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 T H E D I C T I O N A RY O F

Human
Geography
5th Edition

Edited by

Derek Gregory
Ron Johnston
Geraldine Pratt
Michael J.Watts
and SarahWhatmore

A John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Publication

T H E D I C T I O N A RY O F

Human
Geography
 To the memory of
Denis Cosgrove and Leslie Hepple
 T H E D I C T I O N A RY O F

Human
Geography
5th Edition

Edited by

Derek Gregory
Ron Johnston
Geraldine Pratt
Michael J.Watts
and SarahWhatmore

A John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Publication

 This 5th edition first published 2009
# 2009 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd except for editorial material and organization
# 2009 Derek Gregory, Ron Johnston, Geraldine Pratt, Michael J. Watts, and Sarah Whatmore
Edition history: Basil Blackwell Ltd (1e, 1981 and 2e, 1986);
Blackwell Publishers Ltd (3e, 1994 and 4e, 2000)

Blackwell Publishing was acquired by John Wiley & Sons in February 2007. Blackwell’s publishing program
has been merged with Wiley’s global Scientific, Technical, and Medical business to form Wiley-Blackwell.

Registered Office
John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester,
West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, United Kingdom

Editorial Offices
350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148-5020, USA
9600 Garsington Road, Oxford, OX4 2DQ, UK
The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK

For details of our global editorial offices, for customer services, and for information about how
to apply for permission to reuse the copyright material in this book please
see our website at www.wiley.com/wiley-blackwell.

The right of Derek Gregory, Ron Johnston, Geraldine Pratt, Michael J. Watts, and Sarah
Whatmore to be identified as the author of the editorial material in this work has been
asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or
otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988,
without the prior permission of the publisher.

Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears
in print may not be available in electronic books.

Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks.
All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names, service marks, trademarks or
registered trademarks of their respective owners. The publisher is not associated with any product
or vendor mentioned in this book. This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative
information in regard to the subject matter covered. It is sold on the understanding that the publisher
is not engaged in rendering professional services. If professional advice or other expert assistance
is required, the services of a competent professional should be sought.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

The dictionary of human geography / edited by Derek Gregory . . . [et al.]. – 5th ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-4051-3287-9 (hardcover : alk. paper) – ISBN 978-1-4051-3288-6 (pbk. : alk. paper)
1. Human geography–Dictionaries. I. Gregory, Derek, 1951–
GF4.D52 2009
304.203–dc22
2008037335

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Set in 9/10pt Plantin by SPi Publisher Services, Pondicherry, India

Printed in Singapore

1 2009
 Contents

Preface to the Fifth Edition vi

How to Use This Dictionary x
Acknowledgements xi
List of Contributors xiii
Editorial Advisory Board xvi
THE DICTIONARY OF HUMAN GEOGRAPHY 1
Bibliography 818
Index 957

v
 Preface to the Fifth Edition
Geographical dictionaries have a long history. A number were published in Europe in the
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries: a few – mostly those with greater pretensions to providing
conceptual order – were described as ‘Geographical Grammars’. The majority were compendia of
geographical information, or gazetteers, some of which were truly astonishing in their scope. For
example, Lawrence Echard noted with some asperity in his 1691 Compendium of Geography that
the geographer was by then more or less required to be ‘an Entomologist, an Astronomer, a
Geometrician, a Natural Philosopher, a Husbandman, an Herbalist, a Mechanik, a Physician, a
Merchant, an Architect, a Linguist, a Divine, a Politician, one that understands Laws and Military
Affairs, an Herald [and] an Historian.’ Margarita Bowen, commenting on 1981 on what she took to
be Geography’s isolation from the scientific mainstream in Echard’s time, suggested that ‘the
prospect of adding epistemology and the skills of the philosopher’ to such a list might well have
precipitated its Cambridge author into the River Cam!
It was in large measure the addition of those skills to the necessary accomplishments of a
human geographer that prompted the first edition of The Dictionary of Human Geography. The
original idea was John Davey’s, a publisher with an extraordinarily rich and creative sense of the
field, and he persuaded Ron Johnston, Derek Gregory, Peter Haggett, David Smith and David
Stoddart to edit the first edition (1981). In their Preface they noted that the changes in human
geography since the Second World War had generated a ‘linguistic explosion’ within the discip-
line. Part of the Dictionary’s purpose – then as now – was to provide students and others with a
series of frameworks for situating, understanding and interrogating the modern lexicon. The
implicit model was something closer to Raymond Williams’ marvellous compilation of Keywords
than to any ‘Geographical Grammar’. Certainly the intention was always to provide something
more than a collection of annotated reading lists. Individual entries were located within a web of
cross-references to other entries, which enabled readers to follow their own paths through the
Dictionary, sometimes to encounter unexpected parallels and convergences, sometimes to en-
counter creative tensions and contradictions. But the major entries were intended to be com-
prehensible on their own, and many of them not only provided lucid presentations of key issues
but also made powerful contributions to subsequent debates.
This sense of The Dictionary of Human Geography as both mirror and goad, as both reflecting
and provoking work in our field, has been retained in all subsequent editions. The pace of
change within human geography was such that a second edition (1986) was produced only five
years after the first, incorporating significant revisions and additions. For the third (1994) and
fourth (2000) editions, yet more extensive revisions and additions were made. This fifth edition,
fostered by our publisher Justin Vaughan, continues that restless tradition: it has been compre-
hensively redesigned and rewritten and is a vastly different book from the original. The first
edition had over 500 entries written by eighteen contributors; this edition has more than 1000
entries written by 111 contributors. Over 300 entries appear for the first time (many of the most
important are noted throughout this Preface), and virtually all the others have been fully revised
and reworked. With this edition, we have thus once again been able to chart the emergence of
new themes, approaches and concerns within human geography, and to anticipate new avenues
of enquiry and new links with other disciplines. The architecture of the Dictionary has also been
changed. We have retained the cross-referencing of headwords within each entry and the
detailed Index, which together provide invaluable alternatives to the alphabetical ordering of
the text, but references are no longer listed at the end of each entry. Instead, they now appear in a
consolidated Bibliography at the end of the volume. We took this decision partly to avoid
duplication and release space for new and extended entries, but also because we believe the
Bibliography represents an important intellectual resource in its own right. It has over 4000
entries, including books, articles and online sources.
Our contributors operated within exacting guidelines, including limits on the length of each
entry and the number of references, and they worked to a demanding schedule. The capstone
entry for previous editions was ‘human geography’, but in this edition that central place is now
vi
 PREFACE TO THE FIFTH EDITION

