feds

CHAPTER 2
Creating a Learning
ung Environment
ents/

ence;
thor. After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
> Design a social studies learning environment
essed appropriate for young children.
Develop learning centers that meet the needs of
of young students, based on social studies goals
ng and objectives.
ooks. Discuss the importance of active involvement in
the learning process.
2004). Evaluate your own cultural background as it
e. relates to teaching in diverse settings.
Identify the uses of technology to guide the
intellectual development of young children.

My heart is singing for joy this morning. A miracle has hap-

pened! The light of understanding has shown upon my little
pupil's mind, and behold, all things are changed.

Anne Sullivan
Dn
org.
;el-

rnent

29
CHAPTER 2

Classrooms should reflect the multiple ways that children interact and Learn

"Successful schools are unique places, not simply spaces" (NCSS, 2004). As
teachers of young children, it is our responsibility to create engaging places
of [earning. In the minds of many teachers, the question becomes, "How can
I make social studies fun and still maintain control of the classroom and
focus on the standards for which I am responsible?"
Teachers of young children face a huge challenge in balancing the
responsibility of making sure that students acquire the knowledge, skills, and
values necessary to prepare them for citizenship with the desire to provide
lessons that interest and involve the students in an active way. The social
studies offer an excellent, meaningful basis for building thematic instruction
that both interests children and develops higher-level thinking skills.
John Dewey (1938) offered some advice on this delicate balance
between fun and work. When discussing social studies instruction, he said,
"Play degenerates into fooling, and work into drudgery" (p. 286). As profes-
sionals, we must develop strategies that blend the interests of the students
with the teaching of necessary standards. Children come to school curious
about the world around them. It is up to the classroom teacher to tap into
that curiosity and teach children how to question, find the answers to their
questions, and solve problems through critical thinking.
 CREATING A LEARNING ENVIRONMENT

Young children are eager learners. Social studies are the perfect
avenue to help students maintain their zest for Learning and their natural
curiosity. When learning is fun and meaningful, students become interested
and view social studies as an important part of their Lives. Therefore, when
preschool and primary classrooms are stimulating and support that natural
sense of curiosity and wonder, students are able to cultivate their innate
drive to learn and explore.
Environments that encourage play and offer an interesting variety of
activities are most beneficial to a child's learning. While many believe that
the younger the child, the more informal the learning should be, informal
instruction is beneficial for Learners of all ages. The curriculum should include
a variety of opportunities for children to interact with materials, the environ-
ment, other children, and adults in an ongoing and meaningful way.
When developing an appropriate learning environment for young
children, the early childhood educator must take many factors into consid-
eration. One of the most important aspects of any classroom is the under-
lying foundation of respect.

By practicing respect for all students, teachers, and parents repre-

sented in the school community, the early childhood teacher models
the most important element of any early childhood environment. For
children to feel secure and ready to learn, the teacher must provide
an accepting atmosphere for all children represented in the class-
room (Salmon &Akaran, 2001).

The U. S. Bureau of Census reports that the population of the United

States is growing more culturally diverse every year (U. S. Bureau of
the Census, 2000). The Children's Defense Fund (2004) indicates
that this is particularly evident among families with young children.
Children become aware of differences in color, language,
gender, and physical ability at a very young age. With the growing
diversity in public school classrooms, it is becoming more and more
important for teachers to develop an understanding of the specific
needs of the diverse cultures represented in the early childhood
classroom. Teaching practices need to be developed with careful
attention to the cultural context in which the students live.
 CHAPTER 2

TABLE
Workini
OF ALL
caLTURes /
Appreci
Model n

R-E-S-P-E-C-T Incorpor

c. Know each other's names and the cor- Considet

1. Have each person in the class pair up
when do
with someone he or she does not know. rect pronunciations.
2. Pairs introduce themselves to each other. d.What is said in the classroom, stays in Based on 1

3. Each pair spends 5 minutes talking about the classroom.

respect. 8 Talk about the way that this kind of activ-
a.What does it mean to you? ity could or should be used in the early
langua
b.How is it manifested in the way you childhood classroom.
groups
treat other people?
I
c. What do you expect from others in Obtain a copy of the soundtrack to South
effectiv
terms of respect? Pacific. Play the "You've Got to Be Taught"
4. After 10 minutes, come together as a track. This song begins by telling us, You
suppor
whole group. have to be carefully taught to hate and to be
the cull
5. Chart the ideas, as they are expressed by afraid of the people who are different. People
in deve.
the pairs. who have different colored skin or eyes of a
6. Remember that respect is crucial to any different shape—taught to hate the people
in the c
situation, but particularly important when that our relatives hate. Listen to the song and
helping
dealing with issues of diversity. take some time to talk about the Lyrics. Are
ference
7. The following are some important they true? At what point do young children
emotior
aspects to remember about respect: begin to see differences in people? At what
working
a.It's not about agreeing with each other. point would they begin to hate? How can the
experiei
b.It's about understanding about the early childhood teacher guide young children
underst
other person. to be accepting of others?
ing simi
C
teachers
students
c.. .. tices of
dents fr(
Culture is a fundamental building block in the development of a child's student ,
personal identity. It encompasses the values, beliefs, attitudes, laws, M
and ways of doing things characteristic of a particular community and actions
is made up of all the influences in a child's environment. To under- develop
stand the concept of culture, teachers and students must analyze effective
 CREATING A LEARNING ENVIRONMENT

TAL 2-1
Working With Culturally Diverse Students Teacher Behaviors and Student Outcomes

Appreciate student differences and similarities. Students learn to appreciate differences and similarities of other students.

Model respect for cross-cultural understanding. Students replicate teacher behaviors and develop positive relationships with
students from different cultural backgrounds.

Incorporate objectives for affective development Positive self-esteem is developed.

Consider children's cultures and language skills Continuous learning occurs at appropriate levels.
when developing lessons.

Based on the research of Burnette (1999); Derman-Sparks, L. and the ABC Task Force (1989); Salmon & Akaran (2001).

language, family, religion, government, and education of different

groups of people.
A belief in the value of human diversity is a prerequisite for
effective early childhood teaching. When developing the dassroom
eomie, it is important to consider the way that environment
supports each teacher's philosophy and curriculum. Understanding
the cultural differences represented in each classroom is a first step
in developing a culturally responsive curriculum.
Respect for all children is integral to every aspect of daily life
in the classroom. Early childhood teachers play an important role in
helping children to develop positive attitudes and respect for the dif-
ferences represented in the classroom. "Teachers must have time for
emotionalizing feelings about others, examining their prejudices, and
working toward informed actions" (Hunt, 1999, p. 40). Sharing life
experiences on race and diversity helps teachers to reach a common
understanding about the importance of learning about and celebrat-
ing similarities and differences among people.
Certain teacher behaviors and instructional strategies enable
teachers to build stronger relationships with their culturally diverse
students (Bumette, 1999). Many of the strategies are standard prac-
tices of good teaching, but some are specific to working with sin-
dents from diverse cultures. See Table 2-1 for teacher behaviors and
student outcomes.
Many early childhood teachers have not had extensive inter-
actions with people from diverse cultures. When beginning to
develop the learning environment for young children, it is often
effective for the early childhood teacher to explore his or her
 CHAPTER 2

H St
b

c LT on
L
g(
1.Spend some time getting to know about A Have you had any experiences with dis-
your own culture. crimination: if so, can you describe them?
2.Talk to members of your extended family. 5 Talk with your neighbor about what you
How did your family traditions come know about your cultural heritage and
about? how that background affects your teach-
3 Where did your family originate? Can the ing and interaction from children with a
traditions, dispositions, and interests that different background.
are common among your family mem- 6 Discuss these questions with other stu-
bers be traced back to those roots? dents and compare feedback.
I

understanding of culture from a personal perspective (Neugebauer,

1994). Spending time reflecting on one's own cultural heritage is
an important step in preparing to teach students of diverse
backgrounds.
Every classroom is diverse to a degree, whether the differences
arise from gender, ethnicity, race, socioeconomic status, religion,
capability, disability, interests, or other factors. Establishing a class-
room climate of caring and respect is an important part of teaching
young children. To do this, the entire curriculum must incorporate
an appreciation of diversity. The teacher must be the model for set-
ting a standard of commitment to in the
classroom (Hunt, 1999).
There are many valid reasons for early childhood teachers to
embrace multicultural approaches to the education of our young
students. We want our students to feel welcome and important. By
validating their cultural background, we can encourage them to feel
like a part of the classroom culture (Bredekamp & Rosegrant,
1992). In addition, understanding of other cultures allows children
to accept the differences of others. The American boxer
Muhammad All said, "Prejudice comes from being in the dark;
 CREATING A LEARNING ENVIRONMENT

sunlight disinfects it." Let us, the educators of the new generation,
be that sunlight.

