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 640
J8 .6.2 Single-Rate Tricolor Marking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 641
1 8 .6.3 Two-Rate Tricolor M arking . . . . . . . . . 642
1 8.7 Sununary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643
Further Lookup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643
Exercises . , . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , , . . . . 644

PART 4 ROUTING IN RESERVATION-ORIENTED NETWORKS

CHAPTER 1 9 Circuit-Switching: Hierarchical and Dynamic Call Routing . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . 646
1 9. 1 Circuit Switching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • • . . . 647
1 9.2 Hierarchical Call Routin g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . ... . . . .... . . .. . . . 647
19.2.1 Basic Idea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648
1 9.2.2 A Simple TIIustration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648
] 9.2.3 Overall Hierarchjcal Routing Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . 650
1 9 .2.4 Telephone Service Providers and Telephone Network Architecture . . . 652
1 9.3 The Road to Dynamic Routing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 652
1 9.3. 1 Limitation of Hierarchical Routing . 653
1 9 .3.2 Historical Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . .... . . .. . . . 653
1 9.3.3 Call Control and Crankback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 655
1 9.3.4 Trunk Reservation (State Protection) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 656
1 9.3.5 Where Does Dynamic Routing Fit with Hierarchical Routing . . . . 657
1 9.3.6 Mixing of acc and PCC . . . . . ... . . . .. . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . .. 657
1 9.3.7 Summary . . . . ... . . . . .... . . . 658
1 9.4 Dynamic Non-Hierarchical Routing (DNHR) . . . . . . .. 658
1 9.5 Dynamically Controlled Routing (OCR) . . . . . . . . .... . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . ... 660
1 9.6 Dynamic Alternate Routing (DAR) . .. ... . . . .... .. .. . . . . .. ... .. . . . . . .... 663
1 9.7 Real-Time Network Routing (RTNR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . 664
1 9. 8 Classification of Dynamic Call Rou ting Schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . • . . . 666
1 9.9 Maximum Allowable Residual Capacity Routing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . 667
1 9. 10 Dynamic Routing and Its Relation to Other Routing . . .. . . .. . .... 669
1 9 . 1 0 . 1 Dynamic Routing and Link State ProtocoJ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669
19.JO.2 Path Selection in Dynamic Routing in Telephone Networks and IP
Routing . . .. . . . . ... . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . 669
1 9. 1 0.3 Relation to Constraint-Based Routing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 670
1 9. 1 1 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . • . . . • . . • . . . 670
Further Lookup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 671
Exercises . , , , , , , , , . . . ., , . ,. ,,. . . . . ., . , ,,,. . . . , . , , . . , ,. . . . . ,,. ,, , , . . . 671

CHAPTER 20 Traffic Engineering for Circu it-Switched Networks . . . . . . . • . . . . • . • . . • • . . . 674

20.1 Why Traffic Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . 675
20.2 Traffi c Load and Blocking . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . • • . . . . . . . . . . • . . . • . . . . . . . . . . 676
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CONTENTS XIX

20.2. 1 Computing Erlang-B Loss Formula . . . .. . . . . . • . . . . . .... . . 679

20.3 Grade-of-Service (GoS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . • . . . . • . . . . ... . 680
20.3.1 Circuit Occupancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . 682
20.3.2 Offered Load Scaling and Blocking . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . 682
20.4 Centi-Call Seconds (CCS) and Determ ining Offered Load . . . .... . . . . 683
20.5 Economic CCS (ECCS) Method . . . . . . . .. . . . . . ..... . . . . . . . . 685
20 . 6 Network Controls for Traffic Engineering ......... . . . . . ..... . . . 687
20.6. '1 Guidelines on Detection of Congestion . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . 688
20.6.2 Examples of Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 688
20.6.3 Communication of Congestion Control Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . 692
20.6.4 Congestion Manifestation . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . ..... . . . .. 692
20.7 State-Dependent Call Routing . . . . . . . ... . . . ..... . 693
20.8 Analysis of Dynamic Routing .. . . . . ......... . . . . ..... . . . 694
20.8.1 Three-Node Network . . .. . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . 694
20.8.2 N -Node Symmetric Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 697
20.8.3 N -Node Symmetric Network with State Protection . . . . . . . . . . . 698
20.8.4 Illustration Without and With State Protection . . . . . . . . . 700
20.9 Performance for Heterogeneous Services . . . . . ...... . .. . . . . ...... . . . .. . .. 70 I
20.10 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 704
Further Lookup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 705
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 705

CHAPTER 2 1 Quality of Service Routing . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . ... . . . . . . . . .. 708

21.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 709
21.2 QoS Attributes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 713
21.3 Adapting Shortest Path and Widest Path Routing: A Basic Framework 7 14
2 1 .3.1 Singl e Attribute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. .. . . ... .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 714
2 1 .3.2 Multiple Attributes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 715
2 1 .3.3 Additional Consideration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 715
21.4 Update Frequency, Information Inaccuracy, and Impact on Rout ing . . . . . . . . . _ 716
21.5 Lessons from Dynamlc Call Routing in the Telephone Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . 719
21.6 A General Framework for Source-Based QoS Routing with Path Caching . 720
2] .6.1 Routing Computation Framework . . . . . . . . . . . 721
2 1 .6.2 Routing Computation ......................... . 722
2 1 .6.3 Routing Schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . 723
21 .6.4 Results 724
21.7 Routing Protocols for QoS Routing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 729
2 1 .7.1 QOSPF: Extension to OSPF for QoS Routing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 729
2 1 .7.2 ATM PNNI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 730
21.8 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 l
Further Lookup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 l
Exercises . 732

CHAPTER 22 Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . .. 734

22.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . 735
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XX CONTENTS

22.2 Traffic Engineeling Extension to Routing Protocols . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . • . 736

22.3 Mul tiprotocoJ Label Switching (MPLS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . 737
22.3. J Labeled Packets and LSP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 737
22.3.2 Label Distribution.......... ............. ............ 74J
22.3.3 RSVP·TE for MPLS.. . 742
22.3.4 Traffic Engineering Extensions to OSPF and IS-IS . . . . . . . . .. 747
22.3.5 Point-to-Multipoint LSP and Multipoint-to-Multipoint LSP . . . . . . . . . 748
22.4 Generalized MPLS (GMPLS) ........... .......... .......... .... 749
22.4.1 GMPLS Labels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 750
22.4.2 Label Stacking and Hierarchical LSPs: MPL SIGM PLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 751
22.4.3 RSVP-TE for GMPLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 752
22.4.4 Routing Protocols in GMPLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 754 .

22.4.5 Control and Data Path Separallo n and Link Management Protocol , 756
22.5 MPLS Virtual Private Networks. . . . . ... . . . .. . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . .. 758
22.5.1 BGPIMPLS IP V PN .......... ...... .. ..... ....... .. 758
22.5.2 Layer 2 VPN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 761
22.6 Multicast VPN with MPLS . . . . . . .... . . 762
22.7 Summ ary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 763
Further L ookup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 763
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 764

CHAPTER 23 Routing and Traffic Engineering using MPLS. . . . • . • .. . . . .. . .. .. . .. ..... 766

23.1 Traffic En gi neering of TPfMPLS Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 767
23.1.1 A Brisk Walk Back in History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 767
23.1.2 MPLS-B ased Approach for Traffic Engineering . . . . . . . . . . 768
23.2 V PN Traffic Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. . . . . .... 771
23.2.] Problem lI1ustration: Layer 3 V PN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77]
23.2.2 LSP Path Determination: Constrained Shortest Path Approach. . 774
23.2.3 LSP Path Detennination: Network Flow Modeling Approach . . . . 776
23.2.4 Lay er 2 VPN traffic engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . 779
23.2.5 Observations and General M o del ing Framework . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . 780
23.3 Multicast VPN Traffic Engineering . . . . . ... . . ... 781
23.4 RoutinglTraffic Engin eeri n g for Voice Over MPLS . . . ..... ... . . . 782
23.5 Summary . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . .. . 784
Further Lookup .... ............... ............................... . . . 784
Exercise s . . . .. . . .. .. 785