taken by a major entry on ‘geography’, with separate entries on ‘human geography’ and (for the
first time) ‘physical geography’. The inclusion of the latter provides a valuable perspective on the
multiple ways in which human geography has become involved in interrogations of the biophys-
ical world and – one of Williams’s most complicated keywords – ‘nature’. Accordingly, we have
expanded our coverage of environmental geographies and of terms associated with the continued
development of actor-network theory and political ecology, and for the first time we have
included entries on biogeography, biophilosophy, bioprospecting, bioregionalism, biosecurity,
biotechnology, climate, environmental history, environmental racism, environmental security,
genetic geographies, the global commons, oceans, tropicality, urban nature, wetlands and zoos.
The first edition was planned at the height of the critique of spatial science within geography,
and for that reason most of the entries were concerned with either analytical methods and formal
spatial models or with alternative concepts and approaches drawn from the other social sciences.
We have taken new developments in analytical methods into account in subsequent editions, and
this one is no exception. We pay particular attention to the continuing stream of innovations in
Geographic Information Systems and, notably, the rise of Geographic Information Science, and
we have also taken notice of the considerable revival of interest in quantitative methods and
modelling: hence we have included for the first time entries on agent-based modelling, Bayesian
analysis, digital cartography, epidemiology, e-social science, geo-informatics and software for
quantitative analysis, and we have radically revised our coverage of other analytical methods.
The vital importance of qualitative methods in human geography has required renewed atten-
tion too, including for the first time entries on discourse analysis and visual methods, together
with enhanced entries on deconstruction, ethnography, iconography, map reading and qualita-
tive methods. In the previous edition we provided detailed coverage of developments in the
social sciences and the humanities, and we have taken this still further in the present edition.
Human geographers have continued to be assiduous in unpicking the seams between the social
sciences and the humanities, and for the first time we have included entries on social theory, on
the humanities, and on philosophy and literature (complementing revised entries on art, film
and music), together with crucial junction-terms such as affect, assemblage, cartographic reason,
contrapuntal geographies, dialectical image, emotional geography, minor theory, posthuman-
ism, representation and trust (complementing enhanced entries on performance, performativity,
non-representational theory and representation). Since the previous edition, the interest in some
theoretical formations has declined, and with it the space we have accorded to them; but human
geography has continued its close engagement with postcolonialism and post-structuralism, and
the new edition incorporates these developments. They involve two continuing and, we think,
crucial moments. The first is a keen interest in close and critical reading (surely vital for any
dictionary!) and, to repeat what we affirmed in the preface to the previous edition, we are keenly
aware of the slipperiness of our geographical ‘keywords’: of the claims they silently make, the
privileges they surreptitiously install, and of the wider webs of meaning and practice within
which they do their work. It still seems to us that human geographers are moving with consid-
erable critical intelligence in a trans-disciplinary, even post-disciplinary space, and we hope that
this edition continues to map and move within this intellectual topography with unprecedented
precision and range. The second implication of postcolonialism and post-structuralism is a
heightened sensitivity to what we might call the politics of specificity. This does not herald the
return of the idiographic under another name, and it certainly does not entail any slackening of
interest in theoretical work (we have in fact included an enhanced entry on theory). But it has
involved a renewed interest in and commitment to that most traditional of geographical con-
cerns, the variable character of the world in which we live. In one sense, perhaps, this makes the
fifth edition more conventionally ‘geographical’ than its predecessors. We have included new
entries on the conceptual formation of major geographical divisions and imaginaries, including
the globe and continents (with separate entries on Africa, the Americas, Asia, Australasia and
Europe), and on Latin America, the Middle East, the global South and the West, and on cognate
fields such as area studies and International Relations. But we also asked our contributors to
recognize that the world of geography is not limited to the global North. In previous editions,
contributors frequently commented on the multiple ways in which modern human geography
had worked to privilege and, indeed, normalize ‘the modern’, and together they traced a
genealogy of geographical knowledge in which the world beyond Europe and North America
was all too often marginalized or produced as a problematic ‘pre-modern’. For this edition, we
asked contributors to go beyond the critique of these assumptions and, wherever possible, to
vii
PREFACE TO THE FIFTH EDITION