Louise Derman-Sparks and the ABC Task Force (1989) suggest four
goals for encouraging an accepting classroom environment:
Foster each child's construction of a knowledgeable, confident
self-identity.
Foster each child's comfortable, empathetic interaction with
diversity among people.
Foster each child's critical thinking about bias.
Foster each child's ability to stand up for her- or himself and
for others in the face of bias.
Teaching about diversity is not a part of the curriculum that occurs
occasionally, listed specifically in the lesson plan book or on the
weekly schedule. Teaching children about diversity is an ongoing,
integral part of an effective classroom environment. This important
aspect of the curriculum teaches the importance of respecting oth-
is ers, valuing their differences and similarities, and becoming more
se caring members of the greater society.

s- In general, there are four main approaches to teaching young chil-

ag dren about culture: multicultural education, H

ite global education, and international education. While the desired

goals for all four approaches are similar, there are subtle differences
he in the way the four approaches are designed.

Anti-Bias Curriculum
rig
3y In 1989, Louise Derman-Sparks and the ABC Task Force wrote the
e1 anti-bias curriculum handbook as a guide for teachers of young chil-
.11, dren, with the basic goal of helping children develop a positive-self
en concept without an attitude of superiority. The book encourages
teachers to integrate anti-bias curriculum throughout the school day,
not as a stand-alone curriculum.
CHAPTER 2

Multicultural Education develoj

about (
Multicultural education has as its goal exposing children to a variety
relatior
of cultures. The teacher makes it a point to examine the different cul-
knowle
tures represented in the classroom. If the classroom population has
part of
little diversity, the teacher would present as many cultural experi- daily ci
ences as possible through the curriculum. Such practices as examin-
tion to
ing family traditions around the world expose children to differences
backgr
among cultures at an early age. nvolvei
learnin
Global Education F
eration
Global education is usually explored with older children—those in resourc
middle and high school. The goal of global education is to help stu- Become
dents recognize the interconnectedness of the world. It involves devel- diverse
oping a student's ability to look at problems and events from different resourc(
perspectives. Global education is inherently abstract, so is less appro- ents to
priate for very young children. Working with young children to or demc
develop their abilities to view the world from different perspectives ents in t
would be an appropriate objective, however, which would lead to suc-
cess in dealing with a global education curriculum in later years.

Every ci:
with chil
International education is structured to expose children to a single of experi
culture for an entire school year. Over the course of that year, stu- is special
dents might study the clothing, food, music, dances, shelter, economy, learners
family structure, and celebrations of a particular culture. Through this of childr(
type of study, children are able to move beyond superficial knowledge dents bri
to a deeper, more meaningful understanding of that culture. are addrc
sists of st
HamiLy and Luhurat Competence any one
the classr
The concept and reality of the family has changed drastically in with disal
recent decades. In this text family is considered as any unit that an effectii
defines itself as a family. Family characteristics will continue to
become more and more diverse and complex. Early childhood teach-
C
ers need to understand and acknowledge these changes to effectively
serve the children and families represented in each classroom. More imi
Collaboration with parents is essential to the development of in any ot
families' awareness of the importance of their role in supporting their school St
child's development and learning. In NAEYC's position statement on matically
 CREATING A LEARNING ENVIRONMENT

developmentally appropriate practice, the fifth guideline for decisions

about developmentally appropriate practice—Establishing reciprocal
Lriety relationships with families—stresses that teachers need to share their
Cu'-. knowledge of the child and understanding of children's learning as a
has part of day-to-day communication with families. Involving parents in
pen- daily classroom activities can be useful in a variety of ways. In addi-
tion to allowing the teacher to understand more fully the cultural
nces background of each child in the classroom, through regular parental
involvement, the teacher can model techniques and strategies for
learning and behavior management.
Regular interaction with parents also increases trust and coop-
eration between the teacher and the parents. Parents are a rich
se in resource of topics for the early childhood social studies curriculum.
sin- Become aware of their special gifts and talents, as well as their
Level- diverse cultural and experiential backgrounds, and tap into those
erent resources when planning for social studies instruction. Inviting par-
)pro- ents to share their travel experiences, special cooking or craft skills,
n to or demonstration of cultural dance is a powerful way to involve par-
tives ents in the classroom and to enrich the education of the students.
suc-

Every child is special and unique. The classroom teacher is challenged

with children at all levels of development, children with a wide range
;ingle of experiential backgrounds and intellectual abilities. While every child
sin- is special and has particular instructional needs, two broad groups of
omy, learners are discussed in this chapter. We first discuss the special needs
a this of children coming from a different language background. These stu-
ledge dents bring particular needs to the early childhood classroom, which
are addressed through appropriate instruction. The second group con-
sists of students who have been identified with special needs based on
any one of a number of factors and who present special challenges to
the classroom teacher. Inclusive classrooms, those embracing children
ly in with disabilities in a number of areas, are growing in number and are
that an effective way to meet the needs of young children with special needs.
ie to
ach- ftp Learners
•Ei'h
ively
More immigrants arrived in the United States during the 1990s than
nt of in any other single decade. This means that the number of public
their school students in need of language instruction has increased dra-
Lit on matically (Bureau of U. S. Citizenship and Immigration Services,
CHAPTER 2

200 1). A survey of state education agencies found that in 2000-2001,

more than 4 million students with limited English proficiency were
enrolled in the nation's public schools. This is more than 10 percent
of the total pre-K-12th grade public enrollment, making linguistically
and culturally diverse classrooms the rule rather than the exception. Jl , I
u
Meeting the needs of such a of stu- *
Fr
dents is challenging in the social studies classroom. Aside from the
gr
obvious benefits of understanding the English language, social
studies concepts frequently involve an underlying knowledge of *wI
American culture as a basis for further conceptual development.
ab
For a child whose native culture is very different from the
in
American culture, learning social studies can be quite difficult (Lee
ro
& Fradd, 1998). U. S.-born students have a preexisting schema into *wI
which they can fit in the new information being presented. Children
en
from different cultures do not have this framework. In addition, chil- *wI
dren from different language backgrounds may have difficulty aci
understanding the teacher's accent and will probably not compre- *
Ho
hend the meaning of colloquialisms or some analogies. It is particu-
tivi
larly important for the classroom teacher to be aware of these
En
limitations as complex social studies concepts are explored.
For young children, adjusting to a new language and culture
is a challenging and difficult process that may take several years. An
active, integrated curriculum is essential if these students are to
achieve their full potential. It is important for the classroom teacher nonfict
to remember that English language learners can understand and rea- unclear
son at a much deeper level than they have vocabulary to express.
Recognizing and appreciating cultural differences in the classroom
makes a huge difference. Valuing the students' cultures and learning
about those differences are important starts in working with a child Many
from a different language and cultural background. greater
When working with children from different language back- some C
grounds the early childhood teacher has a responsibility to create an is some
appropriate environment to encourage learning. While many of the has a sl
strategies for working with children from non-English-speaking ticular
backgrounds are the same as those for all children, some special con- individi
siderations need to be taken into account. child to
All students deserve equal access to the social studies curricu- c
lum.The early childhood teacher must adopt instructional approaches tualdis
that help make the material comprehensible to all children. Some sug- physica
gestions for helping make this happen are: (1) use hands-on materials, disorde:
such as maps, globes, and (2) provide students with biogra- itywifi
phies of famous people from a wide variety of cultural groups; speciali
(3) supplement textbooks with children's literature—both fiction and the gen
 CREATING A LEARNING ENVIRONMENT

SO ELIJK CIfILD1CN
* *
From what country has the child immi- What strategies can the teacher use to
grated? engage. one-on-one, with the child team-
*
What Language(s) is spoken in the home? ing English?
* *
What does the teacher need to know How can the teacher include words from
about that culture that could impact the child's home language into classroom
instruction (gestures, eye contact, class- print materials?
*
room etiquette, etc.)? How can the teacher include books
*
What was the child's schooling experi- reflecting the cultures and Languages of
ence in his native country? the children enrolled in the early child-
*
What level of schooling did the parents hood classroom?
achieve?
*
How can the teacher communicate effec-
tively with families who do not speak
English?

nonfiction; (4) be alert to language, concepts, and values that may be

unclear because of cultural differences (Thonis, 1981).

