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 Series ISSN: 2469-4215

STUYCK
Synthesis Lectures on Visual Computing
Computer Graphics, Animation, Computational Photography and Imaging

Series Editor: Brian A. Barsky, University of California, Berkeley

Cloth Simulation for Computer Graphics Cloth Simulation

for Computer
Tuur Stuyck

Physics-based animation is commonplace in animated feature films and even special effects for

CLOTH SIMULATION FOR COMPUTER GRAPHICS

live-action movies. Think about a recent movie and there will be some sort of special effects
such as explosions or virtual worlds. Cloth simulation is no different and is ubiquitous because

Graphics
most virtual characters (hopefully!) wear some sort of clothing.
The focus of this book is physics-based cloth simulation. We start by providing
background information and discuss a range of applications. This book provides explanations of
multiple cloth simulation techniques. More specifically, we start with the most simple explicitly
integrated mass-spring model and gradually work our way up to more complex and commonly
used implicitly integrated continuum techniques in state-of-the-art implementations. We give
an intuitive explanation of the techniques and give additional information on how to efficiently
implement them on a computer.
This book discusses explicit and implicit integration schemes for cloth simulation
modeled with mass-spring systems. In addition to this simple model, we explain the more
advanced continuum-inspired cloth model introduced in the seminal work of Baraff and Witkin
[1998]. This method is commonly used in industry.
We also explain recent work by Liu et al. [2013] that provides a technique to obtain fast
simulations. In addition to these simulation approaches, we discuss how cloth simulations can
be art directed for stylized animations based on the work of Wojan et al. [2016]. Controllability
is an essential component of a feature animation film production pipeline. We conclude by Tuur Stuyck
pointing the reader to more advanced techniques.

About SYNTHESIS
This volume is a printed version of a work that appears in the Synthesis Digital Library of Engineering
and Computer Science. Synthesis books provide concise, original presentations of important research
and development topics, published quickly, in digital and print formats.

MORGAN & CLAYPOOL

Synthesis Lectures on Visual Computing
Computer Graphics, Animation, Computational Photography and Imaging
store.morganclaypool.com
Cloth Simulation for
Computer Graphics
 Synthesis Lectures on Visual
Computing: Computer
Graphics, Animation,
Computational Photography,
and Imaging
Editor
Brian A. Barsky, University of California, Berkeley
This series presents lectures on research and development in visual computing for an audience of
professional developers, researchers, and advanced students. Topics of interest include
computational photography, animation, visualization, special effects, game design, image
techniques, computational geometry, modeling, rendering, and others of interest to the visual
computing system developer or researcher.

Cloth Simulation for Computer Graphics

Tuur Stuyck
2018

Design, Representations, and Processing for Additive Manufacturing

Marco Attene, Marco Livesu, Sylvain Lefebvre, Thomas Funkhouser, Szymon Rusinkiewicz,
Stefano Ellero, Jonàs Martínex, and Amit Haim Bermano
2018

Virtual Material Acquisition and Representation for Computer Graphics

Dar’ya Guarnera and Giuseppe Claudio Guarnera
2018

Stochastic Partial Differential Equations for Computer Vision with Uncertain Data
Tobias Preusser, Robert M. Kirby, and Torben Pätz
2017
 iii

An Introduction to Laplacian Spectral Distances and Kernels: Theory, Computation, and

Applications
Giuseppe Patanè
2017

Mathematical Basics of Motion and Deformation in Computer Graphics, Second Edition

Ken Anjyo and Hiroyuki Ochiai
2017

Digital Heritage Reconstruction Using Super-resolution and Inpainting

Milind G. Padalkar, Manjunath V. Joshi, and Nilay L. Khatri
2016

Geometric Continuity of Curves and Surfaces

Przemyslaw Kiciak
2016

Heterogeneous Spatial Data: Fusion, Modeling, and Analysis for GIS Applications
Giuseppe Patanè and Michela Spagnuolo
2016

Geometric and Discrete Path Planning for Interactive Virtual Worlds

Marcelo Kallmann and Mubbasir Kapadia
2016

An Introduction to Verification of Visualization Techniques

Tiago Etiene, Robert M. Kirby, and Cláudio T. Silva
2015

Virtual Crowds: Steps Toward Behavioral Realism

Mubbasir Kapadia, Nuria Pelechano, Jan Allbeck, and Norm Badler
2015

Finite Element Method Simulation of 3D Deformable Solids

Eftychios Sifakis and Jernej Barbič
2015

Efficient Quadrature Rules for Illumination Integrals: From Quasi Monte Carlo to
Bayesian Monte Carlo
Ricardo Marques, Christian Bouville, Luís Paulo Santos, and Kadi Bouatouch
2015

Numerical Methods for Linear Complementarity Problems in Physics-Based Animation

Sarah Niebe and Kenny Erleben
2015
iv
Mathematical Basics of Motion and Deformation in Computer Graphics
Ken Anjyo and Hiroyuki Ochiai
2014

Mathematical Tools for Shape Analysis and Description

Silvia Biasotti, Bianca Falcidieno, Daniela Giorgi, and Michela Spagnuolo
2014

Information Theory Tools for Image Processing

Miquel Feixas, Anton Bardera, Jaume Rigau, Qing Xu, and Mateu Sbert
2014

Gazing at Games: An Introduction to Eye Tracking Control

Veronica Sundstedt
2012

Rethinking Quaternions
Ron Goldman
2010

Information Theory Tools for Computer Graphics

Mateu Sbert, Miquel Feixas, Jaume Rigau, Miguel Chover, and Ivan Viola
2009

Introductory Tiling Theory for Computer Graphics

Craig S.Kaplan
2009

Practical Global Illumination with Irradiance Caching

Jaroslav Krivanek and Pascal Gautron
2009

Wang Tiles in Computer Graphics

Ares Lagae
2009

Virtual Crowds: Methods, Simulation, and Control

Nuria Pelechano, Jan M. Allbeck, and Norman I. Badler
2008

Interactive Shape Design

Marie-Paule Cani, Takeo Igarashi, and Geoff Wyvill
2008

Real-Time Massive Model Rendering

Sung-eui Yoon, Enrico Gobbetti, David Kasik, and Dinesh Manocha
2008
 v
High Dynamic Range Video
Karol Myszkowski, Rafal Mantiuk, and Grzegorz Krawczyk
2008

GPU-Based Techniques for Global Illumination Effects

László Szirmay-Kalos, László Szécsi, and Mateu Sbert
2008

High Dynamic Range Image Reconstruction

Asla M. Sá, Paulo Cezar Carvalho, and Luiz Velho
2008

High Fidelity Haptic Rendering

Miguel A. Otaduy and Ming C. Lin
2006

A Blossoming Development of Splines

Stephen Mann
2006
Copyright © 2018 by Morgan & Claypool

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in
any form or by any means—electronic, mechanical, photocopy, recording, or any other except for brief quotations
in printed reviews, without the prior permission of the publisher.