incorporate more cosmopolitan geographies (and we have included a new entry on cos-
mopolitanism).
And yet we must also recognize that this edition, like its predecessors, remains focused on
English-language words, terms and literatures. There are cautionary observations to be made
about the power-laden diffusion of English as a ‘global language’, and we know that there are
severe limitations to working within a single-language tradition (especially in a field like human
geography). The vitality of other geographical traditions should neither be overlooked nor
minimized. We certainly do not believe that human geography conducted in English somehow
constitutes the canonical version of the discipline, though it would be equally foolish to ignore
the powers and privileges it arrogates to itself in the unequal world of the international academy.
Neither should one discount the privileges that can be attached to learning other languages, nor
minimize the perils of translation: linguistic competences exact their price. But to offer some
(limited) protection against an unreflective ethnocentrism, we have been guided by an inter-
national Editorial Advisory Board and we have extended our coverage of issues bound up with
Anglocentrism and Eurocentrism, colonialism and imperialism, Empire and Orientalism – all of
these in the past and in the present – and we continue to engage directly with the politics of
‘race’, racism and violence. All of this makes it impossible to present The Dictionary of Human
Geography as an Archimedean overview, a textual performance of what Donna Haraway calls
‘the God-trick’. The entries are all situated knowledges, written by scholars working in Australia,
Canada, Denmark, India, Ireland, Israel, New Zealand, Singapore, the United Kingdom and
the United States of America. None of them is detached, and all of them are actively involved in
the debates that they write about. More than this, the authors write from a diversity of subject-
positions, so that this edition, like its predecessor, reveals considerable diversity and debate
within the discipline. We make no secret of the differences – in position, in orientation, in
politics – among our contributors. They do not speak with a single voice, and this is not a
work of bland or arbitrary systematization produced by a committee. Even so, we are conscious
of at least some of its partialities and limitations, and we invite our readers to consider how these
other voices might be heard from other positions, other places, and to think about the voices that
are – deliberately or unconsciously – silenced or marginalized.
None of these changes is a purely intellectual matter, of course, for they do not take place in a
vacuum: the world has changed since the previous edition, and this is reflected in a number of
entries that appear here for the first time. Some reach back to recover terms from the recent past
that are active in our present – including Cold War, fascism, Holocaust and Second World – but
all of them are distinguished by a sense of the historical formation of concepts and the webs of
power in which they are implicated. While we do not believe that ‘everything changed’ after the
attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon on 11 September 2001, one year after our
last edition, a shortlist of terms that have achieved new salience within the field indicates how far
human geography has been restructured to accommodate a heightened sensitivity to political
violence, including its ethical, economic and ecological dimensions. While many of these terms
(like the four we have just mentioned) should have been in previous editions, for the first time we
now have entries on: American Empire, asylum, bare life, the camp, ethnic cleansing, spaces of
exception, genocide, homo sacer, human rights, intifada, just war, militarism, military geography,
military occupation, resource wars, rogue states, security, terrorism, urbicide and war. Human
geography has made major contributions to the critical study of economic transformation and
globalization too, and our entries continue to recognize major developments in economic
geography and political economy, and the lively exchanges between them that seek to explicate
dramatic changes in contemporary regimes of capital accumulation and circulation. The global
economic crisis broke as this edition was going to press. We had already included new entries on
anti-development and anti-globalization, on the International Monetary Fund and the World
Social Forum, and on narco-capitalism and petrocapitalism, which speak to some of the
ramifications of the crisis, but we also believe that these events have made our expanded
critiques of (in particular) capitalism, markets and neo-liberalism more relevant than ever
before.
A number of other projects have appeared in the wake of previous editions of the Dictionary:
meta-projects such as the International Encyclopedia of Human Geography and several other
encyclopedias, an indispensable Feminist Glossary of Human Geography, and a series devoted to
Key Concepts in the major subdisciplines of human geography. There is, of course, a lively debate
about scale in geography, but we believe that the scale (or perhaps the extent of the conceptual
viii
 PREFACE TO THE FIFTH EDITION

network) of The Dictionary of Human Geography continues to be a crucial resource for anyone
who wants to engage with the continued development of the field. It is not the last word – and
neither pretends nor wishes to be – but rather an invitation to recover those words that came
before, to reflect on their practical consequences, and to contribute to future ‘geo-graphings’.
This makes it all the more salutary to return to Echard’s original list and realize that virtually all
of the fields he identified as bearing on geography have their counterparts within the contem-
porary discipline. The single exception is the figure of the Herald, but if this is taken to imply not
the skill of heraldry but rather a harbinger of what is to come, then human geography’s interest
in prediction and forecasting returns us to the footsteps of our seventeenth-century forebear.
Be that as it may, none of us is prepared to forecast the scope and contents of the next edition of
The Dictionary of Human Geography, which is why working on the project continues to be such a
wonderfully creative process.