Many young children have special needs, making their learning a

greater challenge. While all children must be considered children first,
some conditions require specific help and specialized instruction. It
is sometimes difficult to determine whether a child at an early age
has a specific disability or if he or she is simply developing in a par-
ticular area at a slower rate. Appropriate instruction, based on the
individual development of each child in the classroom, allows every
child to progress in a steady manner.
Some identifiable special needs include children with intellec-
tual disabilities, visual or hearing impairment, orthopedic or other
physical disabilities, emotional disturbance, and speech and language
disorders, to name a few. Students with all levels of ability and disabil-
ity will be a part of the early childhood classroom. While there are
specialists who tend to the specific needs of children with disabilities,
the general education classroom teacher is an integral part of the team.
CHAPTER 2

mc c p In ctus
In 1975, the U. S. Department of Education passed L. In an
which was the first law to ensure that each child with a disability be rooms
given a frR e ic :7::;, Prior to P.L. young
94-142, approximately one million children with disabilities were peers.
shut out of schools and hundreds of thousands more were denied in the
appropriate services (Office of Special Education Programs, U. S. for the
Department of Education, June 1997). This law formed the basis for
or the of 1997. needs (
This Act strengthened academic expectations and accountability for for a p
the nation's 5.8 million children with disabilities. In addition, the Act spent V
bridges the gap between the curriculum for typically developing chil- child.
dren and those children with disabilities. be plac
One of the most interesting and promising byproducts of full-flec
IDEA has been the implementation of inclusive classrooms in pub- not con
lic schools. In these classrooms, children with disabilities are cation
"included" in regular education classrooms to varying degrees rnstrucl
(Odom & Diamond, 1998; Odom, Teferra, & Kaul, 2004). Early all of th
childhood teachers are particularly successful in establishing inclu- '1
sive classrooms, because of their natural tendency and training in about ii
meeting individual needs.Young children are especially accepting of ability,
others, and when led by a caring and skilled teacher, they view all text is ti
students as equal members of the classroom. we are
When establishing the environment for the classroom, keep in room hi
mind the special needs of the students you will be serving. It takes sibility c
some forethought, as center space is planned, materials are made range 01
accessible to all, and maneuvering space is provided, to accommo- the chilc
date all of the children who make up the class population. typically
The American writer James Baldwin said, "Children have E
never been very good at listening to their elders, but they have never with chil
failed to imitate them." This quote rings particularly true as we think is knowit
about developing an atmosphere of acceptance in our early child- Establish
hood classrooms. Young children have an uncanny way of seeing our tional, an
real selves. While we may be able to fool our adult colleagues con- encoura
cerning our true feelings about working with diverse populations, we E\
will never fool our students. As we plan our classrooms to create an to work
accepting, nurturing environment for our young students, every of the ch
book, activity, instructional material, and interaction must be viewed sented in
through a filter of anti-bias. Learning about diversity is not a lesson each chil
that we present twice a week—it is a lifestyle and an attitude that per- represeni
meates every activity. special n
 CREATING A LEARNING ENVIRONMENT

Inclusion
In an increasing number of early childhood and elementary class-
rooms, teachers and parents are finding the benefits of educating
young children with special needs together with their same-age
peers. In most public schools, children with disabilities are included
in the regular education classroom, either for a portion of the day or
for the entire day (Odom & Diamond, 1998).
Those who favor iiciio believe that children with special
needs can be effectively included in the regular education classrooms
for a portion of the day, with the remainder of the school day being
spent with specialists focusing on the specific needs of the individual
child. Lull inc onlsts believe that children with special needs must
be placed full-time in the general education classroom, making them
full-fledged members of the class. The child with special needs would
not come and go from the classroom. In either case, the general edu-
cation teacher, who is planning and implementing social studies
instruction in the classroom, is responsible for meeting the needs of
all of the children in the classroom.
The key to making inclusion successful is to educate oneself
about the best ways to help each child, whatever his ability or dis-
ability, reach his full potential. A common thread throughout this
text is the idea that all of us are special education teachers—whether
we are specifically trained as such or not. Each child in each class-
room has a particular set of strengths and needs, and it is the respon-
sibility of the classroom teacher to meet each of those needs. A wide
range of active, appropriate lessons will serve to meet the needs of
the children with disabilities in each classroom, as well as those of the
typically developing children in the class.
Early childhood teachers are particularly well suited to working
with children with disabilities, as the basis of early childhood education
is knowing and meeting the needs of the individual child (Shade, 1996).
Establishment of an environment in which the social, physical, emo-
tional, and intellectual development of all children is acknowledged and
encouraged creates a rich backdrop for the learning of all children.
Even if the general education teacher is not specifically trained
to work with children with disabilities, these students will be a part
of the classroom community. A wide variety of disabilities is repre-
sented in inclusive early childhood classrooms. To meet the needs of
each child, it is important to gain an understanding of the disabilities
represented and to find effective ways to work with the students with
special needs. See Table 2-2 for some types of disabilities.
 CHAPTER 2

TAL 2-2
Types of Disabilities Represented in an Inclusive Early Childhood Classroom
In any C.
success i
ment, kn
Visual impairments A range from lack of vision to • Be aware of lighting conditions. standing
corrected vision. • Orient the child to classroom layout. instructic
• Provide tactile. manipulative, and auditory early ch
experiences. requires
• Tell students what will be happening. teacher i
Hearing impairments A range from total hearing loss to • Seat the child in front for good visihility Ti
correctable hearing. • Speak at a normal volume and speed. young ci
• Avoid speaking with your back to the child. with all k
• Use visual/tactile aids. 1969; Th
every chi
Health impairments Chronic problems, including but not limited to: • Consult with the child's parents, physician and
asthma, diabetes, epilepsy, heart defects, school nurse while planning child's program.
engagem
sickle cell disease, cancer. • Encourage the child to be as independent as
many stui
possible. die schoo
• Develop a plan for keeping children current with young clii
lessons when they are absent for long periods of ing; indee
time. Wi
Physical/orthopedic impairments Missing or nonfunctional limbs, muscles, or • Consult with physicalioccupational therapists makes a si
joints. Conditions such as arthritis, muscular during planning.
dystrophy, cerebral palsy, spina bilida. • Arrange the environment to accommodate child's
movement and equipment.
• Work toward independence for the child.