CHAPTER 24 Routing in Optical Networks, Mu ltilayer Networks, and Overlay Networks . . . 786
24. 1 Optical Technology: Overview . .. . .. ..
. . . ..... . 787
24. 1 .1 SONET/SDH...... ............. ..... .. . . . . . . . . . 787
24. 1.2 OTN ............. .. ........... .. . .... ... .... . . ... ... 788
24.2 How Is Opt ical Routing Different? . . . . ..... . .. . ..... ... . 789
24.3 SONET/SDH and OTN Routing . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . .. . . . . . ... 790
24.3.' Routing in a SONET Ring. . ... . . .. .... .. .. . . . . ..... ... . .. . .... 790
24.3.2 Routing in SONET/SDH or OTN Transport Cross-Connect Networks 792
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CONTENTS XXI

24.4 WDM Routing and Wavelength Assignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 794

24.4.1 WDM Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 795
24.4.2 Routing in WDM with Full Conversion: Transport Mode . . . . . . . . . 796
24.4.3 No Conversion Case . . . . . . .... . . . . .. . . . . ... . . . .. 797
24.4.4 On-Demand, Instantaneous Optical Services . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . 797
24.5 Protection Routing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 798
24.5.1 Solution Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 800
24.6 Routing in Multilayer Networks . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . 80 I
24.6.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 I
24.6.2 IP O ver SONET: Combined Two-Layer ROUling De sign . . 804
24.6.3 Virtual Private Networks Over Substrate Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 807
24.7 Overlay Networks and Overlay Routing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 808
24.8 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 811
Further Lookup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . 81 I
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 812

CHAPTER 25 Call Routing in GSTN .. . . . .. . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . ... . . . . . . . . .. 81 4

25.1 E. I64 Addressi ng for GSTN 815
25.2 National umbering Plan . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 1 7
25.3 Provider Identifier: Carrier Identifi cation Code, Mobile Courury Code, an d
Mobile Network Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 820
2 5.4 Signaling System: SS7 and Point Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . 821
25.4.1 SS7 Network Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 822
25.4.2 Point Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . .. 823
25.4.3 Point Code Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 825
25.5 55? Protocol Stack . . . . . . .... . . . . 828
25.5.1 Lower Layer Protocols: MTP1, MTP2, MTP3 . . . . . . .. . . 828
25.5.2 Upper Layer Protocols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . ... . . .. 83 1
25.6 SS7 .ISUP and Call Processing . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . ... . . . . .. 83 1
25.6.1 Called/Calling Party N umber Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 836
25.7 Call Routing: Sing1e Provider Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... .. . . 837
25.7.1 Handling Dialed Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . .. 837
25.7.2 Illustration of Call Routing . . .. . . . . . . . . 838
25.7.3 Some Observati on s . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 842
25.8 Call Routing with Multiple Service Providers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 843
25.9 Number Portability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 845
25.9.1 What Is Number Portability About' . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . 845
25.9.2 Portab ility Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . 847
2 5.1 0 Non-Geographic or Toll-Free Number Portability . . . . • . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . 848
25. 1 0 . 1 SOO-Number Management Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . 848
25.10.2 Message and Call Routing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 848
25.1 1 FixedIMobile Number Portability . . . . . . . . . . .. 850
2 5 . 1 LI Portabi lity Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 850
25. 1 1 . 2 Routing Schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . ... . 853
25..1 l .3 Comparison of Routing Schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 857
....�
.. --------------------------------------------
XXII CONTENTS

25. 1 1 .4 Imp act on TAM Message . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . 858

25. 1 1 .5 Number Portability Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . 858
25. 1 1 .6 Routing in the Presence of a Transit Network . . . . . . _ _ 859
25. 1 2 Multiple Provider Environment with Local Number P0I1ability . . . 86]
25. 1 3 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 863
Further Lookup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . 864
Exercises . . . . . . . _ . . . . . _ . . . . . . . . • . . . _ . . . . . . • . . • • . _ . . . . • . . . . . 865

CHAPTER 26 VolP C a ll Routing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 866

26.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 867
. . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . .

26.2 GSTN Call Routing Using Int ernet ........... . . ....... 868
26.2.1 Conceptual Requirement . . .. . . . . 868
. . . . . . . • . .

26.2.2 VoIP Adapter Functionality.. ...... . . ........ . 869

. . . • .

26.2.3 Addressing and Routing . . . . . . . 870

. . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . • .

26.2.4 Serv ice Observations . . . . . . . _ 874

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ . . . .

26.2.5 Traffic Engineeri ng . . . . . . . . . . . . 874

. . . . . . . . . . . . .

26.2.6 VoIP Adapter: An Alternative S eenario . . . . . . . . . . 877 . . . . . . . . .

26.3 GSTN Call Routing: Managed IP Approach . . 877 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

26.4 IP-GSTN Tnterworking for VoIP .... . . .... . . .... 878 .

26.4.] Gateway Function . . . . . . . . . . . 879

. . . . . . . • . . . • . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . • . . .

26.4.2 SIP Addressing Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . , . 880 . . . . . .

26.4.3 SIP Phone to POTS Phone . . . . 880

. . . . • . . . • .

26.4.4 POTS Phone to SIP Phone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 883 .

26.4.5 GSTN-IP-GSTN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 883 .

26.4.6 Traffic Engineering.. ...... . . 886

.

26.5 IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS) 887

26.5 . ] f M S Architecture 888
26.5.2 Call Routi ng Scenarios . . . . . . . 889
. . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . • • . . • . . • . . .

26.6 Multiple Heterogeneous Providers Environ ment , , , , , , ,, , , , , 891 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

26.6. 1 Via Routing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 891

. . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . • .

26.6.2 Carrier Selection Alternative . _ 892

. . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . .

26.7 All-IP Environment for VoIP Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 892

26.8 Addressing Revisited.... 893
26,9 SUllllnary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . 895
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . .

Further Lookup 895

Exercises . . 896

PART 5 A P PENDICES, BIB LIOGRAPHY, AND INDEX

APPENDIX A Notations, Conventions, and Symbols
A.1 On Notations and Conven tions 899
A.2 Symbols 900
APPENDIX B Miscellaneous Topics 9D2
B.1 Bi nary and Hexadecimal Numbers 903
B.2 Functions: Logarithm and Modulo 904
-------------------------------------------- ......
�
CONTENTS XXI I I

B.3 Fixed-Point Equation 904

B.4 Computational Complexity 906
B.5 Equivalence Classes 907
B.6 Solving Linear Programming Problems 908
B .6 . 1 Using CPLEX 908
B.6.2 Using Matlab 909
B.7 Exponential Weighted Moving Average (EWMA) 91 1
B.8 Linear Regression Fit 912
B.9 Non-Linear Regression Fit 913
B.l0 Computing Probability of Path Blocking or Loss 914
B.l l Four Factors j n Packet Delay 915
B.12 Exponent i al Dj stribution and Poisson Process 91 6
B.13 Generating Normal and Lognormal Distributions 918
B.14 Self-Similarity and Heavy-Tai led Distributions 918
B.15 M arkov Chain and the Birth-and-Death Process 920
B.15.1 Birth-and-Death Process 92 1
B . l 5.2 MIMll System 922
B.lS.3 Trunk Reservation Model for Circuit-Switched Networks 923
B.16 Average Network Delay 923
B.17 Packet Format: IPv4. IPv6, TCP. and UDP 924
APPENDIX C Solutions to Selected Exercises 928
Bibliography 932
Index 966
FOREWORD (1ST EDITION)