Cloth Simulation for Computer Graphics

Tuur Stuyck
www.morganclaypool.com

ISBN: 9781681734118 paperback

ISBN: 9781681734125 ebook
ISBN: 9781681734132 hardcover

DOI 10.2200/S00867ED1V01Y201807VCP032

A Publication in the Morgan & Claypool Publishers series

Synthesis Lectures on Visual Computing: Computer Graphics, Animation,
Computational Photography, and Imaging

Lecture #32
Series Editor: Brian A. Barsky, University of California, Berkeley
Series ISSN
Print 2469-4215 Electronic 2469-4223
Cloth Simulation for
Computer Graphics

Tuur Stuyck

SYNTHESIS LECTURES ON VISUAL COMPUTING: COMPUTER

GRAPHICS, ANIMATION, COMPUTATIONAL PHOTOGRAPHY, AND
IMAGING #32

M
&C Morgan & cLaypool publishers
ABSTRACT
Physics-based animation is commonplace in animated feature films and even special effects for
live-action movies. Think about a recent movie and there will be some sort of special effects such
as explosions or virtual worlds. Cloth simulation is no different and is ubiquitous because most
virtual characters (hopefully!) wear some sort of clothing.
The focus of this book is physics-based cloth simulation. We start by providing back-
ground information and discuss a range of applications. This book provides explanations of
multiple cloth simulation techniques. More specifically, we start with the most simple explicitly
integrated mass-spring model and gradually work our way up to more complex and commonly
used implicitly integrated continuum techniques in state-of-the-art implementations. We give
an intuitive explanation of the techniques and give additional information on how to efficiently
implement them on a computer.
This book discusses explicit and implicit integration schemes for cloth simulation modeled
with mass-spring systems. In addition to this simple model, we explain the more advanced
continuum-inspired cloth model introduced in the seminal work of Baraff and Witkin [1998].
This method is commonly used in industry.
We also explain recent work by Liu et al. [2013] that provides a technique to obtain fast
simulations. In addition to these simulation approaches, we discuss how cloth simulations can be
art directed for stylized animations based on the work of Wojtan et al. [2006]. Controllability is
an essential component of a feature animation film production pipeline. We conclude by pointing
the reader to more advanced techniques.

KEYWORDS
physics-based simulation, cloth simulation, computer graphics, explicit integration,
implicit integration, adjoint optimization
 ix

Contents
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii

Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Physics-Based Animation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Applications of Cloth Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.1 Offline Simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.2 Real-Time Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Cloth Simulation Pipeline in Animation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3.1 Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3.2 Software Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3.3 Simulation in Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4 History of Cloth Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.5 Overview of This Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.6 Intended Audience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.7 Getting Started . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

2 Cloth Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.1 Triangles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2 Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.3 Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.3.1 Frames and Steps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

3 Explicit Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.2 Explicit Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.3 Stability Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.3.1 Test Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.3.2 Explicit Euler Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.4 Adaptive Time Stepping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
x
4 Mass-Spring Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.2 Computing Masses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.3 Computing Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.3.1 Energy Minimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.3.2 Spring Potential Energy and Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4.3.3 Spring Damping Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4.4 Putting It All Together . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.5 Tearable Cloth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.6 Other Mass-Spring Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4.6.1 Hair Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4.6.2 Soft Body Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4.7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

5 Implicit Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
5.2 Backward Euler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
5.2.1 Linearization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
5.3 Stability Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
5.4 Spring Forces and Their Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
5.5 Block Compressed Row Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
5.5.1 Matrix-Vector Multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
5.6 Adding Velocity Constraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
5.7 Solving the Linear System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
5.7.1 Preconditioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
5.8 Position Alterations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
5.9 A Quick Note on Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
5.10 Alternative Integration Schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
5.11 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

6 Simulation as an Optimization Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
6.2 Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
6.3 Reformulating the Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
6.4 Solving the Nonlinear Actuations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
6.5 Local-Global Alternation Problem Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
 xi
6.6 Solving Time Integration Using Local-Global Alternation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
6.6.1 Local Step . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
6.6.2 Global Step . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
6.7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

7 Continuum Approach to Cloth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
7.2 Cloth Rest Shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
7.3 Computing Forces and their Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
7.3.1 Damping Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
7.4 Stretch Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
7.5 Shear Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
7.6 Bend Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
7.7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

8 Controlling Cloth Simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
8.2 Control Problem Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
8.2.1 The Goal Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
8.2.2 Tuning the Goal Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
8.2.3 Minimizing the Goal Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
8.3 Adjoint State Computation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
8.4 Updating Control Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
8.5 Creating Keyframes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
8.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

9 Collision Detection and Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
9.2 Collision Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
9.2.1 Bounding Volume Hierarchies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
9.2.2 Basic Primitive Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
9.3 Collision Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
9.3.1 Cloth-Cloth Collision Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
9.3.2 Object-Cloth Collision Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
9.4 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
9.5 Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
9.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
xii
10 What’s Next . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
10.1 Real-Time Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
10.2 Subspace Cloth Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
10.3 Alternative Cloth Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
10.4 Art Directing Cloth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
10.5 Cloth Rendering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

11 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

A Vector Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

Author’s Biography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

 xiii

Preface
This book has grown from a desire to make cloth simulation more accessible to people new to
the field. It is the hope that this book serves as a good practical guide to bring you up to speed
to allow you to implement your own cloth simulator and produce visually pleasing results.
The literature on cloth simulation is very vast and new work is published every year. The
intention of this book is not to cover all the topics but rather that this tutorial will provide a
solid understanding of the basics so that you will more easily understand technical papers that
build upon these foundations.

Tuur Stuyck
July 2018
 xv

Acknowledgments
I would like to thank Amanda Ha for proofreading this book and for supporting me throughout
the process. Emilee Chen, thank you for motivating me to start working on this manuscript. I
thank Toon Stuyck, Dries Verhees, Nathan Waters, and Erik Englesson for providing me with
valuable feedback during the writing of this book.
Special thanks to Donald House, David Eberle, Witawat Rungjiratananon, and Armin
Samii for their insightful comments.
This book wouldn’t have come to fruition without the support of my family and the people
at Morgan & Claypool publishing. Thank you!
David Eberle and Kurt Fleischer, thank you for being inspiring mentors and great friends.

Tuur Stuyck
July 2018
 1

CHAPTER 1

Introduction
Making a feature-length computer-animated movie costs millions of U.S. Dollars and takes
several years of planning, script writing, visual development, and eventually modeling and an-
imation on a computer. The computer graphics community is pushed forward by solving the
challenges artists are faced with during the development of new movies. One of these research
areas is physics-based animation where engineers and researchers use physics and math to make
beautiful animations of natural phenomena.

1.1 PHYSICS-BASED ANIMATION

The use of physically based simulations is ubiquitous in games and special effects for movies.
As an animator, you really don’t want to be tasked with animating water or cloth by hand since
these materials need to follow strict physical laws in order to be plausible and believable to the
audience. Every one of us knows how water is supposed to behave so it is very difficult and time
consuming to recreate this by hand.
This is where simulation shines. We can model the real world in the computer and com-
pute how the materials would behave under the influence of the environment. A few examples
of simulations are fluid simulations that are used for modeling flowing rivers, explosions, and
smoke. Other applications are the simulation of rigid body interactions such as the destruction
and collapsing of a building. Also, soft body simulations such as flesh and muscle simulations
are used for virtual surgery. Of course, there is also cloth simulation that will allow artists to
obtain detailed and natural looking geometry that reacts to the movement of the character and
wind forces.
Highly believable simulated motions are typically generated by numerical algorithms that
evolve discrete mathematical models over time. The model describes how the material should
move, taking into account the material properties, boundaries, external forces, and collision ob-
jects in the scene. In computer graphics, we are mostly concerned with the look of the final result
and physical accuracy is by no means our main goal. This is in stark contrast to the engineering
community. For their purposes, physical accuracy is a top priority in order to be able to run sim-
ulations that are helpful in modeling and predicting real-world-scenarios. Obviously, physical
accuracy helps achieve these visually pleasing and physically plausible goals for applications in
computer graphics.
2 1. INTRODUCTION
1.2 APPLICATIONS OF CLOTH SIMULATION
Before we overload you with mathematical expressions and derivations, let’s get you excited
by talking about common applications of cloth simulation. The applications can typically be
categorized in one of the following two categories.

• Offline simulations are computed, tweaked, and post processed before being rendered on
screen. The artist has time to run multiple simulations with different settings in order to
find the desired results. These methods typically target high believability and controllabil-
ity.