Learning disabilities/difficulties Average or above average intelligence, but has • Consistent behavior management
difficulty learning. • Multisensory approach.
• Work in cooperation with parents.
Autism "Severely incapacitating lifelong developmental • Maintain a well-organized, predictable class-
disability characterized by certain types of room environment
behaviors and patterns of interaction and • Reduce noise level.
communication. (Hunt & Marshall 2001)
• Be consistent with consequences.
• Use verbal and visual cues for communication 1. With Ui
with the child. teachir
lntellectuallcognitive Intellectual challenge based on multiple criteria. • Present material in short segments using small
disability mullisensory approach. 2. Have a
• Break tasks into many small steps. large p
• Concentrate on strengths, not weaknesses. sors, a
Adapted from Charlesworth, R. (2004). 3. Have 9
studies
 CREATING A LEARNING ENVIRONMENT

In any classroom, the single most important element necessary for

success is the teacher. His or her understanding of child develop-
ment, knowledge of the subject matter to be presented, and under-
standing of the appropriate teaching strategies needed to deliver that
instruction are integral to the success of the students enrolled in the
early childhood classroom Although social studies instruction
requires specific skills and materials, an effective early childhood
teacher is well prepared to be an effective social studies teacher.
There is consensus among early childhood educators that
young children learn by doing, they learn by ongoing interaction
with all kinds of people, material, and equipment (Piaget & Inhelder,
d.
1969, Tharp & Fritz, 2003), Young children want to learn! Almost
every child enters school with a zest for learning and a passion for
iand engagement in the curriculum, but sadly, by third or fourth grade,
many students have lost that love for school, and a majority of mid-
as die school students would rather be anywhere else As teachers of
young children, we can help our students to affirm the love of learn-
nods of ing; indeed, it is our job to do exactly that.
What are the characteristics of an excellent teacher? What
makes a single teacher memorable long after we leave that classroom?
lists

child's

Fam
%J\PL ST(lple: reAcs!.
Ae, lipa"
cation 1.With university students interested in your talents—poetry, song, dramatics.
teaching at the same grade level form games, and so forth.
small groups of three or four. 4. Share the representations of the exem-
2. Have a variety of art materials available: plary social studies teacher, making a
large paper, markers, yarn, glue, scis- composite as different groups share.
sors, and so forth. 5. Discuss ways that you can achieve "exem-
3. Have groups design the "perfect social plary" status as a social studies teacher in
studies teacher." Anything goes! Use all of your early childhood classroom.
CHAPTER 2

How can new teachers become that life-changing influence for young Unde
children (Tertell, Klein, & Jewett, 1998)?
Knoi
The Sc Sc5es Teaer proc
If you were to draw a picture of the exemplary social studies teacher, these
what would you include? What kinds of instructional strategies educ
would the exemplary teacher use? How would the environment be be ab
prepared for maximum learning? What kinds of materials and books ies in
would be available to the students in the classroom? How would the dards
children be engaged in the learning? Although, on the surface, level 1
an exemplary social studies teacher appears to carry out her duties stand
in an effortless manner, in reality, she is (much like the duck in the
old story) paddling like crazy under water! studic
The characteristics of an excellent social studies teacher can be teach
categorized into three different areas: (1) understanding of children— of th
as individuals, as groups, and from a cultural perspective, (2) under- anthr
standing of the planning process, and (3) understanding of the be ye]
instructional process (Bredekamp, 1992; Bredekamp & Copple, 1997). studie
We will explore the three areas and the ways in which they interact to teachi
form a basis of effective instruction for young children. has b
teachi
Understanding Children
currici
To present an effective social studies curriculum, teachers must first the sli
understand the children they teach. Early childhood teachers must rather
have a firm understanding of child development—what do typically impori
developing children at this age look like? What concepts are they able plary s
to grasp? How do they learn most effectively? In addition, the early choice
childhood teacher must know and understand each individual child standii
in the classroom (Tomlinson & Kalbfleisch, 1998). if there are 20 school
children in a first-grade classroom, there will be 20 different profiles
of learning at any given time. No two children are the same, and even meanir
the same child changes often. cept, si
What is that individual child capable of; what is he interested to the i
in? What prior experiences and understandings does she bring to this ent lea
particular concept? Finally, what cultural differences do the children activiti
bring to this lesson? How will one child view the lesson in light of his for a b
home experiences as it compares to the understanding of another childre:
child, from a different cultural background? All of these elements are as well
underpinnings of the planning and implementation of effective I
social studies lessons. dynami
 CREATING A LEARNING ENVIRONMENT

Understanding the Planning Process

Knowing the National Council for Social Studies (NCSS)
is an essential start for understanding the planning
process for social studies instruction. With a thorough knowledge of
these standards and those set forth by the individual district and state
education department, the early childhood teacher will more readily
be able to formulate the goals and objectives for effective social stud-
ies instruction. It is important to become familiar with these stan-
dards for the grade level being taught, as well as those for the grade
level before and after yours. It is helpful to keep several copies of the
standards available for planning.
A broad-based knowledge of the disciplines related to social
studies is another important element of the planning process. To
teach something to another person, we must first have a firm grasp
of the information ourselves. Those hours of history, geography,
anthropology, and economics in your university training will prove to
be very important when beginning to plan for teaching the social
studies. When planning thematic units for young students, the
teacher will probably find it necessary to review and augment what
has been learned in the content areas. We always learn more by
teaching content to others.
After examining the NCSS standards and the state and district
curriculum standards, choose a focus that will interest and challenge
the students. Choose to present a few important concepts in depth,
rather than making a superficial coverage of many. This requires
important and difficult choices to the classroom teacher. The exem-
plary social studies teacher must make difficult decisions and creative
choices to give students the benefit of deep knowledge and an under-
standing of a few important concepts from which to build in future
school years.
Presentation of important social studies concepts must have
meaning in the lives of young children. Choosing a common con-
cept, such as "family," to tie the activities together will lend meaning
to the instruction for the students. When planning, look at the differ-
ent learning profiles of the students in the class. Plan a balance of
activities that will meet the needs and interests of each child. Look
for a balance of instructional strategies and activities that will allow
children to work in active groups, in partnership with other children,
as well as individually.
Review the instructional resources available. Planning is a
dynamic and ongoing process in the life of an exemplary social studies
CHAPTER 2

teacher. To provide children with a variety of meaningful materials and approa

resources, the teacher must be constantly searching for appropriate, peers in
new, and interesting materials to use in the classroom. The planning E
process is explored in detail later in the text, but it is important to note actively
here that one of the critical elements of exemplary social studies itated, t
instruction is that of ongoing, effective planning. other p
can exç
byenco
Understanding the Instructional Process ate the
Excellent teaching is excellent teaching, no matter what subject is as bIoc1
taught! The social studies, however, offer an outstanding array of dents, e
important and meaningful concepts from which to "do" excellent
teaching. Engaging students in analyses of important social issues,
ethical concerns, and values offers good teachers vast opportunities
to practice their art. Social studies offer opportunities to help stu-
dents develop higher-order thinking skills and skills in problem- 15

solving (Goffin & Tull, 1985). The possibilities for excellent then. A
teaching in the social studies are exciting. In reality, the teacher's guage t
imagination is the only limitation in providing varied and meaning- talking
ful lessons for students. in all an
With young children, many believe that teachers must first we disci
emphasize the relationships among people, places, events, ideas, and develop.
values offered in the social studies curriculum. Students must be ing, we,
provided with the opportunity for working in large groups, in small play is
groups, and in pairs to develop ideas and understandings. Young T
children need an appropriate environment, materials, and adequate (ACEI)
time to explore that environment in order to cultivate these ideas and behavio.
to express them in meaningful ways. The early childhood teacher growth,
must also find ways to assess what the students have learned in cultures
appropriate and authentic ways. maintan
in open
school s
A
of hunu
In Chapter 1, we briefly discussed the importance of Jean Piaget and contexti
Lev Vygotsky's work, as it relates to teaching social studies to young developj
children. When Piaget's ideas are applied to classroom instruction for tion, or
young children, the recommended teaching strategies tend to focus her own
on ways to help children to construct growing conceptual frame- has alre
works. This kind of instruction focuses on process rather than prod- actually
uct (Kamii, 1981). Vygotsky's work also encourages constructivist practice
 CREATING A LEARNING ENVIRONMENT

ria1s and approaches, and emphasizes the importance of interaction among

ropriate, peers in the learning process.
planning By increasing opportunities for young students to participate
it to note actively in problem-solving activities, language development is facil-
al studies itated, thinking skills are enhanced and the child's ability to consider
other points of view grows (Bergen, 2000b; Epstein, 2003). Teachers
can expand everyday activities into problem-solving opportunities
by encouraging children to make decisions, plan, predict, and evalu-
ate the outcomes of their activities. Using open-ended materials such
subject is as blocks, sand, water tables, and art materials, in easy reach of stu-
array of dents, encourages problem-solving.
excellent
ial issues,
ortumties
help Stu-
roblem- -; is an essential component of a quality program for young chil-
excellent dren. As they play, children develop problem-solving skills, use lan-
teacher's guage to carry out their activities, and learn about other people by
meaning- talking and listening to them. Play nurtures children's development
in all areas: intellectual, social/emotional, and physical. In Chapter 10,
-nust first we discuss the importance of play in more detail. In this chapter on
ideas and developing an appropriate environment for young children's learn-
must be ing, we explore the importance of developing an environment where
. in small play is valued as a way of learning.
Us. Young
The Association for Childhood Education International
adequate (ACEI) believes that play is "a dynamic, active, and constructive
ideas and behavior—is an essential and integral part of all children's healthy
d teacher growth, development, and learning across all ages) domains, and
earned in cultures" (Isenberg & Quisenberry, 2002). Their advocacy for
maintaining play as a regular part of the school day has led the way
in opening the conversation about the value of play in a public
school setting.
According to Fromberg (1990), play is the "ultimate integrator
of human experience" (p. 223). Play reflects the social and cultural
Piaget and contexts in which children live and is a key facilitator for learning and
s to young development across domains. Piaget (1962) defined play as assimila-
-uction for tion, or the child's efforts to make environmental stimuli match his or
d to focus her own concepts. According to Piaget, play reflects what the child
a1 frame- has already learned. In contrast to this view, Vygotsky stated that play
Jttan prod- actually facilitates cognitive development by allowing children to
istructivist practice what they already know and by actually learning new things.
CHAPTER 2