My involvement with computer networking started with TheoryNet (1977), an email system for theo-
retical computer scientists. Later (1981) I helped lead the CSNET (computer science network) project
which eventually connected most academic and many industrial computer research groups. In those
early days, our efforts were primarily focused on providing connectivity and being able to use ap-
plications such as email, ftp, and telnet. However, even in the simple (by today’s standards)
environment of the 1970s and early 1980s (Arpanet, CSNET, other experimental Internet networks),
getting routing “right” turned out to be quite challenging.
I was fortunate to be part of the NSFNET regional/backbone model development. This is when
I began to fully understand the significance of routing in a large-scale multi-domain network and, in
particular, the central role of policy issues in such a decentralized environment. As the Internet has
become global in scale and ubiquitous over the past decade, routing has become ever more important.
Packets must be forwarded efficiently from one end of the world to the other with minimal perception
of delay. This has required tremendous efforts on many fronts: how to evolve routing protocols for
large-scale loosely-coupled networking environments, how to engineer a network for efficient routing
from an operational point of view, how to do efficient packet processing at routers, and how to effec-
tively take into account the complexity of policy issues in the determination of routes. And while over
the past two decades there have been many exciting advances, much work remains to be done.
In parallel, we have seen tremendous advances in traditional telephony. The underlying telecommu-
nication system has changed from analog to digital and has incorporated the latest advances in optical
technologies and, more recently, voice over IP. Throughout these revolutionary changes, routing has
continued to play a critical role.
We are now at a crossroad. Various efforts are underway to determine a framework for next gener-
ation networks that allows seamless convergence of services and a platform to more easily create new
services. Among other things, this requires a fresh look at routing. To be successful, it is important that
we understand what has worked to date. To better understand the issues and complexities we should
look at this broadly, considering a variety of different network architectures, not just the for Internet.
For each such network architecture we can benefit from understanding its principles, protocols, algo-
rithms, and functions, with focus on routing. This will help give us perspective as we consider how to
design routing for the next-generation network.
In this regard, Deepankar Medhi and Karthikeyan Ramasamy’s book, Network Routing: Algo-
rithms, Protocols, and Architectures, is very timely. Departing from most other works, it is unique
in providing an in-depth understanding of routing in a wide variety of types of networks. It includes
extensive coverage of the evolution of routing over time. Particularly appealing is its in-depth coverage
across a spectrum of algorithmic, technical, experiential, and practical issues. In addition, the detailed
coverage of routers and switches is particularly valuable as it helps the reader to gain an understand-
ing of why different approaches and components are needed to address packet processing, especially
for scalability. In this regard, it is uniquely successful in drawing the important connection between
routing and routers.
xxv
XXVI FOREWORD (1ST EDITION)

Medhi and Ramasamy’s presentation is very clear and approachable, allowing a wide audience to
understand and gain an appreciation of network routing. I believe that it will become a core refer-
ence book on routing for router developers, network providers, students, and researchers, both today’s
practitioners and those who are interested in next generation routing.
Lawrence Landweber
Past John P. Morgridge Chair and Past Department Chairman,
Computer Science Department, University of Wisconsin–Madison
Fellow, Association for Computing Machinery
Recipient of IEEE Award on International Communication
Former President and Chair of the Board of Trustees, Internet Society
PREFACE (2ND EDITION)

It has been a decade since the first edition of this book was published. When we first wrote it, we
thought that would be it. To our pleasant surprise, the book picked up an audience from all over the
world. We received remarks such as the following:

“I was searching for particular information and I found it wonderfully explained in your routing
book. What a great book, every time I use it I am so glad to have it!” – Brunilde Sansò (Canada)
“I have found it really good: comprehensive, clear, precise, generic.” – Peter Soreanu (Israel)
“In my opinion, your book is an excellent source for introducing the IGP and EGP protocols.” – Don
Lanzinger (USA)
“It is a very good book, very recommended and it has been a great help for planning the course.”
– Eduardo Moreno (Chile)

We were pleased to get such nice responses and that our book struck a cord with a particular
audience.
Most recently, our publisher approached us to consider doing a second edition. Honestly, we did
not think this book was ever going to go for a second edition. It made us pause. Given our other com-
mitments, we also needed to think if we would have enough bandwidth to work on the second edition.
Finally, we decided to take the plunge. It turned out to be more challenging than we originally thought
for two reasons: 1) while on the surface, it might seem that not much has changed in routing since the
first edition, there has been a number of important developments due to software-defined networking,
data center networking, and more critical issues in regards to security with routing; 2) we faced per-
sonal situations that needed to take priority over working on the book. For the latter, we are thankful
that the publisher was able to accommodate us by giving us additional time to finish this project.
The book has gone through quite a bit of changes. In particular,

• The material in many chapters have been extensively updated with new discussions, based on feed-
back from students, educators, and professionals. New sections are added in many chapters covering
topics such as algorithms for trees in Chapter 2, node-link formulation for additional problems in
Chapter 4, OPSPFv3 in Chapter 6, BGP security in Chapter 9, and IP prefix hijacking in Chapter 10.
In particular, security issues with routing are now discussed throughout the book.
• New chapters have been added on multicast routing (Chapter 8) , on routing and traffic engineering
in data center networks (Chapter 12), and on routing in software defined networks (Chapter 11).
The chapter on optical, multilayer, and overlay routing (Chapter 24) is completely revamped.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Several students who took the course, Network Routing, from the first author, read the chapters care-
fully, especially the new chapters while the second edition was under preparation. For their comments
xxvii
XXVIII PREFACE (2ND EDITION)

as well as comments from students who took the course earlier, we like to thank Abdoh Jabbari, Ah-
mad Alhonainy, Akshay Reddy Gayam, Daehee Kim, Daroon Hassan, Diana Dasi, Driss Benhaddou,
Fathima James, Jebreel Khurmi, Jagannath Mangipudi, Mirza Mohd Shahriar Maswood, Md Tajul Is-
lam, Md Mainul Islam Mamun, Nitin George, Rahul Chaudhari, Rohit Abhishek, Saud Alqahtani, Sean
Baes, Seoung Jin Lee, Shuai Jack Zhao, Sheyda Kiani Mehr, Sravan Valluri, Subhash Methuku, Syed
Faraz Hussain, and Tejas Parab.
We also benefited from feedback by Aanand Ramachandran (Microsoft, India), Brunilde Sansò
(Polytechnique Montréal, Canada), Geoff Huston (APNIC, Australia), George Rouskas (North Car-
olina State University, USA), Javier Carmona Murillo (University of Extremadura, Spain), Jennifer
Rexford (Princeton University, USA), Jörg Liebeherr (University of Toronto, Canada), Lúcia Martins
(University of Coimbra, Portugal), María J. Verdú (University of Valladolid, Spain), Mario Baldi (Po-
litecnico di Torino, Italy), Nasir Ghani (University of South Florida, USA), Nelson Fonseca (University
of Campinas, Brazil), Steve Dispensa (Microsoft, USA), Peter Soreanu (ORT Braude College, Israel),
and Teresa Gomes (University of Coimbra, Portugal), at various stages of preparing the manuscript and
for comments on our 1st edition. We again thank Jane Zupan for identifying new quotes for use at the
beginning of the chapters.
Our external reviewers took time out of their busy schedules to review many of the chapters.
We thank Ítalu Cunha (Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Brazil), Manav Bhatia (Nokia, In-
dia), T. Venkatesh (Indian Institute of Technology–Guwahati, India), and Stefano Secci (Université
Pierre et Marie Curie, France) for their detailed comments on the draft of many chapters. In addi-
tion, Sandeep Pisharody (Arizona State University, USA), Dallal Belabed (Thales Communications &
Security, France), and Steve Dispensa (Microsoft, USA) read chapters and provided helpful comments.
We thank the Elsevier team, Brian Romer, Ana Claudia A. Garcia (muito obrigado!), and Punitha-
vathy Govindaradjane, for their great support with the second edition. SkyLaTeX from VTEX made
it easy to make the final corrections online. Two persons stood out for their dedicated help in various
phases of this project. Xuan Liu (AT&T Labs-Research) read many chapters on a short notice, and
provided new references and much help when needed; her contributions were immeasurable. Nancy
Lorenz read the manuscript diligently one page at a time to find and fixed numerous typos—the only
person to have read the entire book! We thank them profoundly.
The first author thanks the National Science Foundation (NSF grant #s: 9422092, 9506652,
0831090, 0916505, 1029562, 1217736, 1526299), and the Defense Advanced Research Project Agency
(DARPA AFRL agreement # F30602-97-1-0257) for their funding support that helped shape both the
first edition and the second edition of this book.
Finally, we thank our families for their support (you know who you are).
Deepankar (Deep) Medhi
Overland Park, KS, USA
Karthikeyan (Karthik) Ramasamy
Santa Clara, CA, USA
PREFACE (1ST EDITION)