• Real-time simulations involve computing the simulation dynamics at runtime. This will
allow the simulation to interactively react to user input and changes in the virtual envi-
ronment. This type of simulations have very limited computation time available to them
and are commonly implemented on GPU hardware. Real-time simulation algorithms are
required to be fast and stable.

Specific examples of both categories are given in the following subsections.

1.2.1 OFFLINE SIMULATIONS

The most obvious applications are the use in special effects, digital doubles, computer animation,
and virtual prototyping. The special effects industry has advanced so much that, instead of hiring
a stunt double, it is sometimes easier to just digitally recreate the actor. This requires that we can
also accurately model their clothing and the way the cloth behaves. That way, a smooth transition
can be made from the real actor to the digital double, leaving the viewer none the wiser on how
they performed the actual stunt. Spoiler: it’s all computers and the amazing craftsmanship and
dedication of animators and technical directors.
Computer animation is very similar to special effects, although the focus is often a lit-
tle different. Special effects want to stay close to reality in order to truthfully recreate actors.
Computer animation often involves virtual characters created by the director and their highly
talented development team. Their focus is artistic expression. Directors are very concerned with
being able to convey a very stylized style in order to tell the story the best way they can. The
focus in computer animation is thus mostly controllability and art directability.
As a last example, fashion designers can use virtual cloth models to find the right 2D
patterns that make up garments. A computer implementation of the cloth dynamics allows
them to quickly iterate on designs and visualize how the garment will drape and where folds and
wrinkles will be created naturally due to the material and sewing patterns. Virtual prototyping
allows them to save on material and fabrication costs and accelerates the design process.
 1.3. CLOTH SIMULATION PIPELINE IN ANIMATION 3
1.2.2 REAL-TIME SIMULATION
The most obvious candidate for real time simulations is of course computer games. Expectations
about the visual gorgeousness for AAA games keep rising given the increasing computational
power available in desktop machines and new generations of game consoles. This puts a lot of
pressure on game developers to produce extremely efficient implementations that make the most
of the available hardware.
Interactive physical simulations contribute to obtaining an immersive experience for the
player. For current generation consoles, 30 frames per second is the standard. For applications
such as virtual reality or pc games, 60 frames per second is the norm.
A screen refresh rate of 60 times per second means that we only have 16 milliseconds
of time to compute a new frame. That’s not a lot at all! Especially considering that this is the
total frame time. In this limited time, we need to compute the rendering, human-computer
interactions, networking, artificial intelligence of the digital agents, and, of course, the physics
simulation. Many commercial games also use the cloth simulation pipeline for simulating hair.
This makes its efficiency even more important.
Other applications are virtual reality where the user is fully immersed in the virtual en-
vironment or augmented reality where a virtual layer is overlayed on the real world. One other
upcoming application is virtual fitting rooms. An incredible amount of clothing is purchased
every day from online retailers. A large number of these items are returned because they’re not
the correct size. Imagine having your own digital double that would allow you to virtually shop
for clothing and fit them, finding the right size, all without having to leave the house!

1.3 CLOTH SIMULATION PIPELINE IN ANIMATION

The amazing simulations that are brought to your screen were touched by the hands of many
people. In this section, we’ll give a quick overview of the different steps involved in the process.

1.3.1 RESEARCH
It all starts with research scientists, academics, and engineers developing new simulation models.
These are frequently published in computer graphics journals and presented at conferences such
as SIGGRAPH, SIGGRAPH ASIA, and EUROGRAPHICS, among others. Every newly pub-
lished paper presents some significant improvement over previous methods. Research typically
happens in academic institutes such as universities or in research labs in industry.
Academic research is essential but papers often only show results on sandboxed examples
that aren’t necessarily as complex as real production scenes. This isn’t a bad thing since the papers
needs to show validation of the method which is often a very specific aspect of cloth simulation.
4 1. INTRODUCTION
1.3.2 SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT
The next step in the process is making the scientific work more robust for use in production or
commercial software. This type of work is frequently described with professional titles such as
research engineer or simulation developer. The job often involves integrating new methods into
existing legacy codebases that many people use and depend on. As well as improving robustness
by handling numerous edge-cases and unforeseen use-cases.
Academic work often makes certain assumptions such as intersection-free animation or
manifold meshes. These assumptions are definitely not guaranteed in production and violations
need to be resolved in the codebase. Additionally, new techniques often require user input such
that custom interfaces need to be implemented to expose these features to the user. The soft-
ware team should work closely with their users, the artists. They are additionally tasked with
implementing feature requests and fixing bugs and improving the overall pipeline.
Another big focus of engineers is to obtain the best efficiency possible. Artists use the
software on a daily basis and require fast turnaround times so that they can quickly iterate on
their work. Having idle artists waiting for simulations to finish is frustrating for all parties in-
volved. Not just that, simulations consume computing resources that are often shared with other
departments such as the rendering department. You won’t be making any friends with other de-
partments when your simulations are hogging all the machines on the render farm.

1.3.3 SIMULATION IN PRODUCTION

Artists working in the simulation department are called simulation artists or simulation technical
directors. They are tasked with creating the simulations that are shown on screen. They will need
to use their own judgement and take feedback from the simulation leads and directors to create
simulations that follow the creative vision of the director. This is a very labor-intensive and
deadline-sensitive job that requires both artistic skill and technical knowledge.
The tailoring team will model garments and set-up cloth parameters based on concept art.
This requires expertise in tailoring techniques. These garments are then set-up in shots where the
technical directors tweak parameters and add forces such as wind and numerous other constraints
to achieve the desired look. For art-directed films, simulation rarely looks the way they want out-
of-the-box. Creating the desired look and feel often involves trial-and-error, running multiple
simulations to visualize the effects of changing simulation settings.
Once the motion of the simulations are finalized, other teams will take care of shading
and rendering.

1.4 HISTORY OF CLOTH SIMULATION

Cloth simulation has been an active field of research for decades. It has been extensively re-
searched by material and fabric scientists. The first advances in computer graphics were made
in the eighties by Weil [1986]. He developed the first computer graphics models for mimicking
 1.5. OVERVIEW OF THIS BOOK 5
the drape of fabrics that are held at constraint points. The method was purely geometry based
and produced results that look draped and wrinkly, just like cloth. The model didn’t incorporate
cloth movement yet but opened up cloth research to the graphics community.
Around the same time, researchers became interested in more physically based techniques
to model the cloth behavior. Early work can be found in the thesis of Feynman [1986]. He mod-
eled cloth as an elastic sheet using a continuum representation. Continuum mechanics models
physical properties and movement using a continuous mass representation rather than discrete
particles. A more general method for elastic modeling with cloth applications was later devel-
oped by Terzopoulos et al. [1987]. These techniques rely on the assumption that the material in
question can accurately be modeled using continuum mechanics. This is a reasonable assumption
for plastics or rubber for which structure is only visible at a microscopic or molecular level. On
the other hand, cloth is a woven material where the structure is visible to the naked eye. Follow-
up research in the nineties was aimed at finding a good continuum representation, specifically
for cloth. The results can be found in the work of Carignan et al. [1992].
In contrast to continuum methods, Haumann [1987] and Breen et al. [1992] worked on
particle-based simulations of clothing. Fabric scientist John Skelton said “Cloth is a mechanism.”
With this, he means that the cloth behavior isn’t effectively described by a continuum model,
but rather by the mechanical interactions of the cloth yarns. As the cloth moves, the yarns
collide, bend, and slip causing friction. Inspired by this argument, the discrete model uses a
mechanical system of connected particles to model the macroscopic dynamics. Another particle-
based method for dynamical simulation was proposed by Provot [1995]. In their work, they use
point masses connected by springs to model the elastic behavior of cloth.
Later in the 1990s, Baraff and Witkin [1998] introduced triangle-based cloth simulations
using implicit integration. This technique enabled fast simulations of relatively complex clothing.
This method is still the foundation for many state-of-the-art implementations used today.
We recommend the excellent books by Volino and Magnenat-Thalmann [2000] and
House and Breen [2000] for further reading and a historical background. Another excellent
tutorial can be found in the work of Thalmann et al. [2004].