Both Vygotsky (1978) and Piaget (Piaget & Inhelder, 1969) believed
that sociodramatic play leads to symbolic thought.
Theorists across the spectrum concur that play occupies a cen-
tral role in children's lives and that the absence of play is an obstacle to
healthy development. Learning requires an interactive balance of gain-
ing facts and skills and making the information one's own (Fromberg,
1990). A major way that children take ownership of new information
is by playing with it. Some in leadership roles in the public schools
consider play to be a waste of time. On the contrary, "play is not Rea
wasted time but rather time spent building new knowledge from pre- 0117
vious experience" (Bruner, 1972, cited in Harris, 1986, p. 263). boo
"The early childhood teacher is the facilitator of play in the sty[
classroom" (Fox, 2004, p. 3). By providing materials related to thematic Uhi
instruction, links can be made between the child's play and the social Unf
studies curriculum. Props for creative dramatics can be placed in Mr.
centers to encourage review and extension of concepts being studied be t
in the social studies curriculum. Art materials should be made avail- all
able to children to encourage integration of social studies concepts. Mis.
Accessories for the block center can be added to reflect the theme of
the social studies lessons.
Beginning school does not signal the end of children's need for
play in learning. Traditionally, play in the elementary school setting has
been viewed as meeting nonacademic, social, or physical education
goals. However, many forms of play can make an important contribu- are b
tion to a young child's language, literacy, and social studies learning. cipal
Play continues to be important for supporting cognitive and social in d7
development throughout the school years. Structured playtime that man
occurs in a well-designed learning environment can provide rich teaci
opportunities for young children to construct knowledge related to to yc
social studies. Concrete experiences are the basis for deep under- impc
standing and development of complex concepts in the social studies.
Teachers must be knowledgeable about the ways that play ing
enhances learning and development in order to make convincing preft
arguments to administration about providing opportunities and time prin
for children to play. Early childhood professionals must help admin- that
istration, parents, community members, and other teachers to under- sche
stand that a curriculum incorporating play strengthens and supports state
a child's intellectual and social development.
It is important that, as teachers of young children, we maintain not
the joy inherent in learning and growing. This joy is beautifully illus- regul
trated in the Jack Prelutsky/Lane Smith/Dr. Seuss book, Hooray for sche
Diffendoofer Day! cipal
 CREATING A LEARNING ENVIRONMENT

,'ed
144
en-
to
'in-
rg,
ion Hooray for Diffendoofer Day!
)O1S
not Read Dr. Seuss' book. Hooray for feel better as she reminds them of all the
Diffendoofer Day! This engagingly illustrated things they have learned most importantly.
book, written in that unmistakable Dr. Seuss she reminds the students that they have
the style, chronicles the Diffendoofer School's been taught how to think After reading the
atic unique teaching and Learning strategies book, talk about its implications in relation to
cial Unfortunately, one day, the principal, your design for your classroom environment.
'in Mr. Lowe, announces that the students will What does this story remind us about teach-
tied be tested and if they do not do well, they will ing, teaming, and instructional strategies?
'all- ail be transferred to dreary Flobbertown. Discuss how you Will deal with high-stakes
pts. Miss Bonkers makes the distraught chi Wren testing in your own classroom.
e of

for
has
tion As illustrated in Hooray for Diffendoofer Day! School principals
ibu- are busy, responsible people. While the overwhelming majority of prin-
ing. cipals have the best intentions and hopes for the students and teachers
)CiaJ in their schools, they are bombarded with conflicting information,
that mandates, and pressures. It is the responsibility of the early childhood
rich teacher to keep the principal informed of the latest research as it relates
to to young children, and to communicate with him or her concerning
ier- important aspects of the early childhood curriculum.
ies. Talk with your principal in the spring, as he or she is develop-
play ing the schedule for the next school year. Discuss your concerns and
ing preferences for extended periods of time, and be sure to tell your
ime principal why you are requesting a particular schedule. Understand
nm- that the principal is dealing with a balancing act—trying to work the
der- schedule to accommodate many children and teachers, as well as
orts state-enforced time and scheduling mandates.
Make your preferences known, but understand that you may
Ltaul not get your first choice! Any schedule is ultimately workable. Have
Ilus- regular conversations with your principal about your classroom
yfor schedule, as well as other needs. My principal always said, "the prin-
cipal is your pal." And, it is really true.
 CHAPTER 2

School principals are charged with making (ESL) schedules mesh for a large number of
the school run smoothly. One duty of the children is no small feat! When planning for
elementary principal is to prepare the sched- the early childhood classroom, it is important
ule for every classroom in the school. Making to have large blocks of uninterrupted time
sure that lunch, recess, music, art, physical available for learning and for chil-
education, library, special education, speech dren's extended play and interaction.
therapy. and English as a second language

Early childhood teachers must introduce students to important con-

cepts at their own level of awareness, through active exploration of
the environment. Research suggests that early childhood curricula encou
should provide opportunities for children to interact with peers, young
teachers, and aspects of their environment, and to engage in active that ti
rather than passive activities (Katz, 1987). Setting up the environ- There
ment for active engagement, allowing for a wide range of abilities classrc
and interest levels, and offering multiple opportunities for children
to master complex understandings are integral to the effective social ronnie
studies curriculum (Diffily, 2002; Shade, 1996). Preparing the phys- tant i-i
ical environment for active learning is one of the most important classrc
tasks of the effective early childhood teacher. the reE
while
design:

Our responsibility as educators is to imagine and create places of plies, h

learning. Social studies educators should be leaders in this effort as to el
(NCSS, 2004). Young children are active learners. They touch, feel, supplie
create, and experiment with their surroundings. Teachers must able to
structure the classroom environments, schedules, and curricula to guidelli
include and encourage this active involvement. order t(
ing and
 CREATING A LEARNING ENVIRONMENT

of

ant

An environment for active engagement.