In the span of a quarter-century, network routing in communication networks has evolved tremen-
dously. Just a quarter century ago, the public switched telephone network (PSTN) was running hierar-
chical routing, ARPANET routing was operational, and the telecommunication infrastructure had fixed
static transport routes. In the 1980s, we first saw the tremendous growth in routing: Internet routing was
deployed under the TCP/IP stack starting, first with the RIP protocol; the telephone network started de-
ploying dynamic call routing schemes; and the telecommunication transport network deployed SONET
transport mechanisms, which could re-route in a ring topology in 40 millisec in the event of a failure.
In the past fifteen years, we have seen the need for policy routing due to multiprovider setting, and
need to develop fast lookup algorithms for packet processing that enables efficient routing. We have
also seen inter-dependency between addressing and routing as first addressed through classless Inter-
domain Routing (CIDR) and more recently, due to number portability in the PSTN; more importantly,
we saw how the way an addressing scheme is deployed can impact routing and lookup algorithms.
Network routing can be broadly divided into three basic fundamental categories: packet routing,
circuit-switched routing, and transport routing; certainly, a combination is possible. The evolution over
the past quarter century has brought to the foreground the need to understand and examine where
and how different dimensions of routing, from algorithms to protocols to architectures, can differ for
different types of networks and where they intersect. Certainly, the goal is to see how we learn from
our past experiences and prepare ourselves for next generation networks and routing.
While numerous papers have been written on the subject of network routing, and several books
are now available on routing for specific networks, the field still lacks a comprehensive or systematic
guide that encompasses various routing paradigms. Secondly, even in discussions of a single routing
type (for example, either Internet or PSTN), the focus often appears to be either on protocols or on
algorithms without tying them together along with analysis and implementation; or, the work delves
more into router command-line for router configuration, or, being informational without explaining
the whys. Furthermore, how the addressing mechanism can affect routing decisions is yet another
important topic that is rarely discussed. For efficient routing, how routers are architectured, and why,
is yet another mystery. Finally, the relation between traffic engineering and efficient routing is also
another topic. In the end, one needs to be somewhat of an “expert” in different routing paradigms to
get a well-rounded view.
Lastly, after investigating about routing in different networks for a number of years, we have come
to the observation that network routing is like an economy. Similar to macroeconomics and microeco-
nomics, network routing also has macro- and micro-centric issues; in addition, seemingly different and
conflicting systems can and do co-exist. Not all of the issues are purely technical; business relations
and regulatory issues are also important to recognize and consider. Thus, this book is an attempt to
paint a broad picture that encompasses various aspects of network routing in one place.
xxix
XXX PREFACE (1ST EDITION)

AUDIENCE
Our goal has been to create a book that can be used by a diverse set of audiences, and with varied levels
of background. Specifically, we set out to create a book that can be used by professionals as well as
students and researchers. In general, this is intended as a self-study. We assume that the reader already
has some basic knowledge of networking. Among professionals, the intent has been to cover two broad
groups, router developers including protocol designers and router architects, and network designers and
operators, with the overall goal to bring out issues that one group might want to understand that the
other group faces. For students, this book is intended to help learn about routing in depth, along with
the big picture and lessons from operational and implementation experience. For researchers, who want
to know what has been done so far and what are critical issues to address for next generation routing,
this is intended as a helpful reference. In general, this book has been intended as a one-stop treatise for
all interested in network routing in different networks.

ORGANIZATION AND APPROACH

The book is organized into six parts. Each part starts with a chapter-level summary. We present below
a brief overview of each part:

• Part-I (four chapters): We cover the basic foundations of routing, from algorithms to protocols,
along with network flow modeling.
• Part-II (five chapters): This part is about IP network routing, from standardized protocols for both
intra- and inter-domain routing, to IP traffic engineering, to Internet routing architectures.
• Part-III (four chapters): This part covers PSTN routing, from hierarchical routing to dynamic rout-
ing, from addressing to traffic engineering, including the role of signaling in routing, along with the
impact of number portability in routing.
• Part-IV (three chapters): In this part, we cover router architectures for different scale routers for
efficient packet processing, along with address lookup algorithms, and packet filtering and classifi-
cation mechanisms.
• Part-V (four chapters): As impetuses for next generation routing, we present quality-of-service rout-
ing, multiprotocol label switching, generalized multiprotocol label switching, and routing at the
intersection of IP-PSTN for voice over IP.
• Part-VI (five chapters): This bonus material (available only on the CD-ROM) is made up of two
sub-parts: the first three chapters continue beyond Part-IV by delving more into routers by pre-
senting efficient switching, packet queueing and scheduling, and traffic conditioning; the remaining
two chapters extend Part-V by covering transport network routing, optical network routing, and
multilayer routing.

