Research Methods Lecture Notes

Asst. Prof. Dr. Ebru ŞİRE KAYA

What is research?

Fraenkel and Wallen (2011) define research as “ any sort of careful, systematic, patient study
and investigation in some field of knowledge, undertaken to discover or establish facts and
principles” (p. 7)
Research is valuable because we can obtain reliable and accurate information only through
research

Research Problem
A research problem is a problem people would like to search. A problem can be any
difficulty people have had, or a situation that should be improved or changed. Researchers are
interested in problems they observe in their own areas.

Research Questions

Characteristics of Good Research Questions:

A good research question

1. should be feasible: A feasible question can be investigated with avaliable resources.

Moreover, researchers do not have to pay so much energy and money in order to find out an
answer to the question
2. should be clear:wording of research questions should be clear. All the key words Otherwise,
we should define key words in definitions part.
3. should be significant: Questions should be worth spending time, enrgy and money to
investigate.
4. should be ethical: Investigating the research question should not harm anyone physically or
psychologicallly. Another ethical issue is confidentiality. That is to say, all the participants
should be assured that the data gathered aboutand from them will be kept in confidence.
Moreover, their names will never be revealed in any publications. Lastly, participants have the
right to withdraw from the study at any time during the study. Or, they may ask the researcher
not to use the data collected about them.

Definitions:
Definition of key terms are useful in the case we have some unclear or area specific words
throughout the study. We can define words by using dicitonary meaning or by example. Thirdly,
we can define new terms using operational definitions.

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Variables:

Every research question should investigate a kind of relationship between variables. Here the
term relationship means a kind of connection between characteristics.

A variable is a noun representing variation within a class of objects or people such as gender,
type of teaching method, anxiety, etc.

Variables varying in degree ( i.e. from more to less or fron less to more ) are called quantitative
variables: anxiety, motivation, number of connectors used in a writing sample

Qualitatively different variables are called qualitative variables such as gender, occupation,
teaching methods, etc.

INDEPENDENT VS. DEPENDENT VARIABLES

In a research question, there are usually two variables affecting one another:

The variable that affect the other is called independent variable and the variable affected by
independent variable is called dependent variable.

Let’s find the independent and dependent variables in the following example:

Teachers’ questions affect students concept learning in EFL classes

In this example teachers’ questions is independent variable because it affects students concept
learning and degree of students’ concept learning is the dependent variable because it is affected
by the independent variable.

Another example:

There is a relationship betwen teachers’ attitude and students’ succes in EFL speaking
courses.

Independent variable : teachers’ attitude

Dependent variable : student success

HYPOTHESES

Fraenkel and Wallen (2011) state that “a hypothesis is, simply put, a prediction of some sort
regarding the possible outcomes of a study” (p.40)

Examples:
There is a relationship betwen teachers’ attitude and students’ succes in EFL speaking
courses.
Teachers’ questions affect students concept learning in EFL classes

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Stating research questions as hypotheses may have both advantages and disavantages.
As for the advantages, an hypothesis helps us to think more deeply about the possible outcome of
the study. Moreover, we can see the variables and the relationship between the variables more
easily.
On the other hand, stating research questions as hypotheses have some disadvantages, too. For
example, Hypotheses may bias our findings consciously or unconsciously. Since we have
hypotheses, we may try to arrange our study or manipulate our findings such in a way that we
obtain desired outcomes.

DIRECTIONAL AND NONDIRECTIONAL HYPOTHESES

There are three types of hypotheses: directional, nondirectional and null hypotheses.

The first type is useful in statistical terms. It states no relationship between the variables being
investigated.
Second one, directional hypotheses, gives direction to the relationship stated in the hypotheses.
This direction is determined by our own personal experiences, others experiences and other
studies conducted on that specific topic.
The last one, nondirectional hypotheses, states a kind of relationship between the variables but
do not specify the direction of the relationship.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Literature review is very important in any kind of research conducted in any area because by
reviewing the relevant literature, we can learn what kind of studies were conducted in the past
and what are their findings. Moreover, we can adopt the data collection tools or analysis
procedures into our own studies. Also, such reviews help us to learn ideas of outstanding people
about the topic. Everybody tries to gather information in the light of his or her research topic.
We have different types of information sources. Fraenkel and Wallen classifies sources into three
categories as general references, primary sources and secondary sources.