Derek Gregory
Ron Johnston
Geraldine Pratt
Michael J. Watts
Sarah Whatmore

ix
 How to UseThis Dictionary
Keywords are listed alphabetically and appear on the page in bold type: in most cases, users of
the Dictionary should begin their searches there. Within each entry, cross-references to other
entries are shown in capital letters (these include the plural and adjectival versions of many of
the terms). Readers may trace other connections through the comprehensive index at the back of
the book.
Suggested readings are provided at the end of each entry in abbreviated (Harvard) form; a full
Bibliography is provided between pages 818 and 956, and readers seeking particular references or
the works of particular authors should begin their searches there.

x
 Acknowledgements
In the production of this edition, we are again indebted to a large number of people. We are
particularly grateful to Justin Vaughan, our publisher at Wiley-Blackwell, for his enthusiasm,
support and impeccably restrained goading, and to many others at Wiley-Blackwell (especially
Liz Cremona and Tim Beuzeval) who have been involved in the management and implemen-
tation of this project. We owe a special debt to Geoffrey Palmer, our copy-editor, who performed
marvels turning multiple electronic files into an accurate and coherent printed volume, and to
WordCo Indexing Services, Inc., who compiled and cross-checked the Index with meticulous
care.
The preparation of a large multi-authored volume such as this is dependent on the co-
operation of a large number of colleagues, who accepted our invitation to contribute, our
cajoling to produce the entries, our prompts over deadlines and our editorial interventions: we
are immensely grateful to them for their care, tolerance and patience. It is with the greatest
sadness that we record the deaths of two of them during the preparation of the Dictionary – Denis
Cosgrove and Les Hepple – and we dedicate this edition to their memory.
The authors, editors and publishers thank the following for permission to reproduce the
copyright material indicated:

Martin Cadwallader for the figure reproduced in the entry for Alonso model from Analytical
Urban Geography, 1985.

Blackwell Publishing Ltd with The University of Chicago Press for the figure reproduced in the
entry capitalism from D. Harvey, The Limits to Capital, 1982.

Blackwell Publishing Ltd for the figure reproduced in the entry crisis from D. Gregory,
Geographical Imaginations, 1993.

Blackwell Publishing Ltd for the figure reproduced in the entry critical theory, based on Jürgen
Habermas, The Theory of Communicative Action, Vol. 2, Polity Press.

University of California Press for the figure reproduced in the entry cultural landscape from
Carol O. Sauer, The Morphology of Landscape, 1925. # 1925 The Regents of the University of
California.

Peter Haggett for the figure reproduced in the entry for demographic transition from Geog-
raphy: A Modern Synthesis, 1975.

Ohio State University Press/Macmillan Publishers Ltd for the figure reproduced in the entry
distance decay from Peter J. Taylor, ‘Distance transformation and distance decay functions’,
Geographical Analysis, Vol. 3, 3 July 1971. # Ohio State University Press.

Hodder and Stoughton Publishers Ltd for the figure reproduced in the entry Kondratieff
waves based on Marshall, 1987, from P. Knox and J. Agnew, Geography of the World-Economy,
1989.

Macmillan Publishers Ltd with St. Martin’s Press for the figure reproduced in the entry
Kondratieff waves from Knox and Agnew, adapted from M. Marshall, Long Waves of Regional
Development, 1987.

Peter Haggett for the figure reproduced in the entry for locational analysis, from Locational
Analysis in Human Geography, 1977.

xi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Cambridge University Press and The University of Chicago Press for the figure reproduced in
the entry for multiple nuclei model from Harris and Ullman in H.M. Mayer and C.F. Kohn,
eds, Readings in Urban Geography, 1959.

Blackwell Publishing Ltd for figures 1 and 2 reproduced in the entry production of space from
D. Gregory, Geographical Imaginations, 1993.

The Estate of Conroy Maddox for the figure reproduced in the entry for reflexivity.

xii
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 “You, Merriwell,” said the stage-manager, “must play the part
given to Lawrence. The local stage-manager will have to serve as
prompter to-night, and every member of the company must, so far
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must get through with this piece somehow, even if you have to read
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Dunton repeated his words in a bold manner.
“What do you mean?” asked the stage-manager.
“It strikes me that it is a mistake to put Merriwell, a raw amateur,
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the whole play if he tries it.”
Frank said not a word, but his eyes looked the speaker straight
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else.”
“Even if he had the lines perfectly,” put in Dunton, “he could not
handle the part.”
“How do you know?” asked the stage-manager.
 “Reason will tell anybody that. Why, it is almost a star part! It
requires some one with experience and judgment. I have studied the
part, for I like it, and I believe I can play it as it should be played. It
is the kind of a part that suits me.”
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yourself?”
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if he is rank?”
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as it should be acted, much less a better part, like that given
Lawrence! The trouble with you is that you have an enlarged head. I
advise you to put it in soak and see if you can’t reduce its size. Get
such notions out of your nut, or I shall have to put you onto
juveniles. You will play the part assigned to you, and Mr. Merriwell
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 CHAPTER XIII.

CASSIE, THE SOUBRETTE.