:on-
n of The learning environment should be arranged to allow and
cula encourage the development of responsibility and independence in
ers, young students. The richer the environment, the more likely it will be
tive that the students will discover new interests, skills, and information.
ron- There are several guidelines to consider when creating an effective
ities classroom environment.
1ren Safety must be the foundation upon which classroom envi-
)cial ronments are built. When setting up the classroom, it is most impor-
hys- tant that the teacher is able to easily observe all areas of the
tant classroom at all times. Particularly important is the viewpoint from
the reading table, since you will be working there with small groups
while others work in centers. Be particularly aware of this when
designing areas for learning centers.
Children need easy access to age-appropriate materials, sup-
plies, books, and toys. The classroom should be set up in such a way
s of
as to encourage children to do things for themselves. If materials and
Tort
supplies are at their level, well organized, and labeled, children are
feel,
able to work much more effectively and independently. Appropriate
aust
guidelines, procedures, and rules must be developed and enforced in
a to
order to allow children to use an appropriate environment in a grow-
ing and independent way.
CHAPTER 2

717

SAW

Easy access to books on social studies topics can help make your instruction come
alive for students!

the ci
To encourage engagement in social studies lessons, the class- teach
room should be set up with your teaching style and your students' impo:
learning styles in mind. Desks or tables should be arranged in con- ent o
figurations that allow students to interact with each other, encourag-
ing social competence. There should also be a large area for students muni
to assemble, either on a rug or by bringing their chairs, in a circle for paren
read-alouds and interactive writing activities. diate
The physical environment is very important in a young child's ting.
learning. Educators of young children are greatly influenced by Jean classr
Piaget's theory of child development, in which he stated that children board
learn through active, mukisensory exploration of the environment ued?
(Piaget, 1969). In an early childhood setting, a child assimilates new classr,
information through sensory experiences with the environment, other,
The classroom environment reflects the teacher's philosophy intera
and goals. Inmost cases, the physical characteristics of the classroom meeth
to which the teacher is assigned do not reflect his or her own choices.
Perhaps the room is too small. Maybe desks have been installed in feel in
the classroom instead of the small tables requested. Perhaps there is priate]
no sink in the classroom and the only restroom is down the hail! ences
While these are all challenges, to be sure, with a firm under- reflect
standing of developmentally appropriate practice and a roadmap for walls c
 CREATING A LEARNING ENVIRONMENT

f4(ffOffseTTNG (Jr rile

• You should be able to see all areas of the • Arrange areas for social interaction and
classroom. for individual work.
• Have materials organized for easy access • Arrange centers to facilitate independ-
to young learners. ence.
• Arrange classroom with your teaching • Arrange quiet areas (library center) away
style and students' Learning styles in from louder areas (block center),
mind.
• Don't be afraid to change the configura-
tion of the classroom as students' needs
change

the curriculum to be used during the school year, the early childhood
teacher will be able to work effectively within these constraints. It is
important to remember, however, that the most important ingredi-
ent of a developmentally appropriate classroom is the teacher.
Room arrangement is an important way that the teacher com-
municates expectations for behavior and achievement to students,
parents, and administration. Furniture (or the lack of it) gives imme-
diate information about how students are to behave in a given set-
ting. Consider the message given when children walk into a
classroom with desks lined up in rows, all facing the front chalk-
board. Does this signal a classroom where social interaction is val-
ued? In contrast, consider the child's perception upon walking into a
classroom with those very same desks grouped in four's, facing each
other, with that same chalkboard covered in bright paper, hosting an
interactive bulletin board. What are the messages given, before ever
meeting the teacher?
In providing an appropriate environment, where all children
feel important and valued, teachers must evaluate the cultural appro-
priateness of the physical classroom. Are the similarities and differ-
ences of the students in the classroom celebrated? Does the classroom
reflect the different cultures represented by the students, within the
walls of the school, and the greater community? Are there books about
CHAPTER 2

Provic
that:

1. RE
wc
ct
col
2. Re
pet
ret

What message does this environment send to children?

black, Hispanic, Jewish, and Asian families, as well as families with a

single mom or dad, a grandparent acting as parent, families repre-
senting all of the different configurations that are represented in our
diverse society? Are there dolls, cooking utensils, photographs, musi-
cal instruments, clothing, and music from a wide variety of cultures
in the home living center? Do the bulletin boards represent the vari-
ety of cultures represented in the classroom and in society?
Particularly for teachers who have grown up in a somewhat
homogeneous environment, having never developed relationships with
people of other cultures, omission of these culturally diverse materials
can be made, with no intention of bias or ill-will. Using materials rich
in cultural diversity can underscore the importance of children being
exposed to the reality of living in a diverse world.

P
Le rn ri c C rters
are an important part of an early childhood class-
room environment. Learning centers are areas set up in the classroom diminish
that are designed to encourage independent understanding of the effective
concepts presented. While most preschool and kindergarten teachers extend t
incorporate learning centers in their classrooms, the use of centers indepen
 CREATING A LEARNING ENVIRONMENT

iITNG rHYSICAL
oO( ENVflO#T

Provide bulletin boards, materials, and books 3. Reflect a balance of gender roles.
that: 4. Reflect accurate images of elderly people.
5.Reflect a diversity of family configurations.
1.Reflect the backgrounds of the children,
workers, and families represented in the 6.Reflect the lives of important people
through history in a balanced way.
classroom, the school, and the greater
7.Reflect realistic images of people with
community.
disabilities.
2.Reflect people's daily Lives accurately—
people working. playing, eating, and
relating to one another.

at
th
us

ìg

Providing visuals that reflect diversity is important in helping young children

develop a positive self-image.

m diminishes as the students move up the grade levels. Centers can be

he effectively used in the upper elementary grades, allowing children to
rs extend their social studies instruction with small group activities,
rs independent study, and application of previously learned material.
CHAPTER 2

Moving from a total-class, teacher-directed model of teaching

to individualized center activities is one way to create more student
involvement. Learning centers are one way of organizing materials
and addressing multiple learning styles within a manageable struc-
ture. They also provide a way of truly integrating the curriculum, by
placing books having to do with the social studies theme in the read-
ing center; having firefighter, police officer, and chef hats in the dra-
matic play area; or by having copies of a reader's theater script
developed by the class after reading a favorite book about George
Washington, available in the Theater Center.
Adding books to the library center that address multicultural
issues of ethnicity, family structure, and religious celebrations is one
effective and simple way to prepare the environment to address the
multicultural needs of the students in the classroom. Adding props
to the housekeeping area that reflect the diversity of the students in
the classroom is another way to involve students in authentic multi-
cultural study.
The classroom environment should nurture the total develop-
ment of our students and provide opportunities for children to par-
ticipate individually, in teams, and in small groups. Current research
confirms that young children learn most effectively when they are
engaged in interactive participation rather than in passive activities every
(Bruner, 1999). offer
If classroom environments are designed to nurture the overall social
development of young children, then learning centers should be at the a sire
core of the environmental design (Isbell, 1995). Learning centers respoi
allow children to participate in self-directed activities, at their own ideal
levels of learning and understanding. Learning centers are especially practi
useful for maintaining student engagement. "Centers in primary to act
classrooms produce wonderful and exciting results. Children not only uals ai
discover, practice, and master the knowledge and skills expected of ests"
them, but they do so with real understanding" (Sloane, 1999, p. 82).
Centers are integrated learning at its best. At whatever grade
level, when students are engaged in center work, they talk (oral lan- Types
guage), use small motor skills(physical coordination), work together on One o
projects (social skills), and develop a sense of responsibility and currici
problem-solving skills. The use of learning centers facilitates these dif- early C
ferent configurations. While the teacher is working with a small group their
of students in directed lessons, other groups of students can be engaged interes
in meaningful activities, in small groups or individually, in those centers. center
When designed appropriately, learning centers offer endless knowl(
possibilities for extension of concept development for students at goals
 CREATING A LEARNING ENVIRONMENT

Interactive participation is important to a child's development.

every level of development and understanding. Learning centers

offer rich possibilities for extensions and re-teaching of important
social studies concepts. Through the use of centers, students develop
a strong sense of themselves as learners and develop a sense of
responsibility for their own learning. "Center-based classrooms are
ideal environments for implementing developmentally appropriate
practice with primary students. They provide the setting for teachers
to act as true facilitators of learning. Children are treated as individ-
uals and learn at their own pace through activities that tap their inter-
ests" (Sloane, 1999, p. 82).