1.5 OVERVIEW OF THIS BOOK

This document explains different approaches to cloth simulation in computer graphics—
hopefully, in an understandable way. We will start with a simple approach and work our way
up to more complex methods. We will highlight a few different commonly used methods for
cloth simulation in production. Focusing on both realistic cloth simulation as well as more ap-
proximate but fast methods, better fit for real-time applications. Additionally, we have added a
chapter on controlling cloth simulations and future reading.
In order to build a cloth simulator we will first have to make sure that we can store ge-
ometry and the cloth simulation state. This is discussed in Chapter 2. Once we can represent
the digital garments, we will need to find a way to make them move over time to get dynamic
6 1. INTRODUCTION
simulations. There are many different mathematical approaches to this and they all have their
own advantages and disadvantages. In Chapter 3, we explain the most simple approach which
updates the cloth particles in a straightforward way using only information that is available at
the current time step.
Once we know how to represent the cloth and how to compute motion, we’ll discuss how
we can describe a material model for cloth in Chapter 4. This will allow us to compute internal
forces that model the cloth behavior. The discussion of handling external collisions is postponed
until Chapter 9. A more advanced method to model internal forces more truthfully is described
in Chapter 7. Due to the shortcomings of the simple method described in Chapter 3, we will
discuss two alternative methods for time integration in Chapters 5 and 6.
As a bonus chapter, we discuss a technique for controlling simulations to obtain art di-
rected results in Chapter 8. This is an advanced topic and is not essential for creating a functional
cloth simulator. We conclude the book with references for further reading in Chapter 10.

Beyond the Basics

Some sections will be labeled Beyond the Basics. This indicates that understanding
this section is not essential for creating a working cloth simulator. These sections provide
more advanced information.

1.6 INTENDED AUDIENCE

This book is for anyone interested in learning more about cloth simulation for computer graphics.
That being said, we are assuming some background knowledge in solving differential equations
and numerical integration. Basic computer graphics knowledge on geometry representation is
also assumed to be familiar to the reader. We provide an appendix with commonly used math-
ematical expressions to help the reader.

1.7 GETTING STARTED

We believe that this book and the references therein contain all the information needed to suc-
cessfully implement your own cloth simulator. Before you start, we recommend that you first
try to set up and run a simulation with an existing simulator. This will give you an introduction
to the different steps in the cloth simulation pipeline and the expected behavior of a typical
simulation. We recommend the freely available cloth simulator in Blender.1 There are many tu-
torials available on the web to get you started. Alternatively, for more research oriented readers
we recommend the ARCSim2 or Bullet 3 cloth simulation libraries.
1 https://www.blender.org/
2 http://graphics.berkeley.edu/resources/ARCSim/index.html
3 https://pybullet.org/wordpress/
 1.7. GETTING STARTED 7
Once you’ve implemented your own solver, we recommend creating a simple square patch
of cloth to check for correctness. This simple scene will allow you to test different material
properties and constraints. To really validate your implementation we recommend the Berkeley
Garment Library.4 This library contains a number of different virtual garments fit for simulation.

4 http://graphics.berkeley.edu/resources/GarmentLibrary/index.html
 9

CHAPTER 2

Cloth Representation

“All beginnings are difficult.”

While this popular saying might be true, we’ll try to present you with an understandable
explanation.

So you want to learn more about physically based simulation of cloth? That’s great! Let’s
start with the basics. We are assuming you know a little bit about computer graphics already so
this chapter will be a very quick overview.

2.1 TRIANGLES
One way to represent geometry on a computer is by using triangles. A single triangle is pretty
boring but by combining many triangles into a triangle mesh we have the capability to create
astonishingly complex geometrical shapes. Just think about all the special effects you see in
movies and video games these days. Almost indistinguishable from real life, except, in real life,
things don’t blow up as easily as in the movies.
An example of a virtual garment is shown in Figure 2.1. The dress is made up of numerous
small triangles. The right figure shows the wireframe of these triangles. The garment has a natural
drape over the body of the virtual character thanks to physically based cloth simulation. The
garment reacts to external forces such as gravity or wind and moves with the character due to
collisions with the body.
A triangle is made up of three vertices or particles, connected by edges. These terms can
be used interchangeably in most settings. Have a look at Figure 2.2 to see what this looks like,
particles are shown in red and the triangle is shown in grey. Having a gorgeous 3D model is pretty
neat, but you know what’s even neater. Having it move! That’s what physics-based simulation is
all about.
Cloth is a continuous material but in what follows we will work with a discrete particle
representation, this will become more clear later in the tutorial. For now, just blindly trust us.
10 2. CLOTH REPRESENTATION

Figure 2.1: The dress has a natural drape on the body of the character thanks to physically based
cloth simulation. The garment is made up of multiple triangles which are shown using a black
wireframe overlay in the right image. The cloth model and textures were obtained from user
mnphmnmn on turbosquid: https://www.turbosquid.com/Search/Artists/mnphmnmn.
 2.2. PARTICLES 11
x1

x0
v1
v0
z

x2

x v2
y

Figure 2.2: A triangle is made up of three particles or vertices with positions xi shown in red
and velocities vi shown in blue.

2.2 PARTICLES
A particle i is defined by a 3D position xi 2 R3 and velocity vi 2 R3 . The combination of par-
ticle position and velocity is also referred to as the particle state qi D hxi ; vi i. The positions and
velocities of the particles will change over time because they have to obey the physical laws that
describe the material properties. For cloth, this means that it won’t stretch too much but it might
shear and bend, creating folds pretty easily. As you know, a wool sweater behaves differently
from a linen shirt. This is described by the material model.
We can group all the positions and velocities of the entire particle system with N particles
with positions and velocities xi , vi 2 R3 in a single long vector x 2 R3N and v 2 R3N

2 3 2 3
x0x v0x
6 x0y 7 6 v0y 7
6 7 6 7
6 7 6 7
6 x0z 7 6 v0z 7
6 :: 7 6 :: 7
xD6
6 :
7;
7 vD6
6 :
7:
7 (2.1)
6 7 6 7
6xN 1x 7 6vN 1x 7
6 7 6 7
4xN 1y 5 4vN 1y 5
xN 1z vN 1z

We can store the triangle meshes using a few different data structures. The most straight-
forward way is to store the particle positions and velocities in separate arrays that can be indexed
using the unique and unchanging particle index i . Triangles are then represented using a list
Discovering Diverse Content Through
Random Scribd Documents
my letter should altogether fail of presenting any useful point,
I must put some questions to you that would be worth
something if answered.
A man has published, in 1816, an octavo volume in Trenton
(United States), the author's name Boudinot, to explain some
things about the Indian nations, and, among other things, he
fancies some resemblance between their languages and
Hebrew. Baron Von Humboldt, a Prussian, was in Spanish
America lately, and he found the natives had Hebrew opinions
and usages, evidently things borrowed from Jewish doctrines. I
don't want you to inquire much about their being of this
extraction, but observe, for me, whether their languages have
no pronouns, as one author, Colden, stated fifty years ago;
and whether they are defective in the prepositions, as this
Boudinot states; and whether those near you have any words,
idioms, or traditions that are expressive of their early origin, or
their connection with European nations.
In fact, I think you are better circumstanced, in most respects,
than any other man that I ever heard of, to do something
worth notice in that way; for, although you have not books,
nor knowledge of many tongues, yet you could collect lists of
great and radical words, expressed with proper letters, so that
others could compare those words with Asiatic, and African,
and European tongues, so as to enable mankind to judge of
similitudes or dissimilitudes.
The words most apt to pervade different nations, and to pass
from one people to another, are articles, pronouns, auxiliary
verbs, prepositions; next to these, numerals; next to these,
whatever terms are expressive of striking, useful, hurtful, or
very clear and definite objects and ideas; for, if the
conceptions we have of things be not very definite, clear, and
distinct, the idea and the word are not likely to float down the
stream of time together, they will be jostled and separated. Be
very careful in spelling the Indian words; spell them in
different ways, where our letters don't square exactly with
their sounds. Take notice of their musical tones, and whether
these tones get in, as essential parts, into their speech; and,
above all, remember that a word is a thing, and that it may be
examined as a record, or considered like a coin or medal, as
well as if it had the stamp of a king or mint upon it.
I will write more if this vessel does not sail to-day. God bless
you and yours, and believe me, in haste, your affectionate
cousin.
J. McDONNELL.