Frank was given the manuscript of the play, and he began looking
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He had a wonderful memory, and he put his mind onto the lines in
such a manner that he did not hear Cassie Lee, the soubrette, till
she had spoken to him three times.
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congratulations, and I hope you’ll just paralyze ’em to-night.
Somehow I believe you will astonish ’em.”
“I shall do my best, Cassie,” said Merry.
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her eyes. “I heard what Dunton said, and I was mighty glad Ross
gave him that call down. Dunton is a flub, but he’s got a bad temper,
and he’ll hate you worse than sin now. Look out for him.”
“He won’t trouble me.”
“Don’t you be too sure.”
“Well, I shan’t worry about it. I’m not afraid of him.”
“That’s just it. You’ll be too careless. I wouldn’t trust him as fur as
I could sling a mule by the tail. I don’t like his eyes. They’re too
shifty. He alwus struck me as treacherous.”
“Well, he must hate Havener worse than he does me.”
 “He won’t dare touch Ross, and that’s the very reason why he may
try all the harder to do you. My! but I wish this old rehearsal was
over.”
“You’re tired.”
“As a dog.”
“This business of playing so many different parts is too much for
you.”
“It’s work, but I like it.”
“Better than playing ‘Topsy’ regularly?”
“Sure. I was dead sick of that old part. I’m glad ‘Uncle Tom’ is only
played once in a while, but pop is heartbroken.”
“He’d rather stick to the old piece?”
“Lord, yes! He’s been playin’ parts in it for the last twenty years,
and he knows every line and every bit of business. He thinks the
country is degenerating when people get stuffed with ‘Uncle Tom’
and don’t want no more of him. He wouldn’t stay with the company
if it wasn’t for me, and he’s liable to break loose any time and get on
a reg’l’r tear. I’m watching him all the time and hold him down. Pop
is all right when he lets red-eye alone, but he’s worse’n an Indian
when he gets on a tear.”
“I hope you will be able to keep him straight, Cassie; but this
watching is wearing on you. You don’t get rest enough, and you
show it.”
She shot him a quick look.
“It ain’t that so much,” she muttered. “It’s something else the
most. You know what ails me.”
“Yes, I know,” admitted Frank. “Can’t you break away from the
habit, Cassie?”
“How can I? Look at me! I’m dull as a rainstorm, my head feels
like a block of wood, and my feet are like lead. Wouldn’t I be in nice
shape to go on before a house? Time I did it twice, Haley’d fire me,
and he wouldn’t be to blame.”
“But isn’t there anything else——”
“Nope. Got to use the same old stuff till the season’s over
anyhow.”
“But it’s getting an awful hold on you, Cassie.”
Hard lines formed round her mouth—a mouth that had once been
rather sweet and pretty.
“Can’t help it,” she said, grimly. “It wasn’t my fault in the first
place, and I’ve got to live. All summer there won’t be nothing for me
to do, and I must stick the season out, so as to have something
saved up for hot weather. I tell you, this life ain’t what it’s cracked
up to be. A girl that’s got a good home and wants to go on the stage
is a fool. She don’t know when she’s well off.”
Frank nodded his conviction that this was true. He had not seen
much of theatrical life, but already he was convinced that it was a
hard life to follow, especially for a girl.
“I was brought up to it,” Cassie went on; “and that was just my
hard luck. Never had no good chance to get an education.”
“You can educate yourself now.”
She shook her head slowly.
“No use,” she said. “I’m too old now.”
“Too old! Why, how old are you?”
“Eighteen.”
“Only eighteen?”
“That’s enough. Most girls are ready to leave school when they’re
that old.”
Frank did not tell her, but he had fancied that she was twenty-
three or twenty-four. He now realized that it was the life she had led
that had made her seem so much older than she was in truth.
Life on the stage in cheap dramatic companies that play one-night
stands is hard at best; but Cassie’s life had been particularly hard on
account of her father, who had neglected and abused her when he
drank.
For all of this neglect and abuse, Merry believed old Dan Lee really
loved his daughter, for, when the man was sober, he was proud of
Cassie, being tender and considerate in all his actions toward her.
Old Dan was very jealous of her. He believed her too good to “tie
up” to a common ham-fatter, and so he had blocked the game of
every cheap actor who tried to show her particular attentions. He
believed that, some day, she would be able to make a “good match,”
for other men must see in her all the fine qualities that were so
evident to him.
Thus it came about that the girl did not dare let her father know
there was a love affair between herself and Roscoe Havener, the
stage-manager, for, although Havener had not seen his legal wife for
four years, he was not divorced, and the entire company knew it.
When Frank discovered this attachment between the soubrette
and the stage-manager he felt like advising Cassie to wait a while
before she permitted herself to become very fond of Havener, but he
quickly decided that such advice would be a waste of words, and
kept still.
That Havener was favorably disposed toward Merriwell, Cassie felt
sure, even though he had said little or nothing about the young
man. Now, after seeing him give Merry the part that had been
assigned to Lawrence, who was really one of the best actors in the
troupe, and hearing him call down Dunton, she was certain Havener
was aiming for one of two things. Either he had confidence in
Merriwell, and wished to give him a chance to show up, or he
believed Frank must make a wretched failure in attempting to play
on such short notice, which would mean his “release” from the
company.
 Cassie had such confidence in Frank that she believed that
Havener would fail if he was aiming to disgrace Frank.
She wished to encourage Merry, and that was why she had spoken
to him as he was sitting on a canvas-covered property tree stump,
industriously and hurriedly running over his lines in the first act.
“If you’re only eighteen, you’ve got plenty of time to study and
add to your education, Cassie,” said Frank. “You have a way of
learning your lines quickly when you take a part. You can read the
right kind of books and memorize their contents.”
“I don’t know what kind of books to read.”
“I can tell you.”
“Oh, well, I’ll think it over. I don’t have much time, you know.
Can’t do it after the show is over, for I’m dead tired by that time.
Can’t do it forenoons, for I’m digging away on new parts all the time
now.”
“But you can do it vacations.”
“Oh, I suppose I might. There, I’ve bothered you too much. Didn’t
mean to when I spoke to you. Just wanted to tell you I’d bet
anything you surprise ’em on the part to-night. Something makes me
sure you will. You have lots of lines with me, and I know them lines
as well as I do my own. If you get stuck, I’ll be able to give you a lift
without the aid of the prompter. Keep your nerve; don’t get the
shakes. That’s all.”
“The shakes?”
“Yes.”
“Stage fright?”
“That’s what I mean.”
“I don’t know, but I hardly think I’ll have that.”
“You can’t tell.”
“Why——”
 “Nobody can.”
“You ever have it?”
“Did I?”
“Yes.”
“Did I! I should guess yes!”
“Thought you were brought up on the stage.”
“Was.”
“Then I don’t see why you should have stage fright.”
“It’s a mighty funny thing, I tell you. I began as an infant prodigy,
and I don’t s’pose anything ever scared me till I was playing
soubrette parts. One night I got it, just as hard. Opened my mouth
to speak, and, by George! I couldn’t make a sound. I just stood
there like I was nailed to the boards. Pretty quick I began to shake,
and you’d thought I was taken with the ague. It was terrible, I
thought I’d faint. After a while, I got strength enough to rush off,
and then I had fits in one of the dressing rooms.”
“That was strange.”
“No. ’Most ev’rybody gets a touch of it sooner or later. When it
was all over, I was so hopping mad I didn’t know what to do. I went
on again and played right through the piece without a quiver, and
I’ve never had a touch of it since. But I had to have it some time.
Some people never get over it fully, but with most folks, one attack
ends it. I hope you won’t have it to-night, Frank.”
“I hope so.”
“Well, I’ll git. ’Scuse me for the bother.”
She walked away, and Frank followed her sympathetically with his
eyes.
“As good-hearted girl as ever lived,” he murmured. “It’s a shame
she’s contracted that frightful habit. I’m afraid it has such a hold on
her that she’ll never be able to get rid of it. Poor Cassie!”
Then he resumed his studying.
 CHAPTER XIV.