1. General References are the ones researchers refer to find out where to look in order to obtain
other sources such as journals, books, etc. These references are usually in the form of
indexes, which incldes the name of the author, title, publication information. Another type
of general refernces are abstracts. They provide a short summary of various publication
together with the author names, titles, and place of publication
2. Primary Sources: these are the sources in which authors directly reports their studies and the
findings. There is a direct communication between the writer and readers.
American Educational research journal, Child Development, tesol Quarterly
While reading primary sources we should start with the recent articles because they have the
earlier articles as a foundation. So by reading literature review part we have a quick
understanding of earlier studies.
3. Secondary Sources: In these publications, authors describe other people’s work. For
example, lots of studies are described in textbooks. Educational encyclopedias, research
reviews, and yearbooks are some other examples for secondary sources.
We can reformulate our research questions or hypotheses on the bases of two or three
sources we look

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RESEARCH QUESTIONS

Read the following research questions and find out the variables in each question. Then, identify
the type of the variables as dependent vs. independent

1. What is the effect of free and guided writing methods in increasing the writing performance
of university students at the intensive English Language programs?
2. How does the communicative tasks influence curriculum development at English Language
Schools?
3. Do the students treated with drama techniques obtain higher marks in Literature?
4. What do EFL students think are the least popular courses in the high school
curriculum?
5. Do the students with academic disabilities prefer being in regular classes than in special
classes?

6. Do young children’s questions play an important role in their concept learning in the mother
tongue ?
7. How do the weekly tutoring sessions increase the reading ability of EFL third graders?
8. Will a new Mathematics textbook help the students develop more interest towards
Mathematics?
9. What differences in abilities are caused by gender among primary school students?
10 Do experienced elementary teachers have less problems in relation to classroom
management than novice teachers?

11. What types of changes in classroom instruction result from in-service training?
12. Will students who are taught by a team of three teachers learn more science than students
taught by individual teachers?
13. Is there any relationship between English language proficiency and academic success in
universities in which English is the language of instruction?
14. To what extent does background knowledge, particularly in the case of graduate students,
affect listening?
15. Is good note taking indicative of good listening skills?

16. Do the sentence combining exercises in EFL writing classes help the students write in a
more organized way?
17. Are there any differences between the first and fourth grade students in terms of their
attitude toward the curriculum?
18. Will the lessons be more enjoyable in the case the students themselves prepare the learning
materials and activities in EFL classes?
19. Is group work in prep speaking classes more effective than class discussion in increasing
the speaking ability of the students?
20. Is Direct Method more effective than Grammar-Translation Method in teaching English
grammar to elementary students in Turkey?

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21. How do EFL students feel about the benefits of CALL on their learning?
22. To what extent highschool English textbooks represent CLT features?
23. Are songs better than minimal pairs in teaching pronunciation to adult EFL learners?
24. What is the effect of group work on speaking ability of students in higs chool EFL classes?
25. How do high schol EFL learners feel about goup work activities in their courses?

26. Does teacher attitude affect students’ success in primary school EFL classes?
27. What are the factors affecting students listening comprehension in EFL classes?
28. Why do EFL teachers use mother tongue in EFL classes?
29. Do experienced teachers prefer to use mother tongue more frequently than novice teachers in
EFL classes?
30. Do teachers ask different type of questions in regard to their expertise level in EFL reading
courses?

31. What are the criteria EFL teachers consider while choosing their textbooks?
32. What is the role of Multiple intelligence in vocabulary learning of EFL students?
33. What is the effect of rewards on student motivation in EFL classes?
34. How do EFL teachers feel about the use of student prepared materials in the class?
35. What is the effect of teachers’ verbal reinforcement on student participation in EFL speaking
courses?