XXIII.

Difficulties of Studying the Indian Tongues of the United

States. By Dr. Alexander Wolcott, Jr.

Dr. Wolcott will be remembered by the early inhabitants of

Chicago, when that place was still a military post and the site
of an Indian agency, the latter of which trusts he filled. In
1820, the Pottowattomie tribe of Indians and their
confederates—the Illinois—Chippewas, and Ottowas—
possessed the whole surrounding regions, roving as lords of
the prairies. These numerous and fierce hunter-tribes, who
traded their peltries for fineries, had many horses, loved rum
and fine clothes, and despised all restraints, came in to him, at
his agency, as the mouthpiece of the President, to transact
their affairs, and they often lingered for days and weeks
around the place, which gave him a good opportunity of
becoming familiar with their manners, customs, and history.
Dr. Wolcott was a man of education, of high morals, dignified
manners, and noble sentiments, with decidedly saturnine
feelings, and a keen perception of the ridiculous.
Constitutionally averse to much or labored personal effort, his
leisure hours, in this seclusion from society, were hours
devoted to reading and social converse, and his attention was
appropriately called by Gen. Cass to the "Inquiries," No. 21,
above referred to. The reply which he at length communicated
was written in so happy a vein, that I obtained permission to
publish the substance of it, in 1824, in my Travels in the
Central Portions of the Mississippi Valley, p. 381. It declares an
important truth, which all must concur in, who have attempted
the study of the Indian languages, for they are required to
perform the prior labor of ascertaining and generalizing the
principles of their accidence and concord. When I first came to
St. Mary's, in 1822, and began the study of the Chippewa, I
asked in vain the simple question how the plural was formed.
It was formed, in truth, in twelve different ways, agreeably to
the vowels of terminal syllables; but this could not be declared
until quires of paper had been written over, the whole
vocabulary explored, and days and nights devoted to it. My
first interpreter could not tell a verb from a noun, and was
incapable of translating the simplest sentence literally. Besides
his ignorance, he was so great a liar that I never knew when
to believe him. He sometimes told the Indians the reverse of
what I said, and often told me the reverse of what they said.

XXIV.

Examination of the Elementary Structure of the Algonquin

Language as it appears in the Chippewa Tongue. By
Henry R. Schoolcraft.

INTRODUCTORY NOTE.
Sault Ste. Marie, May 31, 1823.
Sir: In order to answer your inquiries, I have improved my
leisure hours, during the part of the summer following our
arrival here (6th July last), and the entire winter and spring, in
examining the words and forms of expression of the Chippewa,
or (as the Indians pronounce it) Odjibwa, tongue. I have
found, as I anticipated, my most efficient aid, in this inquiry, in
Mr. Johnston, and the several members of his intelligent
family; my public interpreter being too unprecise and
profoundly ignorant of the rules of grammar to be of much use
in the investigation. Mr. Johnston, as you are aware, perhaps,
came from the north of Ireland, where his connections are
highly respectable, during the first term of General
Washington's administration. He brought letters from high
sources to the Governor-General of Canada; but having, while
at Montreal, fallen in with Don Andrew Tod, a countryman,
who had the monopoly of the fur trade of Louisiana, in a spirit
of enterprise and adventure, he threw himself into that, at the
time, fascinating pursuit, and visited Michilimackinac.
Circumstances determined him to fix his residence at St.
Mary's, where he has resided, making frequent visits to
Montreal and Great Britain, about thirty years. His children
have been carefully instructed in the English language and
literature, and the whole family are familiar with the Indian.
Without such proficient aid, I should have labored against
serious impediments at every step; and, with them, I have
found the inquiry, in a philological point of view, involved in
many, and some of them insuperable difficulties. The results I
communicate to you, rather as an earnest of what may be
hereafter done in this matter, than as completely fulfilling
inquiries which it would require Horne Tooke himself, with the
aid of the Bodleian library, to unravel.
With respect, &c.,
HENRY R. SCHOOLCRAFT.
His Excellency Gov. Lewis Cass.

EXAMINATION OF THE ODJIBWA.