THE REHEARSAL.

By this time the band, which had given its midday parade through
the town at the regular hour, was gathered before the stage, ready
to practice the pieces to be played that evening.
Ephraim Gallup had managed to retain his position in the band, as
he was a remarkably good baritone player, and he had a way of
making his horn “talk” so that it pleased the ear of the average
countryman mightily.
Hans Dunnerwurst, the Dutch boy, had developed a knack for
playing the bass drum, so he was retained by Manager Haley. Hans
played the drum and cymbals at the same time, beating the drum
with his right hand and playing the cymbals with his left, one of the
brass discs being attached to the drum so that the other could be
struck against it.
The leader of the band had a great idea of the proper music for a
street parade and for an inclosure like the interior of a hall or
theater. On the street the little band of eight pieces roared and
thundered in an amazing manner, making enough noise for four
times their number. It was not noise without harmony, either; and it
was the kind of music that pleased all small boys and most men and
women.
In the band was a quartet of fine singers. Each night the band
played in front of the theater just before the doors were opened.
The final piece in the open air was one that always pleased the
fancy of the listeners, as it was replete with all kinds of musical
tricks. It contained a cornet solo, into which some imitation bugle
calls were worked, a snare drum solo, during which, for a few
seconds, the drummer rattled away on the side of his drum, instead
of the head; a trombone solo, giving the trombone player a chance
to do some fancy flourishing, and, at one point in the piece, every
other instrument stopped for the bass drum and cymbals to rattle,
and bang, and thunder, and crash. But the real catching features of
the piece came toward the end. Of a sudden every instrument
stopped, and the entire band whistled a strain of the piece. Then it
was that Hans Dunnerwurst made his great hit, for he was a
marvelous whistler, and he warbled and trilled in a way that made it
seem a whole flock of mocking-birds had broken loose, and caused
the spectators to stand on their toes and crane their necks to see
who was producing all those amazing sounds. The final feature of
this piece was singing by the quartet, and when it was all over the
crowd almost invariably broke into a tumult of applause, and the
astute Mr. Haley rushed the band off the scene, knowing anything
more would be too much, as the crowd had been worked up to just
the proper pitch to part with its quarters and halves.
The music provided by the band inside the hall was of quite a
different character. It was soft and subdued, full of rippling melody,
and quite suited to the situation. Of course, the medley was given in
the evening, as it was almost always called for by the audience, and
some new features were introduced, such as sleighbells, tinkling
cymbals and the shuffleboard to imitate dancing.
Some of the musicians acted as accompanists for the singing
given at each performance, and furnished music for the dancing, so
they were required to rehearse with the company regularly. Indeed,
Havener was quite a stickler about the matter of rehearsals, no one
being excused from them without good cause.
The band played through one of its new pieces, and then, in order
to give Merriwell more time to run over his part, Havener had the
singers go through with their songs for the evening performance.
 And Frank was so utterly absorbed in his effort to commit as many
lines as possible that he did not even notice when the rehearsal
began.
At last, the time for him to go on arrived, and Havener appeared
at his elbow, saying:
“If you can get along at the start without the manuscript,
Merriwell, it will be better. I’ll take it and help you along. We’ve
managed to go this far without a prompter.”
Frank did not stir. He sat with his eyes fastened on the page
before him.
Havener touched his shoulder.
“Come, Merriwell,” he said, sharply.
Then Frank was aroused, and he got up quickly.
“All right,” he spoke. “I’m ready.”
He handed the manuscript to Havener.
“Think you can do anything without reading?” asked the stage-
manager.
“I believe I can remember a part of the first act.”
“All right; go ahead.”
Frank went on, and Havener observed that he made the proper
entrance. He had an “enter speech,” and he gave it correctly.
Dunton was standing in the wings, watching and sneering.
Havener went down into the theater in front of the stage, where
he could watch the rehearsing and see that the characters went
through their business properly and grouped themselves to the best
advantage.
Ephraim Gallup and Hans Dunnerwurst were astonished, for they
had not known that Frank was to play a part.
“Shimminy Gristmas!” gurgled Hans.
 “Gosh all hemlock!” gasped Ephraim.
Frank knew everyone was watching him, which made his position
extremely embarrassing. Indeed, for a professional rehearsals are
often far more trying than performances when the theater is well
filled with people. It is difficult to act before empty seats, with the
members of the company looking on, for then the intensity required