At the beginning of each chapter, a reading guideline is provided. This gives a brief description
on the background needed to read the chapter; it also discusses which other chapters this chapter is
connected to or has dependency on. In general, it is not necessary to read the chapters in the sequential
order presented. Furthermore, the chapters are organized in a way so that the reader who has famil-
iarity with a particular topic can move on and read other chapters of interest. Similarly, there are a
Discovering Diverse Content Through
Random Scribd Documents
during the war was to so far disgust him with military affairs that he
would neither train, or drill: but paid fines; and got along like a
Quaker untill his age had finally cleared him of Military duty.
During the war with England a circumstance occurred that in the end
made him a most determined Abolitionist: & led him to declare, or
Swear: Eternal war with Slavery. He was staying for a short time
with a very gentlemanly landlord once a United States Marshal who
held a slave boy near his own age very active, intelligent and good
feeling; & to whom John was under considerable obligation for
numerous little acts of kindness. The master made a great pet of
John: brought him to table with his first company; & friends; called
their attention to every little smart thing he said or did: & to the fact
of his being more than a hundred miles from home with a company
of cattle alone; while the negro boy (who was fully if not more than
his equal) was badly clothed, poorly fed: & lodged in cold weather;
& beaten before his eyes with Iron Shovels or any other thing that
came first to hand. This brought John to reflect on the wretched;
hopeless condition, of Fatherless & Motherless slave children: for
such children have neither Father nor Mothers to protect, & provide
for them. He would sometimes raise the question is God their
Father?
At the age of Ten years an old friend induced him to read a little
history; & offered him the free use of a good library; by which he
acquired some taste for reading: which formed the principle part of
his early education: & diverted him in a great measure from bad
company, & conversation of old & inteligent persons. He never
attempted to dance in his life; nor did he ever learn to know one of
a pack of cards from another. He learned nothing of Grammar; nor
did he get at school so much knowledge of common Arithmetic as
the Four ground rules. This will give you some idea of the first
Fifteen years of his life; during which time he became very strong
and large of his age and ambitious to perform the full labour of a
man; at almost any kind of hard work. By reading the lives of great,
wise & good men their sayings, and writings; he grew to a dislike of
vain & frivolous conversation & persons; & was often greatly obliged
by the kind manner in which older & more intelligent persons treated
him at their houses: & in conversation; which was a great relief on
account of his extreme bashfulness.
He very early in life became ambitious to excell in doing anything he
undertook to perform. This kind of feeling I would recomend to all
persons both male & female: as it will certainly tend to secure
admission to the company of the more intelligent & better portion of
every community. By all means endeavor to excell in some laudable
pursuit.
I had like to forgotten to tell you of one of John's misfortunes which
set rather hard on him while a young boy. He had by some means
perhaps by gift of his father become the owner of a little Ewe Lamb
which did finely till it was about Two Thirds grown; and then
sickened & died. This brought another protracted mourning season:
not that he felt the pecuniary loss so much: for that was never his
disposition: but so strong and earnest were his attachments.
John had been taught from earliest childhood to fear God and keep
his commandments; & though quite skeptical he had always by turns
felt much serious doubt as to his future well being & about this time
became to some extent a convert to Christianity & ever after a firm
believer in the divine authenticity of the Bible. With this book he
became very familiar, & possessed a most unusual memory of its
entire contents.
Now some of the things I have been telling of; were just such as I
would recomend to you: & I wd like to know that you had selected
these out; & adopted them as part of your own plan of life; & I wish
you to have some definite plan. Many seem to have none; & others
never stick to any that they do form. This was not the case with
John. He followed up with tenacity whatever he set about so long as
it answered his general purpose: & hence he rarely failed in some
good decree to effect the things he undertook. This was so much the
case that he habitually expected to succeed in his undertakings.
With this feeling should be coupled; the consciousness that our plans
are right in themselves.
During the period I have named John had acquired a kind of
ownership to certain animals of some little value but as he had come
to understand that the title of minor's might be a little imperfect: he
had recource to various means in order to secure a more
independent; & perfect right of property. One of those means was to
exchange with his Father for something of far less value. Another
was trading with other persons for something his Father had never
owned. Older persons have some times found difficulty with titles.
From fifteen to Twenty years old, he spent most of his time working
at the Tanner & Currier's trade keeping Bachelors hall; & he was
acting as Cook; & for most of the time as foreman of the
establishment under his father. During this period he found much
trouble with some of the bad habits I have mentioned & with some
that I have not told you of: his conscience urging him forward with
great power in this matter: but his close attention to business; &
success in his management; together with the way he got along with
a company of men; & boys; made him quite a favorite with the
serious & more intelligent portion of older persons. This was so
much the case; & secured for him so many little notices from those
he esteemed; that his vanity was very much fed by it; & he came
forward to manhood quite full of self-conceit; & self-confidence;
notwithstanding his extreme bashfulness. A younger brother used
sometimes to remind him of this: and to repeat to him this
expression which you may somewhere find, 'A King against whome
there is no rising up.' The habit so early formed of being obeyed
rendered him in after life too much disposed to speak in an
imperious & dictating way. From Fifteen years & upward he felt a
good deal of anxiety to learn; but could only read and study a little;
both for want of time; & on account of inflammation of the eyes. He
however managed by the help of books to make himself tolerably
well acquainted with common arithmetic; & Surveying; which he
practiced more or less after he was Twenty years old.
At a little past Twenty years led by his own inclination & prompted
also by his Father, he married a remarkably plain; but neat
industrious & economical girl; of excellent character; earnest piety; &
good practical common sense; about one year younger than himself.
This woman, by her mild, frank, & more than all else: by her very
consistent conduct; acquired & ever while she lived maintained a
most powerful; & good influence over him. Her plain but kind
admonitions generally had the right effect; without arousing his
hauty obstinate temper. John began early in life to discover a great
liking to fine Cattle, Horses, Sheep, & Swine; & as soon as
circumstances would enable him he began to be a practical
Shepherd: it being a calling for which in early life he had a kind of
enthusiastic longing: with the idea that as a business it bid fair to
afford him the means of carrying out his greatest or principle object.
I have now given you a kind of general idea of the early life of this
boy; & if I believed it would be worth the trouble; or afford much
interest to any good feeling person: I might be tempted to tell you
something of his course in after life; or manhood. I do not say that I
will do it.
You will discover that in using up my half sheets to save paper; I
have written Two pages, so that one does not follow the other as it
should. I have no time to write it over; & but for unavoidable
hindrances in traveling I can hardly say when I should have written
what I have. With an honest desire for your best good, I subscribe
myself,
Y
o
u
r
F
r
i
e
n
d
,
J
.
 B
r
o
w
n

P. S. I had like to have forgotten to acknowledge your contribution in

aid of the cause in which I serve. God Allmighty bless you; my son.
J
.
B
.
INDEX
Abbott, Maj. J. B., 143, 175, 219, 274, 279

Adair, Rev. S. L., 77, 108, 146, 152, 221, 234, 264, 273

Adams, Mrs. Anne Brown, quoted, 82, 290, 291, 292, 293

Adams, Henry, History of U. S., 353

Alcott, Amos B., 284, 396

Alburtis, Capt. E. G., 302, 306

Alderman, Amos, 160

Allstadt, John H., 298, 300

Anderson, Capt. Geo. T., U. S. Army, 260

Anderson, Jeremiah Goldsmith, Capt. Prov. Army, 295;

killed at Harper's Ferry, 312;
quoted, 333, 387; 262, 269, 284, 285, 348

Anderson, Osborne P., colored, M. C., 250;

private Prov. Army, 295;
escaped from H. F., 305; 298

Andrew, Hon. John A., of Boston, quoted, 397; 369

Army of Liberation, 343

Arny, Wm. F., quoted, 43, 82, 83, 188

Artillery Corps U. S. Army, 392

Astor House, N. Y., 187

Atchison, David R., U. S. Senator, Major General, 51, 52, 55, 65, 66,
69, 163, 174, 176

Atlantic Monthly, 16, 17, 359, 360

August, Col. T. P., commands B.'s escort, 394

Austin Freeman, 160

Avery, Dr., 158

Avis, Capt. John, B.'s jailor, 302, 304, 382, 394

"B. E.," Mrs., letter to B., 389; 404

Bacon, Cook & Co., 214

Baltimore American, quoted, 320

Baltimore Greys, 321

Ball, A. M., Master Machinist at H. F., prisoner, 306

Bank of Wooster, 39

Barber, Thomas W., murdered, 69, 88

Barbour, Alfred W., 301

Barnes, Wm., letters from B., 211, 190

Barrow, Mr., killed Turner's Massacre, 362

Baylor, Col. Robt. W., 307, 308, 309

Beckham, Fontaine, killed at H. F., 305; 312

Bell, James M., colored, 248

Belshazzar, 326

Benjamin, Jacob, at Pottawatomie, 110; 20, 135, 159, 170, 172, 182

Bernard, J. M., store robbed by B., 137

Bickerton, Capt. Thomas W., 155, 158, 173

Biggs, Dr., 317

Bishop, Adam, 262

Blair, Charles, makes 1,000 spears for B., 223, 224

Blair, Montgomery, 370

Blake, Maj. George A. H., U. S. Army, 237

Black Jack, battle of, 110, 135, 141, 144, 149, 157, 223, 403, 405

Black Warrior, 60

Blakesley, Levi, 44, 46

Blunt, John, 114

Blood, James, 156

Boerly, Thomas, killed at H. F., 302; 312

Bolivar Heights, 301, 303, 304, 328, 339

Bondi, August, with Brown in Kansas, 136, 159, 160, 168, 170, 171,
172, 182

Booth, Edwin, 412

Border Ruffians, 81, 197, 199

Boetler, Hon. Alexander R., B. not severely wounded at H. F., 414;