1, 2. Simple Sounds.—The language is one of easy
enunciation. It has sixteen simple consonental and five vowel
sounds. Of these, two are labials, b and p; five dentals, d, t, s,
z, j, and g soft; two nasals, m and n; and four gutturals, k, q,
c, and g hard. There is a peculiar nasal combination in ng, and
a peculiar terminal sound of g, which may be represented by
gk. Of the mixed dipthongal and consonental sounds, those
most difficult to English organs are the sounds in aiw and auw.
3. Letters not used.—The language is wholly wanting in the
sound of th. It drops the sound of v entirely, substituting b, in
attempts to pronounce foreign words. The sound of l is
sometimes heard in their necromantic chants; but, although it
appears to have been known to the old Algonquin, it is
supplied, in the Odjibwa of this day, exclusively by n. It also
eschews the sounds of f, r, and x, leaving its simple
consonental powers of utterance, as above denoted, at
sixteen. In attempts to pronounce English words having the
sound of f, they substitute p, as in the case of v. The sound of
r is either dropped, or takes the sound of au. Of the letter x
they make no use; the nearest approach I have succeeded in
getting from them is ek-is, showing that it is essentially a
foreign sound to them. The aspirate h begins very few words,
not exceeding five in fifteen hundred, but it is a very frequent
sound in terminals, always following the slender or Latin sound
of a, but never its broad sound in au, or its peculiarly English
sound as heard in the a of may, pay, day. The terminal syllable
of the tribal name (Odjibwa), offers a good evidence of this
rule, this syllable being never sounded by the natives either
wah or wau, but always wa. These rules of utterance appear to
be constant and imperative, and the natives have evidently a
nice ear to discriminate sounds.
Rule of Euphony.—In the construction of words, it is required
that a consonant should precede or follow a vowel. In
dissyllables wherein two consonants are sounded in
juxtaposition, it happens from the joining of two syllables, the
first of which ends and the last begins with a consonant, as
muk-kuk, a box, and os-sin, a stone; the utterance in these
cases being confluent. But in longer compounds this
juxtaposition is generally avoided by throwing in a vowel for
the sake of euphony, as in the term assinebwoin, the e in
which is a mere connective, and has no meaning by itself. Nor
is it allowable for vowels to follow each other in syllabication,
except in the restricted instances where the being or existence
of a thing or person is affirmed, as in the vowel-words i-e-e
and i-e-a, the animate and inanimate forms of this declaration.
In these cases, there is a distinct accent on each vowel.
4. Accent.—The accent generally falls on full or broad vowels,
and never on short vowels; such accented vowels are always
significant, and if they are repeated in a compound word, the
accents are also repeated, the only difference being that there
are primary and secondary accents. Thus, in the long
descriptive name for a horse, Pa-bá-zhik-ó-ga-zhé, which is
compounded of a numeral term and two nouns, meaning, the
animal with solid hoofs; there are three accents, the first of
which is primary, while the others succeed each other with
decreased intensity. By a table of words which I have
constructed, and had carefully pronounced over by the natives,
it is denoted that dissyllables are generally accented on the
final syllable, trisyllables on the second, and words of four
syllables on the second and fourth. But these indications may
not be constant or universal, as it is perceived that the accents
vary agreeably to the distribution of the full and significant
vowels.
5. Emphasis.—Stress is laid on particular words in sentences to
which the speaker designs to impart force, and the whole tone
of the entire sentiment and passages is often adapted to
convey particular impressions. This trait more frequently
comes out in the private narrative of real or imaginary scenes,
in which the narrator assumes the very voice and tone of the
real or supposed actor. Generally, in their dealings and
colloquial intercourse, there is a significant stress laid on the
terms, meenungaika, certainly; kaigait, truly; kaugaigo,
nothing at all; tiau, behold; woh-ow, who; auwanain, were;
and other familiar terms of inquiry, denial, or affirmation in
daily use.
6. Conjugation.—The simplest form in which their verbs are
heard, is in the third person singular of the indicative, as he
speaks, he says, he loves, he dances, or in the first person
present of the imperative. The want of a distinction between
the pronouns he and she, is a defect which the language
shares, I believe, with other very ancient and rude tongues.
Conjugations are effected for persons, tenses, and number,
very much as they are in other rude languages, particularly
those of the transpositive class. The verb is often a single root,
or syllable, as saug, love; but owing to the tendency of adding
qualifying particles, their verbs are cluttered up with other
meanings. The word saug is therefore never heard as an
element by itself. In the first place, it takes before it the
pronoun, and in the second place, the object of action; so that
nesaugeau, I love him, or her, or a person, is one of the
simplest of their colloquial phrases. And of this term, the e,
being the fourth syllable, is mere verbiage, means nothing by
itself, and is thrown in for euphony.
Tenses are formed by adding gee to the pronoun for the
perfect, and gah for the future, and gahgee for the second
future. These terms play the part, and supply the want of,
auxiliary verbs. The imperative is made in gah, and the
potential in dau where the second future is daugee. The
subjunctive is made by prefixing the word kishpin, meaning if.
The inflection nuh, asks a question, and as it can be put to all
the forms of the conjugation, it establishes an interrogative
mood. The particle see, negatives the verb, and thus all verbs
can be conjugated positively and negatively.
To constitute the plural, the letter g is added to the
conjugations; thus, nesaugeaug means, I love them. But this is
an animate plural, and can only be added to words of the vital
class. Besides, if the verb or noun to be made plural does not
end in a vowel, but in a consonant, the g cannot be added
without interposing a vowel. It results, therefore, that the
vowel class of words have their plurals in _äg_, eeg, ig, og, or
ug. But, if the class of words be non-vital and numerical, the
plural is made in the letter n. But this letter cannot, as in the
other form, be added, unless the word terminate in a vowel,
when the regular plurals are _än_, een, in, on, or un. This
simple principle clears up one cause of perplexity in the
conjugations, and denotes a philosophical method, which
divides the whole vocabulary into two classes; while this
provision supersedes, it answers the purpose of gender. There
is, in fact, no gender required by the conjugations, it being
sufficient to denote the vitality or non-vitality of the class.
Nothing can be clearer. This is one of the leading traits of the
grammar of the language, upon the observance of which the
best speakers pride themselves.
It does not, however, result that, because there is no gender
required in the conjugations, the idea of sexuality is unknown
to the nomenclature. Quite the contrary. The tenses for male
and female, in the chief orders of creation, are iaba and nozha.
These words prefixed to the proper names of animals, produce
expressions of precisely the same meaning, and also the same
inelegance; as if we should say, male goose, female goose,
male horse, and female horse, male man and female man. The
term for man (inini) is masculine, and that for woman (equa)
feminine in its construction. It is only in the conjugations that
the principle of gender becomes lost in that of vitality.
7. Active and passive voices.—The distinction between these
two classes of verbs is made by the inflection ego. By adding
this form to the active verb, its action is reversed, and thrown
back on the nominative. Thus, the verb to carry is nim bemön,
I carry; nim bemön-ego, I am carried. Adowawa is the act of
thumping, as a log by the waves on the shore._ Adowawa-
ego_ is a log that is thumped by the waves on shore.
Nesaugeah, I love; Nesaugeigo, I am loved. In the latter
phrase, the personal term au is dropped, and the long sound
of e slips into i, which converts the inflection into igo instead of
ego.
8. Participles.—My impression is, that the Indians are in the
habit of using participles, often to the exclusion of other
proper forms of the verb. The vocabulary contains abundantly
the indicative forms of the verb. To run, to rise, to see, to eat,
to tie, to burn, to strike, to sing, to cry, to dance, are the
common terms of parlance; but as soon as these terms come
to be connected with the action of particular persons, this
action appears to be spoken of as if existing—both the past
and future tenses being thrown away; and the senses appear
to be, I, you, he, or they; running, rising, seeing, eating, tying,
burning, striking, singing, crying, dancing. At least, I have not
been able to convince myself that the action is not referred to
as existing. When the participles should be used, they, on the
contrary, employ the indicative forms, by which such sentences
are made as, he run, he walk, for running, walking.
The general want of the substantive verb, in their colloquial
phrases, constantly leads to imperfect forms of syntax. Thus,
nëbä is the indicative, first person of the verb to sleep; but if
the term, I am sleeping, be required, the phrase is ne nëbä,
simply, I sleep. So, too, tshägiz is the first person indicative to
burn; but the colloquial phrase, I am burned, or burning, is
nen tshägiz—the verb remaining in the indicative, and not
taking the participle form.
It is not common to address persons by their familiar names,
as with us—as John, or James. The very contrary is the usage
of Indian society, the object being to conceal all personal
names, unless they be forced out. If it be required to express
this sentence, namely: Adario has gone out (or temporarily
departed), but will soon return; the equivalent is Ogima, ke
mahjaun, panema, ke takooshin. This sentence literally
retranslated is, Chief, he gone; by and by, he (will) return—the
noun chief being put for the personal noun Adario. It will be
perceived that the pronoun ke is repeated after the noun,
making, chief, he gone. Panema is an adverb which is
undeclinable under all circumstances, and tahkooshin, the
future tense of the verb to arrive, or come (by land). The
phraseology is perfectly loaded with local or other particulars,
which constantly limit the action of verbs to places, persons,
and things.

XXV.

A Vocabulary of the Odjibwa Algonquin Language. By H. R.

Schoolcraft.

On referring to the manuscript of this vocabulary, it is found to

fill a large folio volume, which puts it out of my power to insert
it in this connection. It is hoped to bring it into the series of
the Ethnological volumes, now in the process of being
published at Philadelphia, under the auspices of Congress.

APPENDIX
No. 2.
THE EXPEDITION TO ITASCA LAKE IN 1832.
 SYNOPSIS.

1. INDIAN LANGUAGES

I. II. Observations on the Grammatical Structure and Flexibility

of the Odjibwa Substantive. By Henry R. Schoolcraft.
III. Principles Governing the Use of the Odjibwa Noun-
adjective. By Henry R. Schoolcraft.
IV. Some Remarks respecting the Agglutinative Position and
Properties of the Pronoun. By Henry R. Schoolcraft.

