part6-3
part6-3
Data are transferred to and from the disk in sectors. There are typically hundreds of sectors per
track, and these may be of either fixed or variable length. To avoid imposing unreasonable
precision requirements on the system, adjacent sectors are separated by intratrack (intersector)
gaps.
A bit near the center of a rotating disk travels past a fixed point slower than a bit on the outside.
Therefore, some way must be found to compensate for the variation in speed so that the head can
read all the bits at the same rate:
constant angular velocity (CAV).This can be done by increasing the spacing between bits of
information recorded in segments of the disk. The information can then be scanned at the same
rate by rotating the disk at a fixed speed, as the Figure 6.2a shows the layout of a disk using
CAV. The disk is divided into a number of pie-shaped sectors and into a series of concentric
tracks.The advantage of using CAV is that individual blocks of data can be directly addressed by
track and sector. To move the head from its current location to a specific address, it only takes a
short movement of the head to a specific track and a short wait for the proper sector to spin under
the head. The disadvantage of CAV is that the amount of data that can be stored on the long outer
tracks is the only same as what can be stored on the short inner tracks
MZR(multiple zone recording ) :Figure 6.2b is a simplified layout, with 15 tracks organized
into 5 zones. The innermost two zones have two tracks each, with each track having nine sectors;
the next zone has 3 tracks, each with 12 sectors; and the outermost 2 zones have 4 tracks each,
with each track having 16 sectors.
Figure 6.3. shows the common sector formats used in contemporary hard disk drives. The
standard format used for many years divided the track into sectors, each containing 512 bytes of
data.
RAID 0 uses multiple disks and maps them as a single disk.This is mainly for performance
and not for fault tolerance.
If any drive in RAID 0 fails whole system becomes unusable.
There is no duplication of data. Hence, a block once lost cannot be recovered.
It’s basically disk mirroring.it provides 100% redundancy as everything is stored in two disks
and if one disk fails we can restore data from backup disk and whole raid can be recreated.
RAID 0 was unable to tolerate any disk failure. But RAID 1 is capable of reliability.
1 disk failure can be handled for certain, because blocks of that disk would have duplicates
on some other disk.
RAID 5 is a data backup technology for hard disk drives that uses both disk striping and
parity, ALSO can be used for solid-state drives. It is one of the levels of RAID. RAID 5
doesn’t use disk mirroring, however; it combines disk striping and a data-checking technique
called parity. RAID 5 parity is spread among each drive, unlike RAID 4, which stores it all on
one disk. This provides added security (not all parity data is lost if that drive fails). Also, a
general note about disk drives is that the exact amount of room available on a disk may not be
what’s advertised, because formatting RAID configurations takes some of that space.
SSD Organization
Figure 6.11 illustrates a general view of the common architectural system component associated
with any SSD system.
On the host system, the operating system invokes file system software to access data on
the disk.
The file system, in turn, invokes I/O driver software.
The I/O driver software provides host access to the particular SSD product.
The interface component in Figure 6.11 refers to the physical and electrical interface between
the host processor and the SSD peripheral device. If the device is an internal hard drive, a
common interface is PCIe. For external devices, one common interface is USB.
PCIe (peripheral component interconnect express) is an interface standard for connecting high-
speed components. Every desktop PC motherboard has a number of PCIe slots you can use to
add GPUs (aka video cards aka graphics cards), RAID cards, Wi-Fi cards or SSD (solid-state
drive) add-on cards.
CDs or Compact Disks are opticL readable media. The main material of the CD is plastic.
The shape of the plastic is circular and one side of the circular plastic is coated with the
reflecting metal coating, usually aluminum. CDs can store many types of data, like audio,
video, games, any documents, etc. The data are scanned by a laser beam with a CD driver to
visualize the data. The storage capacity of a CD is 700 MB only.
The standard diameter of a CD is 120mm and thickness is 1.2mm. The main body of the CD is
made of hard plastic known as polycarbonate with a reflective metallic layer. This layer is
coated with metallic acrylic plastic. This metal is aluminum. In this layer, the data are stored
using the laser light which reflects the coated layer for reading and writing the data. The data is
read in the form of pits, each pit is of 0.83-micrometre and the data is arranged as spiral
track from the disc’s inner hole to its outer edge, because the CD is of circular shape.
Both the audio CD and the CD-ROM (compact disk read-only memory) share a similar
technology. The main difference is that CD-ROM players are more rugged and have error
correction devices to ensure that data are properly transferred from disk to computer. Both types
of disk are made the same way.
The disk is formed from a resin, such as polycarbonate. Digitally recorded information (either
music or computer data) is imprinted as a series of microscopic pits on the surface of the
polycarbonate., the disk contains a single spiral track, beginning near the center and spiraling out
to the outer edge of the disk. Sectors near the outside of the disk are the same length as those near
the inside. Thus, information is packed evenly across the disk in segments of the same size and
these are scanned at the same rate by rotating the disk at a variable speed. The pits are then read
by the laser at a constant linear velocity (CLV). The disk rotates more slowly for accesses near
the outer edge than for those near the center. Thus, the capacity of a track and the rotational delay
both increase for positions nearer the outer edge of the disk. The data capacity for a CD-ROM is
about 680 MB. Data on the CD-ROM are organized as a sequence of blocks. A typical block
format is shown in Figure 6.12 It consists of the following fields
To accommodate applications in which only one or a small number of copies of a set of data is
needed, the write-once read-many CD, known as the CD recordable (CD-R), has been developed.
For CD-R, a disk is prepared in such a way that it can be subsequently written once with a laser
beam of modest intensity. Thus, with a somewhat more expensive disk controller than for CD-
ROM, the customer can write once as well as read the disk. The CD-R medium is similar but not
identical to that of a CD or CD-ROM. For CDs and CD-ROMs, information is recorded by the
pitting of the surface of the medium, which changes reflectivity. For a CD-R, the medium
includes a dye layer. The dye is used to change reflectivity and is activated by a high-intensity
laser. The resulting disk can be read on a CD-R drive or a CD-ROM drive
The CD-RW optical disk can be repeatedly written and overwritten, as with a magnetic disk.
Although a number of approaches have been tried, the only pure optical approach that has proved
attractive is called phase change. The phase change disk uses a material that has two significantly
different reflectivity's in two different phase states. A beam of laser light can change the material
from one phase to the other. The primary disadvantage of phase change optical disks is that the
material eventually and permanently loses its desirable properties. Current materials can be used
for between 500,000 and 1,000,000 erase cycles. The CD-RW has the obvious advantage over
CD-ROM and CD-R that it can be rewritten and thus used as a true secondary storage.
The DVD takes video into the digital age. It delivers movies with impressive picture quality, and
it can be randomly accessed like audio CDs, which DVD machines can also play. Vast volumes
of data can be crammed onto the disk, currently seven times as much as a CD-ROM. With DVD’s
huge storage capacity and vivid quality, PC games have become more realistic and educational
software incorporates more video. The DVD’s greater capacity is due to three differences from
CDs (Figure 6.13):
1. Bits are packed more closely on a DVD.
2. The DVD employs a second layer of pits and lands on top of the first layer.
3. The DVD-ROM can be two sided, whereas data are recorded on only one side of a
CD. This brings total capacity up to 17 GB