Types of Learning Centers

ier on One of the most difficult tasks for a teacher is designing effective
and curricula for the wide variety of ability levels represented in the
se dif- early childhood classroom Learning centers, by the very nature of
group their design, allow children to work at their own levels of ability and
gaged interest As with all preparation for learning, planning a learning
nters center needs to begin with knowledge of the developmental and
ndlless knowledge levels of the students in the classroom, along with the
nts at goals and objectives for learning With those two things in mind, it
CHAPTER 2

at
na
ter

of
tea
of .

wo:
oth
Se
woi
exc

all
eler
you
An art center can be a great Learning environment. ma
ical

is exciting and fun to plan learning centers that will engage and
interest the students.
The implementation of learning centers demands extra work (at One
least initially) for the teacher. While learning centers are generally devel- use
oped to encourage exploration and interaction with diverse materials, of it
clear objectives must be established for each center. One approach to ities
tying standards to the centers is to post the objectives or standards in conc
each center. Not only does this reinforce students' focus on the task at ogni
hand and the teacher's focus on specific standards while planning and
updating the centers for use in each thematic unit, but posting stan- cons
dards also gives a clear message to the administrators and parents that topic
students are not "just playing" as they circulate through the centers. At mear
a glance, anyone visiting the classroom can see that these students are Mg. I
focused on learning. Posted standards also offer students a reminder them
that their work in centers is standards based and important.
Learning centers offer a multitude of advantages for effective
teaching. They afford an opportunity for social development and vide
for the development of independence in young children. When work- of thc
ing in learning centers, students must work cooperatively. They or an
must negotiate the use of materials and supplies and work together remo
to problem-solve and plan. During center time, students develop zatior
independence through self-selection of centers and self-initiated sourc
completion of the center tasks.
 CREATING A LEARNING ENVIRONMENT

When centers are designed appropriately, each child can work

at his or her own level of development. Attention in choosing mate-
rials and lessons that are open ended and flexible make learning cen-
ters work well for every child in the classroom.
By engaging different learning styles in the centers, the needs
of each child can be addressed. Learning centers allow the classroom
teacher to meet the needs of each child by providing different levels
of instructions, geared to individual abilities.
Use of well-developed learning centers allows the teacher to
work with small groups of students or individual students while the
other students are purposefully engaged in meaningful learning.
Seatwork is rarely an effective way to "keep students busy" while
working with small groups or individuals. Learning centers offer an
exciting and effective alternative to worksheets.
The physical environment is an important aspect of the over-
all early childhood classroom experience. There are a multitude of
elements to consider when developing the physical learning space for
young children. Much like preparing the canvas before painting a
masterpiece, the development of the classroom environment is a crit-
ical part of the early childhood teacher's responsibility.

gage and

a work (at One effective way of addressing the social standards is through the
Sally devel- use of themes in instructional units. Themes focus on a single topic
materials, of interest to students. A theme provides a core for classroom activ-
proach to ities by building on the natural interests of learners. Themes draw
andards in concepts together under a single umbrella, allowing students to rec-
the task at ognize the relevance of the learning that is occurring.
nning and There are many definitions for iulltata. For our purposes, we will
sting stan- consider that a theme explores the human dimensions of any important
arents that topic. An effective themed unit creates connected relationships and
centers. At meanings that foster higher levels of thinking, feeling, and understand-
udents are ing. Beyond the specific facts to which students will be exposed in the
reminder thematic studies, the meanings will be remembered and internalized.
Connections within a themed unit are developed through
r effective which are broad statements that relate to and pro-
ment and vide a focus for a theme. Generalizations clarify the central concepts
hen work- of the theme, forming "valid statements about relationships between
e1y. They or among concepts. The statements summarize information and are
k together removed from specific situations" (McGuire, 1991, p. 44). Generali-
ts develop zations give a foundation for instruction and can come from several
if-initiated sources.
 CHAPTER 2

GLeARNeel
LeAjjyTeJ1s
Nj1th!,*Iefi
1.Have a clearly stated purpose for the levels and Learning styles of each child in
center. Post objectives in each center. the classroom.
2.Introduce new centers to students 6. Make sure each Learning center has a
1.DIvic
slowly—preferably no more than one way to keep track of the work done by the
stud
new center introduction per day. students in the center.
grad
3. Practice the activity presented in the cen- 7.Establish standards of behavior for use in
2. Give
ter with the entire group before students the teaming centers.
pape
work independently in the center. 8. Don't use centers as a reward for com-
3. Studs
4. Develop a management process for cen- pletion of 'great" work. The center work
class
ter work. merits participation in its own right.
5. Develop a range of options at each center,
designed to meet the developmental
VVII
interest to
required f
ing experi
ization. E
When WO]
traditional
topic is th
sions of th
core concc
Tea
many thin
orgariizath
by focusin
ing a stron
students w
their time

A comfortable Learning center for social studies.

What child
(Vygotsky,
interact wit
instruction.
 CREATING A LEARNING ENVIRONMENT

ch child in
-

r has a
1.Divide into small groups of three or four 4. Small groups will present their dream
done by the
students interested in teaching the same classrooms to the whole group, providing
grade level, theoretical and practical background for
r for use in
2. Give each group a Large sheet of graph their choices.
paper, pencit, and ruler.
for corn-
3. Student groups will design a dream
ter work
classroom."
right.

When choosing a theme, start with a list of topics that are of

interest to a particular grade level and from a synthesis of the standards
required for your grade level. Thematic units consist of a series of learn-
ing experiences that are focused on a particular topic, idea, or general-
ization. Each unit consists of specific learning outcomes for students.
When working to build a unit, the classroom teacher often starts with a
traditional classroom topic such as explorers, ecology, or democracy. This
topic is then developed into a theme by focusing on the human dimen-
sions of the topic, related standards, essential questions, along with the
core concepts and generalizations that make up this topic.
Teachers are constantly faced with the dilemma of having too
many things to teach and not enough time to teach them. Thematic
organization makes it possible to use classroom time more efficiently
by focusing on a variety of curricular areas across the theme. By hav-
ing a strong thematic organization, teachers are better able to provide
students with learning experiences that make more efficient use of
their time and match the way students actually learn.

What children can do together today, they can do alone tomorrow

(Vygotsky, 1962). The ways that students perceive each other and
interact with one another has traditionally been a neglected aspect of
instruction. Johnson and Johnson (1994) report that there are three
CHAPTER 2

basic ways students can interact with each other as they learn. They
can (1) compete to see who is "best," (2) work individually toward a
goal without paying attention to other students, or (3) work coopera-
tively with a vested interest in each other's learning as well as their own.
Throughout their academic and professional careers, students
will face situations in which each of the three patterns is in play.
Students will need to work effectively in each. Social studies instruc-
tion lends itself to developing the cooperative spirit in students.
Having students work cooperatively is a powerful way for them to
learn This strategy has positive effects on the classroom climate and
student learning, by teaching students to work as a team

I: VMi

T:
plays a significant role in the lives of all Americans.
From computers to video cameras and calculators, to technologies
we've yet to imagine, today's young children will interact with tech-
nology throughout their lives. Early childhood teachers have the
responsibility of helping children use technology appropriately, to authe
integrate technology into the classroom curriculum, and to choose p. 2).
technology applications to guide the intellectual development of all
children in the classroom. devel
cates
do no
tables
Electronic technology is widely used at home, at school, and in the it is f
workplace and is a valuable educational resource in the early child- teach
hood classroom. Many school systems have incorporated opportuni- deveic
ties for children to become familiar users of technology as a learning use in
tool into the curriculum. "To become productive adults in an
increasingly computer-oriented society, children should have the Young
opportunity to become comfortable with computers early in their Young
lives" (Haugland, 2000a, p. 12). dren's
"Research has also moved beyond the simple question of Comp
whether computers can help young children learn. They can. What provid
we need to understand is how to best aid learning, what types of Unfor
learning we should facilitate, and how to serve the needs of diverse that ".

populations" (Clements, 1999, p. 93). "For technology to fulfill its includ

promise as a powerful contributor to learning, it must be used to Benefi
deepen children's engagement in a meaningful and intellectually kind o
 CREATING A LEARNING ENVIRONMENT