2. NATURAL HISTORY.

V. Zoology.
1. Limits of the Range of the Cervus Sylvestris in the
Northwestern parts of the United States. By Henry R.
Schoolcraft.—Northwest Journal.
2. Description of the Fringilia Vespertina, discovered
by Mr. Schoolcraft in the Northwest. By William Cooper.—
Annals of the New York Lyceum of Natural History.
3. A list of Shells collected by Mr. Schoolcraft during
his Expedition to the Sources of the Mississippi in 1832.
By William Cooper.
VI. Botany.
1. List of Species and Localities of Plants collected
during the Exploratory Expeditions of Mr. Schoolcraft in
1831 and 1832. By Douglass Houghton, M. D., Surgeon to
said Expeditions.
VII. Mineralogy and Geology.
1. A Report on the Existence of Deposits of Copper
in the Trap Rocks of Upper Michigan. By Dr. Douglass
 Houghton.
2. Remarks on the Occurrence of Native Silver, and
the Ores of Silver, in the Stratification of the Basins of
Lakes Huron and Superior. By Henry R. Schoolcraft.
3. A General Summary of the Localities of Minerals
observed in the Northwest. By Henry R. Schoolcraft.
4. Geological Outlines of the Valley of Takwymenon
in the Basin of Lake Superior. By Henry R. Schoolcraft.
5. Suggestions respecting the Geological Epoch of
the Deposit of Red Sandstone of St. Mary's Falls,
Michigan. By Henry R. Schoolcraft.

3. INDIAN TRIBES.

VIII. Condition and Disposition.

1. Official Report to the War Department, of an
Expedition through Upper Michigan and Northern
Wisconsin in 1831. By Henry R. Schoolcraft.
2. Brief Notes of a Tour in 1831, from Galena, in
Illinois, to Fort Winnebago, on the source of Fox River,
Wisconsin. By Henry R. Schoolcraft.
3. Official Report of the Expedition to Itasca Lake in
1832. By Henry R. Schoolcraft.
4. Report of the Vaccination of the Indians in 1832,
under the authority of an Act of Congress. By Dr.
Douglass Houghton.

4. TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOGRAPHY.

IX. Astronomical and Barometrical Observations.

1. Table of Geographical Positions observed in 1836.
By J. N. Nicollet.
 5. SCENERY.

X. Letters on the Scenery of Lake Superior. By Melancthon

Woolsey. Vide Southern Literary Messenger, 1836.
 APPENDIX.

INDIAN LANGUAGES

I.
Observations on the Grammatical Structure and Flexibility of
the Odjibwa Substantive. [270]

Inquiry 1.

Observations on the Ojibwai substantive. 1. The provision

of the language for indicating gender—Its general and
comprehensive character—The division of words into
animate and inanimate classes. 2. Number—its
recondite forms, arising from the terminal vowel in the
word. 3. The grammatical forms which indicate
possession, and enable the speaker to distinguish the
objective person.
Most of the researches which have been directed to the Indian
languages, have resulted in elucidating the principles
governing the use of the verb, which has been proved to be
full and varied in its inflections. Either less attention has been
paid to the other parts of speech, or results less suited to
create high expectations of their flexibility and powers have
been attained. The Indian verb has thus been made to stand
out, as it were in bold relief, as a shield to defects in the
substantive and its accessories, and as, in fact, compensating,
by its multiform appendages of prefix and suffix—by its tensal,
its pronominal, its substantive, its adjective, and its adverbial
terminations, for barrenness and rigidity in all other parts of
speech. Influenced by this reflection, I shall defer, in the
present inquiry, the remarks I intend offering on the verb, until
I have considered the substantive, and its more important
adjuncts.
Palpable objects, to which the idea of sense strongly attaches,
and the actions or condition, which determine the relation of
one object to another, are perhaps the first points to demand
attention in the invention of languages. And they have
certainly imprinted themselves very strongly, with all their
materiality, and with all their local, and exclusive, and personal
peculiarities upon the Indian. The noun and the verb not only
thus constitute the principal elements of speech, as in all
languages; but they continue to perform their first offices, with
less direct aid from the auxiliary parts of speech, than would
appear to be reconcilable with a clear expression of the
circumstances of time and place, number and person, quality
and quantity, action and repose, and the other accidents, on
which their definite employment depends. But to enable the
substantives and attributives to perform these complex offices,
they are provided with inflections, and undergo changes and
modifications, by which words and phrases become very
concrete in their meaning, and are lengthened out to appear
formidable to the eye. Hence the polysyllabic, and the
descriptive character of the language, so composite in its
aspect and in its forms.
To utter succinctly, and in as few words as possible, the
prominent ideas resting upon the mind of the speaker, appear
to have been the paramount object with the inventors of the
language. Hence, concentration became a leading feature. And
the pronoun, the adjective, the adverb, and the preposition,
however they may be disjunctively employed in certain cases,
are chiefly useful as furnishing materials to the speaker, to be
worked up into the complicated texture of the verb and the
substantive. Nothing, in fact, can be more unlike, than the
language, viewed in its original, elementary state—in a
vocabulary, for instance, of its primitive words, so far as such a
vocabulary can now be formed, and the same language as
heard under its oral, amalgamated form. Its transpositions may
be likened to a picture, in which the copal, the carmine, and
the white lead, are no longer recognized as distinct
substances, but each of which has contributed its share
towards the effect. It is the painter only who possesses the
principle, by which one element has been curtailed, another
augmented, and all, however seemingly discordant, made to
coalesce.
Such a language may be expected to abound in derivatives
and compounds; to afford rules for giving verbs substantive,
and substantives verbal qualities; to concentrate the meaning
of words upon a few syllables, or upon a single letter, or
alphabetical sign; and to supply modes of contraction and
augmentation, and, if I may so say, short cuts, and by-paths to
meanings, which are equally novel and interesting. To arrive at
its primitives, we must pursue an intricate thread, where
analogy is often the only guide. We must divest words of those
accumulated syllables, or particles, which, like the molecules of
material matter, are clustered around the primitives. It is only
after a process of this kind, that the principle of combination—
that secret wire, which moves the whole machinery can be
searched for, with a reasonable prospect of success. The labor
of analysis is one of the most interesting and important, which
the subject presents. And it is a labor which it will be
expedient to keep constantly in view, until we have separately
considered the several parts of speech, and the grammatical
laws by which the language is held together; and thus
established principles and provided materials wherewith we
may the more successfully labor.
1. In a general survey of the language as it is spoken, and as it
must be written, there is perhaps no feature which obtrudes
itself so constantly to view, as the principle which separates all
words, of whatever denomination, into animates and
inanimates, as they are applied to objects in the animal,
vegetable, or mineral kingdom. This principle has been grafted
upon most words, and carries its distinctions throughout the
syntax. It is the gender of the language; but a gender of so
unbounded a scope, as to merge in it the common distinctions
of a masculine and feminine, and to give a twofold character
to the parts of speech. The concords which it requires, and the
double inflections it provides, will be mentioned in their
appropriate places. It will be sufficient here to observe, that
animate nouns require animate verbs for their nominatives,
animate adjectives to express their qualities, and animate
demonstrative pronouns to mark the distinctions of person.
Thus, if we say, "I see a man; I see a house," the termination
of the verb must be changed. What was in the first instance
wâb imâ, is altered to wâb indân. Wâb, is here the infinitive,
but the root of this verb is still more remote. If the question
occurs "Is it a good man, or a good house," the adjective,
which, in the inanimate form is onishish-í, is, in the animate
onishish-i[n']. If the question be put, "Is it this man, or this
house," the pronoun this, which is mâ bum, in the animate, is
changed to mâ ndun, in the inanimate.
Nouns animate embrace the tribes of quadrupeds, birds,
fishes, insects, reptiles, crustacæ, the sun, and moon, and
stars, thunder, and lightning, for these are personified; and
whatever either possesses animal life, or is endowed, by the
peculiar opinions and superstitions of the Indians, with it. In
the vegetable kingdom, their number is comparatively limited,
being chiefly confined to trees, and those only while they are
referred to, as whole bodies, and to the various species of
fruits, and seeds, and esculents. It is at the option of the
speaker to employ nouns, either as animates or inanimates:
but it is a choice seldom resorted to, except in conformity with
stated exceptions. These conventional exceptions are not
numerous, and the more prominent of them, may be recited.
The cause of the exceptions it is not always easy to perceive.
It may, however, generally be traced to a particular respect
paid to certain inanimate bodies, either from their real or
fancied properties—the uses to which they are applied, or the
ceremonies to which they are dedicated. A stone, which is the
altar of sacrifice to their Manitoes; a bow, formerly so
necessary in the chase; a feather, the honored sign of martial
prowess; a kettle, so valuable in the household; a pipe, by
which friendships are sealed and treaties ratified; a drum, used
in their sacred and festive dances; a medal, the mask of
authority; vermilion, the appropriate paint of the warrior;
wampum, by which messages are conveyed, and covenants
remembered. These are among the objects, in themselves
inanimates, which require the application of animate verbs,
pronouns, and adjectives, and are thereby transferred to the
animate class.
It is to be remarked, however, that the names for animals, are
only employed as animates, while the objects are referred to
as whole and complete species. But the gender must be
changed, when it becomes necessary to speak of separate
numbers. Man, woman, father, mother, are separate nouns, so
long as the individuals are meant; but hand, foot, head, eye,
ear, tongue, are inanimates. Buck, is an animate noun, while
his entire carcass is referred to, whether living or dead; but
neck, back, heart, windpipe, take the inanimate form. In like
manner, eagle, swan, dove, are distinguished as animates; but
beak, wing, tail, are arranged with inanimates. So oak, pine,
ash, are animate; branch, leaf, root, inanimates.
Reciprocal exceptions, however, exist to this rule—the reasons
for which, as in the former instance, may generally be sought,
either in peculiar opinions of the Indians, or in the peculiar
qualities or uses of the objects. Thus the talons of the eagle,
and the claws of the bear, and of other animals, which furnish
ornaments for the neck, are invariably spoken of, under the
animate form. The hoofs and horns of all quadrupeds, which
are applied to various economical and mystic purposes; the
castorum of the beaver, and the nails of man, are similarly
situated. The vegetable creation also furnishes some
exceptions of this nature; such are the names for the outer
bark of all trees (except the birch), and the branches, the
roots, and the resin of the spruce, and its congeners.
In a language, which considers all nature as separated into
two classes of bodies, characterized by the presence or
absence of life; neuter nouns will scarcely be looked for,
although such may exist without my knowledge. Neuters are
found amongst the verbs and the adjectives, but it is doubtful
whether they render the nouns to which they are applied
neuters, in the sense we attach to that term. The subject in all
its bearings is interesting, and a full and minute description of
it would probably elicit new light respecting some doubtful
points in the language, and contribute something towards a
curious collateral topic—the history of Indian opinions. I have
stated the principle broadly, without filling up the subject of
exceptions as fully as it is in my power, and without following
its bearings upon points which will more properly come under
discussion at other stages of the inquiry. A sufficient outline, it
is believed, has been given, and having thus met, at the
threshold, a principle deeply laid at the foundation of the
language, and one which will be perpetually recurring, I shall
proceed to enumerate some other prominent features of the
substantive.
2. No language is perhaps so defective, as to be totally without
number. But there are, probably, few which furnish so many
modes of indicating it, as the Odjibwa. There are as many
modes of forming the plural, as there are vowel sounds, yet
there is no distinction between a limited and unlimited plural;
although there is, in the pronoun, an inclusive and an exclusive
plural. Whether we say man or men, two men or twenty men,
the singular inin´i, and the plural nin´iwug, remains the same.
But if we say we, or us, or our men (who are present), or we,
or us, or our Indians (in general), the plural we, and us, and
our—for they are rendered by the same form—admit of a
change to indicate whether the objective person be included or
excluded. This principle, of which full examples will be given
under the appropriate head, forms a single and anomalous
instance of the use of particular plurals. And it carries its
distinctions, by means of the pronouns, separable and
inseparable, into the verbs and substantives, creating the
necessity of double conjugations and double declensions, in
the plural forms of the first person. Thus, the term for "Our
Father," which, in the inclusive form is Kósinân, is, in the
exclusive, Nósinân.
The particular plural, which is thus, by the transforming power
of the language, carried from the pronoun into the texture of
the verb and substantive, is not limited to any fixed number of
persons or objects, but arises from the operations of the verb.
The general plural is variously made. But the plurals making
inflections take upon themselves an additional power or sign,
by which substantives are distinguished into animate and
inanimate. Without this additional power, all nouns plural
would end in the vowels a, e, i, o, u. But to mark the gender,
the letter g is added to animates, and the letter n to
inanimates, making the plurals of the first class terminate in
_âg_, eeg, ig, _ôg_, ug, and of the second class in _ân_, een,
in, _ôn_, un. Ten modes of forming the plural are thus
provided, five of which are animate, and five inanimate plurals.
A strong and clear line of distinction is thus drawn between the
two classes of words; so unerring, indeed, in its application,
that it is only necessary to inquire how the plural is formed, to
determine whether it belonged to one or the other class. The
distinctions which we have endeavored to convey will,
perhaps, be more clearly perceived, by adding examples of the
use of each of the plurals.