387

Botts, Capt., 302, 304

Botts, Lawson, 366, 369, 371, 372

Brockett, W. B., Lieut., 143, 277

Brooks, Paul R., 91, 211

Brown, Anne, daughter of B. (see Adams), 286

Brown, Dianthe (Lusk). B.'s first wife, 28

Brown, Frederick, son of B., killed at Osawatomie, 170; 72, 136, 161,
165, 169, 171, 182

Brown, Frederick. B.'s Bro., 47

Brown, G. W., editor, 147, 211, 276

Brown, Jason, son of B., 45, 72, 116, 125, 144, 146, 159, 179, 182,
207, 405

Brown, John (the name appears so frequently that a complete index

would result
in an epitome of the book: therefore, only pages containing the
more important incidents are herein referred to),
character not prejudged, 9;
his principal biographers, 15;
picturesque figure an historical myth, 26;
birth, not a Mayflower descendant, 27;
successful as a tanner, 28;
contractor, speculates in town-sites and farm lands, failure,
fraudulent practices, 29;
in jail at Akron, O., 30;
sportsman, breeds race horses, obtains money under false
pretense, 31;
letter concerning, 32;
proceedings in bankruptcy, letters concerning, 33, 34;
negotiates for 1,000 acres of land in Va., 35, 36;
shepherd in O., 36;
Perkins & Brown Wool Merchants, Springfield, Mass., business
methods lax, complaints, 37;
ships wool to London, Eng., heavy losses, in liquidation, sued for
large sums, wine making for commercial purposes, 38;
obtains land at North Elba, N. Y., extensive litigation, bad record,
39;
penniless, thoughts of Kansas, 40;
religious belief problematical, 41,
skeptical? 42;
indifferent concerning the Sabbath, a non-resistant, 43;
summary of anti-slavery activities given, 44, 52;
intended to become a southern planter, 52,
letter concerning, did he intend to own slaves? 53;
a dilemma for his biographers, 54;
to Kansas, collects money at Syracuse, N. Y., Akron and Cleveland,
O., 75, 76;
at Osawatomie, in distress, 76;
at Free State election Oct. 9, 78;
not bellicose, 79;
as he impressed Mr. Redpath, 80;
as he impressed Mr. Villard, 80, 81;
 as he impressed his son Salmon, 81;
"his object in going to Kansas," 82;
intended to settle, his claim "jumped," 83;
Captain of the Liberty Guards, 86;
Shannon Treaty satisfactory, 89;
mythical speech, 90;
not heard by Redpath, 92;
first and last appearance at a public meeting, 93;
chairman district convention, 94;
disbands Liberty Guards and plans to leave neighborhood,
extreme poverty, 94;
an ominous letter, desires recrudescence of pro-slavery
aggressions, 97, 98;
robbery and murder, 99, 114:
exchanges stolen horses, 109;
self, unmarried sons and Henry Thompson plan robbery and
murder, 99;
to go to Louisiana, 111;
his motives, 121;
secrecy a characteristic, 124;
grinding of sabers a myth, 125;
motives not altruistic, 129;
personality, 130;
not a "misplaced crusader," 131;
motives selfish, 135;
midnight flight, 136;
robbery, 137;
his secret camp, 139;
encouraged by Redpath, sought for by Capt. Pate, joins forces
with Capt. Shore, 140;
captures Pate at Black Jack, bands dispersed by Col. Sumner, 141;
John E. Cook a guest, 144;
original company disbanded, 146;
whereabouts unknown during fifty days, 147;
stealing horses, 149, 150;
profited by his operations, 151;
 forced to leave Kansas, 152, 153;
returns from Nebraska, 154;
not to fight, 155, 156;
at Lawrence, 158;
to engage in robbery on a large scale, 159;
captain of industry, 160;
Osawatomie a cattle raid, 161;
refused to join Lane for the defense of Lawrence, 162;
his "report" of Osawatomie, 165, 167, 168;
band not a military company, 169;
in hiding, 170;
end of get-rich-quick adventure, 171;
abandoned son's body, 172;
the Loki of Osawatomie, 173;
well received at Lawrence, 174;
declined command of a company, 171;
left Lawrence to its fate, 176;
secures congratulatory letters from Gov. Robinson by
dissimulation, 177, 178;
leaves Kansas to work the East for large sums of money, files
claim for losses, 181, 184;
stores arms at Tabor, 184;
en route east collects money, 185;
meets Mr. Sanborn and unfolds scheme to raise $30,000, cash,
185;
in "green pastures," 186;
discredits Free State leaders, 187;
asks National Com. for $5,000 cash, speech, 188;
disappointment, 190;
asks Mass. Legislature for $100,000, speech, 191, 195;
would have New York appropriate $100,000 for him, 196, 197;
eulogized, 198, 199;
advertises for contributions, 200, 201;
contributions, value $30,000; works friends for $1,000, 202, 203;
offers Kansas leadership to Gov. Reeder, 204;
shamming, 205, 206;
 contempt for the gullible, 207;
works Mrs. Stearns, 207, 210;
suggestive name for his make-believe troopers, 211;
autobiography written for a special purpose, 212;
destination conditional, 214;
report to Stearns, 215;
failure of pretensions, 216;
vocabulary intact, 217;
hopes for "disturbance" nourished by Lane, 219;
brigadier-general, 220;
in Kansas but not to assist Lane, 221;
draft for $7,000, cancelled, to return East, 222;
orders 1,000 spears, 223;
meets Hugh Forbes, 224;
plans conquest of Southern States, 225, 226;
a disunionist, 227;
plans to seduce soldiery of Union, Duty of the Soldier, 228;
important use for spears, 230;
a law unto himself, 231;
wants money with no questions asked, 233;
stranded at Tabor, war college at Ashtabula, O., 234;
matriculates tyros in Kansas, 236;
opens war college at Springdale, Iowa, 238;
drops Forbes from pay-roll, 239;
war council at Gerrit Smith's home, 244;
a war committee, 245;
not the "Lord's champion," 247;
constitutional convention, 248;
adopts constitution for provisional government, commander-in-
chief of Provisional Army, 249;
collapse of exchequer, 253;
menace to rear of communications, 254;
gets control of ordinance stores, 255;
campaign postponed, 258;
in Kansas, alias Shubel Morgan, orders a "Doz. Whistles," 259;
roll of make-believe company, his real men arrive, 262;
 worked Territory in pairs, 263;
suffered from exposure, encouraged horse stealing, 265;
drafted Sugar Mound Treaty, 267;
plans complete for Missouri raid except as to date of execution,
268;
the raid, 269, 272;
sends slaves taken to Osawatomie, 273;
no published accounting or distribution of stolen property,
recruited finances near Lawrence, 274;
conduct complained of by Moneka clergyman, 276;
details Stevens and Tidd to "replevin" pair of horses, 278;
successful trip with slaves from Kansas to Canada, 278, 282;
"Battle of the Spurs," 279;
arrest not desired by Dept. of Justice, 282;
never killed anybody, 284;
revolution financed, 285;
Hd. Qrs. near Harper's Ferry, 286;
panic on bourse, 287;
army mobilized, 289;
muster roll, 294;
forward movement, 296;
occupies H. F., 297;
declaration of intentions, 298;
armed with sword of Frederick and Washington, 299;
stops train B. & O. Ry., 300;
proclamation, this is the last train that shall pass, 301;
the struggle, 302, 312;
negroes fail to do their part, 303;
refuses to surrender, 309;
his position carried by assault, 310;
wounded while bravely fighting, 311, 387;
casualties, 312;
interviews, 312, 320;
military stores on hand, lodged in jail, 321;
found Sanborn deficient, 326;
his intelligence discredited by biographers, assumptions of not
justified, 328;
not trifling nor baiting death for trifling purpose, 329;
intended to arm slaves and defend position, 330;
expected "negroes to rise and swell force to irresistible
proportions," 332;
plans approved unanimously, 333, 350;
distributed 500 spears among negroes, 333,
did not intend to retreat to fastness, believed he would write
bloodiest chapter in history, 334;
intended to equip an army at H. F. and invade South, disposition
of his forces at H. F. consistent with theory of insurrection of slaves,
336;
defied no canons, was not executing a raid, campaign serious,
heroic and desperate, 337;
dispositions at H. F. not violations of military principles, 338;
to effect conquest of Southern States and establish provisional
government, believed slaves would assassinate masters and families
and declare freedom, 341;
hedged against treason, 342;
believed insurrection in progress, blow to be most crushing he
could deliver, 343;
would shake slave system to foundation, assassination means to
end, 344;
would improve upon Turner's methods, 345;
seizure of H. F., stratagem, 347;
colored military organizations to support, 348;
project foreshadowed by Anderson, 350;
General Orders No. 1, 351;
collapse of scheme coincident with failure of assassinations, 355;
if he and captains had led as Turner led, weak link in chain of
forecast, 356;
overconfident of success; ship of state wrecked upon charted rock,
vain to underestimate man or conspiracy, not a pioneer in the
insurrection business, 357;
placed upon trial, unseemly haste, 365;
jurisdiction of Federal courts not seriously considered—after
"higher and wickeder game," 365;
defiant speech, 366;
trial a formality, 367;
rejects plea of insanity, 369;
directions to counsel, 371;
denounces his counsel, 372;
verdict guilty—received in respectful silence, 374;
speech to the Court—first paragraph discreditable, 375;
sentence pronounced, 377;
retracts statements made in speech to Court—letter to Andrew
Hunter concerning, 379;
speech of Oct. 25th characteristic of courage—that of Nov. 2nd, of
craftiness, as brave as crafty, 380;
discourages attempts at rescue—had had surfeit of tragedies, 383;
prevarication and craftiness characteristic of prison
correspondence, 387-390;
statement, 391;
military pageant—Soldier of the Cross, 394;
fame due to things done to him, and to things said about him—
examples, 395, 399;
honored by Kansas, 399, 400;
martyrdom a fiction, 400, 401;
assault upon slavery means to end, first contemplated in 1857,
grafting upon anti-slavery sentiment, 1855, 1859, 402, 403;
rapacity distinguishing characteristic—deportment, coarse, brutal,
vulgar, or saintly as suited purposes, 404;
deceived by Pate, 405;
commercial and political plunger, 405, 406;
will live in history as an adventurer, 407;
ref. 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24;
letters to Mad. E. B., 389;
Col. Higginson, 381;
Dr. Humphrey, 388;
Andrew Hunter, 379;
Rev. Theo. Parker, 229; 234;
Mr. Sanborn, 218, 238, 246, 268;
 Mr. Stearns, 215;
Mrs. Stearns, 390;
to wife et al, 77, 79, 84, 85, 86, 89, 95, 97, 107, 141, 165, 268,
269, 382, 385, 388