They
yard a
)pera-
r own.
idents
i play.
.struc-
dents.
em to
te and

ricans.
)logies A computer center can work as a discovery center."
itech-
ye the
ely, to authentic curriculum" (Murphy, DePasquale, & McNamara, 2003,
±oose p. 2).
L of all In some cases, however, computers are used in ways that are
developmentally inappropriate. The research (Clements, 1994) indi-
cates that in early childhood classrooms, computers supplement and
do not replace activities and materials such as blocks, sand and water
tables, books, and dramatic play props, but when technology is used,
in the it is frequently for drill. To apply technology in an effective way,
child- teachers of young children must employ their knowledge of child
Drtuni- development and curriculum when making decisions concerning its
arning use in their classrooms.
in an According to the National Association for the Education of
ye the Young Children's (NAEYC's) position statement on Technology and
ntheir Young Children, "Used appropriately, technology can enhance chil-
dren's cognitive and social abilities" (NAEYC, 1996, p. 2).
ion of Computers are exciting to children and well-designed software can
What provide an excellent extension of the social studies curriculum.
pes of Unfortunately, one study, done by the U. S. Congress in 1995, found
diverse that "... most teachers use these technologies in traditional ways,
ilfill its including drills in basic skills and instructional games" (p. 103).
ised to Benefits of computer use in early childhood settings depend on the
ctually kind of experiences provided to the children. The potential benefits
CHAPTER 2

of regular, appropriate interaction with computers is huge, including

"improved motor skills, enhanced mathematical thinking, increased
creativity, higher scores on tests of critical thinking and problem
solving..." (Haugland, 2000b)
The use of technology in the curriculum must be based on the
individual needs of the children in the classroom and the curriculum
to be addressed The National Educational Technology Standards
developed by the International Society for Technology in Education
(ISTE) outlined the knowledge and skills appropriate for children in
the early years (ISTE, 1998). These can be used as a guide for com-
puter application in the early childhood classroom These standards
can be accessed through the homepage of the International Society
for Technology in Education at http://www.iste.org.
The National Technology Standards suggest that, in the pre-
school years, children should have opportunities to explore open-
ended, developmentally appropriate software programs in a playful
environment As they enter the primary grades, students can extend
these experiences to use of technology tools as a part of the academic
program. As children become more able to read and write inde-
pendently, they can be given more opportunities to work with tech-
nology in the classroom. The teacher's responsibility is to prepare the
environment, matching the curriculum goals with the child's level of (NAEY
ability and interests, and the technology available, young
Young children learn by doing. Experiential learning enhances NAEY(
understanding in a diverse classroom, by providing all of the students I
with similar experiences. Instead of using technology for "drill and kill" municat
activities, the effective early childhood teacher will use the technology learning
available to support active learning. Technology should be integrated ing skill
into classroom activities and must be available to the students and be a research
part of the regular classroom environment. Students should be allowed self-este
to use the technology on a regular basis, not as a reward for finishing C
work early or for good behavior. Their tasks should be authentic. room. C
Technology allows for effective use of cooperative learning informai
strategies, as well. Encouraging students to work in pairs or small Internet
groups, employing the technology available in the classroom or in positi
school, is effective in team building and peer tutoring in the early U
childhood classroom. ities. As
Numerous software packages are available for use in early importai
childhood classrooms. The challenge is for the classroom teacher to curricuh
identify software that meets the developmental needs of the students and tea
and matches the curricular needs of the social studies lesson plan. research
The National Association for the Education of Young Children using th
 CREATING A LEARNING ENVIRONMENT

ncluding
ncreased
problem

d on the
rriculum
tandards
ducation
iildren in
for corn-
;tandards
ii Society

the pre-
re open-
a playful
in extend
academic Encourage students to work together coLlaborativety.
rite inde-
vith tech-
:epare the
s level of (NABYC) offers guidelines for choosing effective software for
young children. This information can be accessed through the
enhances NAEYC homepage at http://wwwnaeyc.org.
students The internet has revolutionized the way we do research, com-
and kill" municate, and learn. For young children, it provides a variety of
chnology learning opportunities that "enhance problem solving, critical think-
integrated ing skills, decision-making, creativity, language skills, knowledge,
s and be a research skills, the ability to integrate information, social skills, and
D e allowed self-esteem" (Haugland, 2000b, p. 13).
finishing Caution must be taken when using the Internet in the class-
ntic. room. Children must understand that they cannot share personal
learning information over the Internet, and the teacher must monitor their
or small Internet sessions carefully. Placement of computers in the classroom
sroom or in positions easily visible to the teacher is essential.
the early Use of computers in the classroom offers wonderful possibil-
ities. As with any material or tool, the way that they are used is most
in early important. Integrating computer use into the overall social studies
teacher to curriculum, through the use of appropriate software and Web sites,
e students and teaching and encouraging students to use the Internet for
;son plan. research are effective ways to enrich the social studies curriculum
Children using the computer.
CHAPTER 2

Creating a classroom Web site is an effective way to commu- the c

nicate with parents about the learning that is taking place in the show
classroom, as well as providing an activity that supports research and
writing on the part of the students. A Web site encourages students can I
to learn to use digital cameras and word processing programs by dent1
offering an authentic use for their work. and i

can I
oerc an e
Vi deo, end DVD think
the r
The use of technology goes beyond the use of computers in the child
classroom. Tape recorders, cameras, video, and DVDs are all effec- tally
tive tools, when used appropriately in the social studies curriculum. tools
These technologies allow young children to explore, discover, and dents
display their learning in diverse and meaningful ways. more

Use of 0 Cam eras. \fI ceo, J . D. I

The
Other technologies can enrich the social studies curriculum for younç
young children. Use of videos and DVDs, on a limited basis, can help devet
illustrate and bring to life different aspects of the social studies cur- meant
riculum. Movie clips can be used effectively to introduce a topic, to the er
summarize a unit of study, or to extend student information on a first e:
particular aspect within the unit of study. about
Students enjoy using digital cameras and video cameras in
their performances. This mode of chronicling their work serves as a practi
impor
motivating factor and a way for students to share their work with
offers
other students and with their parents. Digital imagery has been used
exper
effectively to document children's learning and to communicate tearnir
that learning to parents. As the technology has become easier to help t
use and less expensive, it has shown promise for use by young
children. To incorporate the use of digital cameras in the classroom, tion w
the teacher needs to begin by teaching students to use and care for the appro
equipment appropriately. Specific guidelines for use of the cam- tant a
eras need to be in place before allowing students work with them ways I
independently. mated
Use of student-made PowerPoint presentations helps enhance the lishme
understanding of concepts presented in the social studies lessons. As the cte
grow,
students work collaboratively to create PowerPoint presentations, they
scaffold one another's learning and deepen their own understanding of
 CREATING A LEARNING ENVIRONMENT

0 Cornmu- the content. Student presentations also offer an excellent forum to

ace in the showcase their learning for assessment purposes
search and Listening centers, CD players, and even old filmstrip projectors
s students can be used effectively in learning centers, with small groups of stu-
grams by dents Technology can enrich and extend the social studies curriculum
and is limited only by the imagination of the early childhood teacher.
Technology is here to stay in the early childhood classroom It
can have a positive impact on student learning, if used effectively in
an early childhood curriculum that supports creativity and critical
thinking (Bergen, 2000a) Teachers must be knowledgeable about
the range of appropriate technology applications and it is the early
ers in the childhood teacher's responsibility to expose children to developmen-
all effec- tally appropriate and challenging uses of technology. Use of these
irriculum tools to promote learning and social interaction will help young stu-
over, and dents to become confident and skilled users of technology, as well as
more capable students of the social studies

The and strategies for bringing the social studies alive for
:ulum for young children are vast. Depending on the concept to be explored and the
,can help developmental levels of the students in the classroom, a wide variety of
idies cur- meaningful activities and strategies can be implemented. While planning
topic, to the environment in which young students will be learning, the teacher must
tion on a first examine his or her own beliefs about learning, about children, and
about the cultural backgrounds represented in each classroom.
imeras in Well-designed, active learning centers allow for and encourage
rves as a practice and extension of skills presented in the social studies. They are an
;erk with important part of a well-designed classroom environment. Technology
>een used offers a variety of opportunities for independent learning, cooperative
experiences, and research in the early childhood classroom. These kinds of
municate
learning make social studies instruction meaningful to young children and
easier to
help to prepare them for a lifetime of effective citizenship.
)y young Preparing the environment for learning, through study and interac-
assroom, tion with diverse populations, is the first step in developing an open and
re for the appropriate environment for young children and is one of the most impor-
the cam- tant aspects of effective childhood teaching. Understanding the different
ith them ways that children learn and taking time to think about the flow of traffic,
material selection and storage, and seating options further guide the estab-
aance the lishment of the effective early childhood classroom. When conceptualizing
ssons. As the classroom as a palette for "painting" a place for children to learn and
ons, they grow, the possibilities are endless.
tnding of