Animate Plural.
a.
a Chippewa. Odjibwaig, Chippewas.
Odjibwâi,
e. Ojee, a Fly. Oj-eeg, Flies.
Our
Our father, Kosenân-
i. Kosénan, fathers,
(in.) ig,
(in.)
o. Ahmô, a Bee. Ahm-ôg, Bees.
u. Ais, a Schell. Ais-ug, Shells.

Inanimate Plural.
a.
Fire. Ishkôdain, Fires.
Ishkôdai,
Wadôp-
e. Wadôp, Alder. Alders.
een,
Adetaig-
i. Adetaig, Fruit. Fruits.
in,
o. Nôdin, Wind. Nôdin-ôn, Winds.
u. Meen, Berry. Meen-un, Berries.
Where a noun terminates with a vowel in the singular, the
addition of the g, or n,shows at once, both the plural and the
gender. In other instances, as in peenai, a partridge—seebi, a
river—it requires a consonant to precede the plural vowel, in
conformity with a rule previously stated. Thus, peenai, is
rendered peenai-wug—and seebi, seebi-wun. Where the noun
singular terminates in the broad, instead of the long sound of
a, as in ogimâ, a chief, ishpatinâ, a hill, the plural is ogim-ag,
ishpatinân. But these are mere modifications of two of the
above forms, and are by no means entitled to be considered as
additional plurals.
Comparatively few substances are without number. The
following may be enumerated:—

Missun´, Firewood. Ussáimâ, Tobacco.

Pinggwi, Ashes. Naigow, Sand.
Méjim, Food. Ahwun, Mist.
Kôn, Snow. Kimmiwun, Rain.
Mishk´wi, Blood. Ossâkumig, Moss.
Ukkukkuzhas, Coals. Unitshimin, Peas.

Others may be found, and indeed, a few others are known.

But it is less an object, in this lecture, to pursue exceptions
into their minutest ramifications, than to sketch broad rules,
applicable, if not to every word, to at least a majority of words
in the language.
There is, however, one exception from the general use of
number, so peculiar in itself, that not to point it out would be
an unpardonable remissness in giving the outlines of a
language, in which it is an object neither to extenuate faults
nor to overrate beauties. This exception consists in the want of
number in the third person of the declensions of animate
nouns, and the conjugation of animate verbs. Not that such
words are destitute of number, in their simple forms, or when
used under circumstances requiring no change of these simple
forms—no prefixes and no inflections. But it will be seen, at a
glance, how very limited such an application of words must be,
in a transpositive language.
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