at certain times seems foolish, and makes the performer feel
ridiculous.
Merry’s face was flushed, and he stammered somewhat at first.
Then he heard a low, sneering laugh, and he saw Dunton regarding
him derisively.
Instantly Frank stiffened up. He was on his mettle in a moment,
resolved to do his best, and he got through the scene fairly well. Of
course, Havener had to prompt him several times and give him
directions about certain business.
But the stage-manager observed with satisfaction that Merriwell
made a good appearance and did not assume any awkward
positions, get back to the footlights, or turn in the wrong direction
when it was necessary to cross, go up or walk away from another
person.
When Frank came off, Cassie was waiting for him.
“Good stuff!” she declared, approvingly. “You did that all right.”
“I think it was pretty bad,” confessed Frank.
“I tell you it was all right. Surely you did remember those lines
well. Got any more?”
“I believe I can remember nearly all of the first act.”
“If you can do that, you’re a wonder!”
Frank did it. In fact, when he went on again, he was almost letter
perfect. This time much of his business was with Dunton, who
continued to wear a sneering expression on his face and did
whatever he could to break Merry up. In this the young rascal failed,
for Frank acquitted himself splendidly.
The instant the end of the act was reached, Havener said:
“We’ll go through that again.”
“The third act is the heavy one,” said Dunton. “I think we’ll have
to go over that more than once, and we won’t have time if we
repeat the first act.”
The stage-manager gave the fellow a withering stare.
“Look here, Dunton,” he exclaimed, “if you are managing this
business, I’ll quit; if you are not, kindly permit me to give directions.
That’s all. We will repeat the first act.”
The angry actor ground his teeth together and stalked off. Behind
the scenes he found his especial chum, Arthur Sargent, and gave
vent to his feelings.
“This is too much!” he snarled, guardedly. “Havener gives that
upstart Merriwell the leading part in the piece, and then he calls me
down twice before the fellow. I feel like punching somebody.”
“Punch Merriwell,” suggested Sargent.
“All I want is a good opportunity,” declared Dunton. “I’d like to get
at him. I’d do him up in a hurry.”
The fellow had a reputation as a “scrapper,” and he fully believed
he could whip Merriwell easily.
“You can find an opportunity,” said Sargent. “I’d like to see you
spoil his face. He thinks he’s handsome, and a pair of black eyes
would break his heart.”
“I’ll give them to him,” promised Frank’s new enemy.
“Oh, he’ll make an awful mess of the whole play! Just think of him
in the duel scene with me! And I’ve got to let him disarm me and
get the best of the duel! Gods! it’s enough to make a man daffy!”
 “The whole business will be a farce,” Sargent consolingly declared.
“Havener will be to blame for it.”
“That’s right. I’d like to tell Havener what I think of him.”
“Then why don’t you do it!” exclaimed another voice, and Cassie
Lee suddenly appeared from behind some loose scenery. “I’d like to
see you! I’ll bet you don’t dare peep to him, but you raise a big blow
behind his back. You’re a stiff! That’s my opinion of you, Dug
Dunton!”
The soubrette was aroused now, and her accustomed languid,
weary air had vanished completely. Her eyes, generally dull and
heavy, except when she had resorted to the stimulation of morphine,
were full of fire and scorn.
Sargent gasped and seemed to feel like sneaking away, but
Dunton brazened it out.
“So you were playing eavesdropper, hey?” he hissed. “Well, I don’t
care! If you blow on me to Havener, I’ll give you away to your old
man.”
Cassie threw back her head, and her thin nostrils dilated.
“Give me away?” she panted. “About what?”
“Oh, you know,” asserted Dunton, with insolent significance.
“Tell me what you mean!” commanded the little soubrette, bracing
up to him, her small fists clinched. “Tell me what you mean, Dug
Dunton, or I’ll light onto you myself, and I’ll bet a dollar I can make
you look pretty sick!”
He saw she really meant what she threatened, and he backed off
a step, putting up his hands.
“Easy now!” he fluttered. “Don’t make a fool of yourself, Cassie!”
“Tell me what you meant by your words. What will you give
away?”
 “Oh, I meant that I’d tell Dan about you being so thick with
Havener. That’s all.”
“That’s enough! What do you mean by ‘so thick’? What do you
know, anyway?”
“Oh, I know a few things.”
“Then you’ve been rubber-necking. Well, it’s just like you. I believe
I have a right to be friendly with Mr. Havener?”
“Yes; but you don’t want your father to know just how friendly,
and I don’t fancy you care to have the rest of the company know it.
You keep still about me, for I can hurt you if you don’t.”
“So you’d try to hurt my character, would you? Well, I never
thought any better of you. But you do it if you dare! If you say one
word about me that is bad, I’ll shoot you full of holes! If you blow
your mouth to pop, I’ll have your hide and tan it for shoe leather!
Don’t you forgit it, either! And I advise you to keep away from Frank
Merriwell, for he can lick the stuffing out of you the best day you
ever saw.”
Dunton nearly lost his breath.
“Why—why,” he gasped, “you’re crazy!”