Brown, John Jr., letters, 73;

Capt. Pottawatomie Rifles, 98, 101;
statement to Sanborn, 108;
knew about B.'s plans, 109;
dismissed from Pottawatomie Rifles, 125;
quits Kansas, 179; 20, 30, 44, 45, 72, 94, 136, 144, 146, 182, 207,
243, 248, 323, 384, 405

Brown, Mary Ann (Day), B.'s second wife, 28; 381, 390, 392, 393

Brown, Oliver, stole horses in Nebraska, 150;

Capt. Prov. Army, 295;
killed at H. F., 312;
copy of his commission, 352; 76, 102, 136, 149, 183, 295, 337

Brown, Mrs. Oliver, 286

Brown, Owen, B.'s father, 28

Brown, Owen, escaped from Pottawatomie on "fast Kentucky horse,"

109;
a "vile murderer," 127;
treasurer, Prov. Gov., 250; Capt. Prov. Army, 295;
escaped from H. F., 312; 30, 72, 136, 146, 149, 182, 237, 262,
296, 302, 305, 336

Brown, Peter, Windsor, Conn., B.'s ancestor, 27

Brown, Reece, P., murdered, 69

Brown, Salmon, letter not war-like, 81;

 father intended to kill seven men, 111;
letter, 119;
wounded, 143; 21, 72, 102, 136, 149, 151, 182, 190, 265, 349

Brown, Sarah, daughter of B., quoted, 169

Brown, S. B., 159

Brown, Terrance, prisoner at H. F., 303

Brown, Watson, son of B.; Capt. Prov. Army, 295;

killed at H. F., 312; 85, 263, 289, 296, 303, 304, 336

Browns, The, not fighting for freedom, 153

Browne, Peter, of the "Mayflower," not B.'s ancestor, 27; 192

Brua, Joseph A., prisoner at H. F., 304, 306

Buchanan, Hon. James, President, 60, 279, 307

"Buckskin," 158, 159

Buford, Maj. Jefferson, quoted, 155; 106

Burgess, John W., Middle Period, quoted, 66; 56

Byrne, Terence, 306, prisoner at H. F.

Cabot, Dr. Samuel, 186

Cadet Corps, Va. Mil. Institute, 392

Calhoun, Hon. John C., 43, 56, 57

Callender, W. H. D., Cashier, 201

Campbell, James W., Sheriff, 393, 394

Carpenter, A. O., at Black Jack, 136; 137, 146

Carruth, James H., quoted, 127

Cass, Hon. Lewis, 58

Castile, A., 114

Century Magazine, 312

Chambers, Geo. W., 304

Chadwick, Rear Admiral F. E., 255, 334

Chamberlain, Amos P., 29, 30

Charleston Mercury, 70

Chicago Tribune, 46

Chilton, Samuel, counsel for B., 369; 372, 373, 374, 375

Clark, James Freeman, 128

Clay, Henry, 59

Cline, "Capt," J. B., 160, 161, 166, 167, 168, 169

Cochrane, B. L., at Pottawatomie, 183; 20, 110

Colby, Deputy Marshal, 279

Colcock, Hon. Wm. F., 59

Coleman, Franklin, killed Dow, 87

Collamer, Hon. Jacob, Mason Com., 365

Collis, Mr., wounded at Osawatomie, 167

Committee, Mass. State Kans., 185, 187, 188, 195, 200, 203, 221,
256

Committee, National, Kans., 181, 184, 187, 188, 189, 190, 196, 203,
221, 265

Committee, Vigilance, 116, 221

Committee, B.'s War, 245, 252, 254, 256, 325

Conant, John, 202

Congressional Globe, 59

Convention at Chatham, Canada, Call, 248

Conway, Martin F., 187, 204, 211

Cook, John E., with B. at Pottawatomie, 20, 110;

talked too much, 287;
Capt. Prov. Army, 295;
hanged at Charlestown, 305; 139, 144, 214, 235, 236, 253, 258,
286, 288, 292, 296, 298, 302, 321, 328, 331, 332, 333, 342, 393,
401

Cooke, John W., 40, 44

Cooke, Lieut. Col. Philip St. George. U. S. Army, 59

Copeland, J. A. Jr., colored; private Prov. Army, 295;
hanged at Charlestown, 305; 298, 337