“Nope, just mad—blazin’ mad!”
“If Merriwell gives me any guff, you’ll see——”
“He never gives anybody guff, but he’ll give you a thrashing if you
get gay with him.”
“I can whip him.”
“Yes you can—I don’t think!”
“He’s a stiff!”
“He’s too stiff for you. He’s a gentleman, and you ain’t in his class.
You know it, and that’s what ails you. I don’t propose to waste any
more breath on you, for you ain’t worth it.”
 And Cassie walked away, leaving Dunton shaking with rage.
“I’d like to wring her neck!” he panted. “I never liked her.”
“Jingoes!” ejaculated Sargent. “Never thought there was so much
fire in that pale-faced, washed-out creature. She always reminded
me of Kipling’s poem, ‘A rag and a bone and a hank of hair.’ You
better keep still about her, Dug, for something makes me think she’d
keep her word and shoot you if you said anything about her
character. Such girls as she are liable to do such things; and you
know you actually do not know anything detrimental to her, except
that she is stuck on Havener.”
“Oh, she’s a fool! What makes me the hottest is that she thinks
that upstart Merriwell can do me. I’ll show her about that, if I get a
chance.”
Dunton was still agitated with anger when it was necessary for
him to go on the stage again, and he went through his part in such
an indifferent manner that Havener was obliged to speak to him
several times. This the stage-manager did quietly, for he saw the
actor was “broken up,” and he believed it was because of the calling
down he had received.
As for Merriwell, he went through his work with a vim and
assurance that simply amazed everybody. This time he seemed to
have his lines almost perfectly, and the act went off smoothly so far
as he was concerned.
Then the second act was taken up and rushed through. As
everyone but Merry had his or her lines almost perfectly, there was
no absolute necessity of prompting, and Frank was given a chance
to run over his speeches when he was not on the stage. When he
did go on, he again astonished them all by the number of lines he
could say correctly.
In the third act came the duel scene between Merry and Dunton.
In the duel, Frank was to get the worst of it at first, to be wounded
by a foul thrust, and then to disarm his antagonist and generously
decline to retaliate for his injury.
 Just before the duel scene, Frank heard Dunton say to another
member of the company:
“Think of being disarmed by such a stiff as that fellow! It will be
ridiculous, and the chances are that the audience will throw things at
us to-night. Probably he never saw a sword before.”
Merry’s first thought was to show the fellow without delay that he
was greatly mistaken. Then came another thought.
“I’ll let him think away till to-night,” decided Frank; “and then I’ll
try to give him a surprise.”
So he went on for the duel scene and carried it through in a
decidedly awkward manner, so that Havener was obliged to come
upon the stage and try to show him how to handle his sword and
follow out the idea of the duel properly.
Dunton looked disgusted. As they were going through the duel for
the seventh time, he whispered just loud enough for Frank to hear:
“You’re a regular stick! You’ll make a holy show of us both to-
night!”
“Oh, I don’t know,” murmured the new actor. “Wait till to-night
comes. I may be able to do it better.”
“Bah! you make me sick!” retorted Dunton, through his white
teeth.
“I may make you sicker still,” said Merry, with a soothing smile.
“You are not nearly as many as you imagine you are.”
The fellow looked as if he longed to fly at Merriwell on the instant,
but he simply ground his teeth together and glared, which caused
the stage-manager to compliment him:
“Now you are getting into the part, Dunton,” said Havener. “That
expression on your face is fine. It’s exactly what you want in that
scene.”
Dunton swore under his breath.
 “Merriwell, too, has a good expression,” declared the stage-
manager. “That calm, confident smile is all right. I confess that I was
afraid of this scene, but I rather think it will go off all right.”
Then the rehearsal went on to the end, Havener not allowing
them to stop till it was time to go to the hotel for supper.
 CHAPTER XV.

DUNTON SEEKS REVENGE.

The most of the company got out of the theater as soon as

possible after being given permission to go.
Frank remained to receive some instructions from Havener.
After giving Merry a few pointers, the stage-manager observed:
“You did surprisingly well this afternoon, Merriwell.”
“Thank you,” said Frank.
“If you get stuck to-night for the exact lines, do you think you can
fake?”
“I believe so.”
“Well, don’t try it if there is any chance of getting off your trolley
and mixing yourself and everybody else. Faking lines is a dangerous
and reprehensible practice, and the resort of lazy actors who will not
learn their parts; but there are times when faking cannot very well
be avoided, and the ability to do it well on such occasions is worth
much to a man. Don’t try it to-night, Merriwell, unless you have
some idea of the real gist of your speech and feel certain you can
finish by giving the next speaker the proper cue.”
“All right, sir.”
Havener looked at Frank doubtfully, and then suddenly said:
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