Coppoc, Barclay, private, Prov. Army, 295;

escaped from H. F., 292; 295, 296

Coppoc, Edwin, first lieutenant, Prov. Army, 295;

hanged at Charlestown, 305; 298, 306, 311

Corcoran, W. W., 58

Cracklin, Capt. Joseph, 152, 154, 175

Crawford, Geo. A., 276

Crawford, Brig. Genl. S. W., 339

Crittenden, Hon. John C., 60

Cruise, David, killed in Mo. raid, 270; 272

Cuba, Pearl of the Antilles, 60

Currie, L. F., quoted, 331

Dangerfield, J. E., at H. F., 306

Daniels, Jim, slave liberated by B. in Mo. raid, 271

Davis, Mr., 138

Davis, Hon. Jefferson, of Miss. Mason Com., 60, 365

Davis, William Watson. Ph.D., 10

Day, Charles, 28

Day, Mary Anne, B.'s second wife, 28

Day, Orson, 93, 97

Davenport, Braxton, 366

Dayton, Capt. Oscar V., 92, 101

De Bow's Review, 70

Deitzler, Geo. W., 147, 211

Denver, James Wilson, acting-governor of Kansas Ter., 260

Denver, Treaty, 260, 267

Des Moines Register, 281

Dixon, Hon. Archibald, of Kentucky, 61

Doolittle, Hon. James R., of Wis., Mason Com., 236, 365

Dorsey, Mr., wounded at H. F., 312

Douglas, Hon. Stephen A., 58

Douglas, Frederick, 239, 240, 243, 248, 336, 349

Dow, Charles, murdered, 87

Doyle, Drury, murdered by B., 103

Doyle, John, murdered by B., 99, 100, 102, 103

Doyle, Mrs. Mahala, statement, 103

Doyle, William, murdered by B., 103

Edwards, Sam, slave at Southampton, 360

Eighteenth Conn. Infty., 27

Ellsworth, Alfred M., colored. M. C., 250

Elmore, Rush, Judge, 276

Emancipation Proclamation, 63

Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 186, 199, 379, 380, 397

Faquier Cavalry, 392

Fastness, "hill-top," myth, 328, 330, 332, 335, 338, 339, 340

Fastness, "inaccessible," myth, 323, 339, 340

Faulkner, Hon. Chas. J., 312, 366

Fay, John W., 160

Fitch. Hon. G. N. of Ind. Mason Com., 365

Floyd, Hon. John B., Secy. of War, 288, 289

Forbes, Col. Hugh, Soldier of Fortune, 224;

not a drill master, 226;
his letters to B. suppressed, 242; 225, 227, 228, 229, 231, 232,
234, 235, 238, 239, 240, 241, 254, 256, 285, 341, 342, 347, 356,
358, 400, 401, 406

Frazee, Lieut. Noah, 160

Frederick The Great, 299, 300, 332, 388

Frothingham, Octavius B., quoted, 353, 355

Fugitive Slave Law, 48

Gabriel, "General," slave, insurrection of Sept., 1800, 358

Galt House, H. F., 304

Garibaldi, 224, 225

Garnett, Rev. Henry H., colored, 248

Garrett, John W., Prest. B. & O. R. Rd. Co. 301

Garrett, Thomas, Underground Railroad, 52

Garrison, William Lloyd, quoted, 362; 45, 186, 187

Garrison, David, killed at Osawatomie, 166

Gaudeloupe Hidalgo, Treaty of, 57

Gaylord, Daniel C., 29, 40

Geary, Genl. John W., Gov. K. T., 69, 70, 174, 176, 184

Gileadites, U. S. league of, 48, 50

Gill, Geo. B., Sec. Treas. Prov. Gov., 250;
letter not heretofore published, 130; 259, 262-266 inc., 269, 270,
271, 278, 292, 342, 348, 404, 406

Gilpatrick, R., 114

Glenn, John P., 160

Gloucester, Dr. J. N., colored, 247

Goliath-American, 80

Godel, John, 159

Golden Rule, 199, 344

Golding, R., chairman, 114

Grant, Ulysses S., 398

Gray, Mr., Turner's Confessor, 362

Greeley, Horace, 224, 232

Grinnell, Josiah B., 282

Green, Israel, Lieut. U. S. Marine Corps, 308, 309, 310, 320, 321

Green, Shields, colored, private Prov. Army, 295;

hanged at Charlestown, 305, 311

Green, Thomas G., counsel for B., 366, 369, 371, 372

Griswold, Hiram, counsel for B., 369, 370, 372, 373

Grover, Capt. Joel, 156, 158

Grover, Mr., entertains B. near Lawrence, 274

Gue, David J., author of letter to Floyd, 289

"H" Co. 7th South Carolina, 340

Hairgrove, Wm., 262

Hale, Hon. John P., U. S. Senator, N. H., 255

Hamilton, Chas. A., massacre of Free State men, 260

Hamilton, Thomas S., testimony, 137

Hammond, C. G., Supt. Mich. Southern Ry., 282

Hammond, Mr., wounded at H. F., 312

Hamtrack Guards, 302

Hand, T. H., 152

Harding, Chas. B., counsel for prosecution of B., 373

Harris, James, testimony, 104

Harris, Wm. B., 159

Harvey, Maj. James A., 157, 173

Haskell, Genl. W. A., 174

Hauser, Samuel, 160

Hawse, Alexander G., 163, 170

Hazlett, Albert, Capt. Prov. Army, 295;

hanged at Charlestown, 305; 262, 264, 265, 270, 292, 298, 336,
393

Hayward, Shepherd, colored, killed at H. F., 300, 301, 335

Heywood (Hayward), 316

Herald of Freedom, 91, 93, 275

Hicklan, Harvey B., home plundered by B., 270;

statement, 271, 272

Higgins, Patrick, 300, 335

Higgins, Hon. William, quoted, 164

Higginson, Col. Thomas Wentworth, member of B.'s War Com., 254;

51, 52, 185, 217, 244, 257, 325, 381, 397

Hinton, Richard J., author, 17, 26, 130, 228, 235, 264, 342, 384

Hinton Papers, 130, 348

History of Iowa, Gue, 289

Holliday, C. K., 211

Holmes, "Capt." J. H., 160, 161, 162, 170, 171, 172, 179, 213, 214,
235

Holt, James H., H. F., 305

Homyr, T., 262

Hooper, Mr., wounded at H. F., 312

Howard, Hon. W. A., chairman, 100;

report quoted, 103, 104, 105, 137, 138

Howe, Dr. Saml. G., member of B.'s War Com., 254; 186, 240, 242,
245, 255, 257, 325, 347, 353, 355, 384

Hoyt, Major David S., murdered, 62

Hoyt, Geo. H., counsel for B., and spy, 368; 370, 372, 383, 385

Humphrey, Rev. Dr. Luther, 388

Hunter, Andrew, special counsel for Va., 312;

quoted, 330, 367; 365, 368, 371, 373, 374, 375, 393, 416

Hunter, Harry, at H. F., 304

Hurd, H. B., Secy. Nat. Kan. Com., 188, 266

Hurlbut, Mr., 78

Hugo, Victor, quoted, 398

Hyatt, Thaddeus, 245, 353

Ingalls, Hon. John James, quoted, 397; 399

Irwin, Mr., 304

Jackson, Prof. Thomas J., 339, 392

Jackson, Col. Zadock, 70

Jackson, Patrick Tracy, 186

Jamison, Quartermaster Genl., 220

Jefferson Guards, 301, 303

Jennison, Col. Chas. H., 264, 269, 281, 293, 384

Johnson, William Savage, Ph.D., 10

Johnston, Col. Joseph E., 69, 175, 176

Jones, John T. (Ottawa), 101, 194

Kagi, John H., Secy. of War, 249, 352;

Capt. Prov. Army, 295, 298;
"bravest of the brave," 329;
killed at H. F., 305; 235, 236, 259, 262, 263, 264, 269, 277, 278,
281, 284, 285, 287, 288, 297, 337, 342, 349, 401

Kaiser, Charles, 139, 160

Kansas Conflict, quoted, 277

Kansas Crusade, quoted, 65, 71

Kansas Hist. Coll., 117

Kansas Hist Soc., 130, 189, 209

Kansas House of Representatives, resolution concerning statue of B.,

400
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