36. Are there any differences between private and state schools in terms of learning materials
they have in EFL classes?
37. Are there any differences between teachers and their students in perceiving teachers’ roles in
the class?
38. Do the concepts student teachers learn in their methodology courses change during or after
their first teaching experiences in practicum?
39. What are the slips of tongue made by EFL students in English?
41. What are the encouragement strategies used by highschool EFL teachers to make students
participate in class activities?
42. Do teachers use their body language differently in different EFL courses?

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EXAMPLE HYPOTHESES

1. There is a relationship between students’ anxiety and students learning in high school
EFL classes.
2. Word Choice of students change according to the attitude of the teachers in EFL classes.
3. Explicit correction techniques affect students speaking ability more positively than
implicit correction techniques in Primary school EFL classes.
4. CALL assists vocabulary learning in highschool EFL classes.
5. Sentence combining exercises help EFL students to write better compositions.
6. The implementation of a portfolio system in a high school affect student learning
positively.
7. There are differences between boy and girl students in the use of learning strategies in
EFL reading classes.
8. Turkish EFL students learn a foreign language mainly for its instrumental value rather
than integrative motivation
9. Students learn better through authentic materials than artificial learning materials in EFL
reading courses.
10. Teachers’ questions affect students learning in EFL reading courses.
11. EFL highschool students prefer to be corrected by the teacher than by their peers in
writing courses.
12. Student-prepared materials affect students’ success more positively than teacher prepared
materials in EFL classes.
13. Young learners can be taught pronunciation through songs more effectively than
translation
14. Male teachers use their body language more frequently than female teachers in EFL
speaking course.
15. Pictures are more effective than translation method in teaching concrete words to young
learners.
16. There is a negative relationship between childhood success in mathematics and adult
career choice
17. Reinforcement helps the stuttering students in decreasing this speech defect among
kinder garden students.
18. Young EFL students like to learn English by games more than visual aids

Some Useful Abbreviations: EFL, ESL, NS, NNS, Ss, ELT, CALL, SL, L1, L2, GLLs
NNSs, NSs, TOEFL, TESOL, TEFL,

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 DATA COLLECTION TECHNIQUES
1. Journals \ Diaries:
Regular dated accounts of teaching and learning plans, activities and classroom
occurrences, including personal philosophies, feelings, reactions, reflections, observations,
explanations. Diaries, logs, and journals are important introspective tools in language
research.
Diaries can be kept by learners, teachers, or participant observers. They provide “a first
person account” of language learning or teaching experiences. Diaries are essentially private
documents, and there are essentially no rules about how to keep a diary. Diaries are often kept
on a daily basis, and entries can vary from one day to the next, and either short or long. They
should be written immediately after a teaching event, when the details are fresh in mind, or at
the end the day, when there may be more free time.
Journals record the thoughts, feelings, reflections, and observations of the writer.
Journals may focus on a specific lesson, activity, or student, or they can describe the writer’s
more general day to day thinking or questions. Journals share many aspects which they share
with diaries, but the main difference is that journals have been written to be read as public
documents. Therefore, journals may lose some of the truthfulness of the diary. In diaries, on the
other hand, writers can be totally honest and forthright in their comments. Therefore, diaries are
especially suitable for exploring affective data (Burns and Hood, 1995; Mcdonough& Mc
Donough, 1997).
2. Document Collection:
Set of documents relevant to the research context such as course overviews, lesson plans,
student writing, classroom materials, and texts, assessment tasks and texts, student profiles and
records (Burns and Hood, 1995).
3. Field notes:
Descriptions and accounts of observed events, including non-verbal information, physical
settings, interaction between participants. Notes can be time based (i.e., every 5 minutes) or
unstructured according to the purpose. Field notes can be in the form of RECORD of WORK
recording such basic information as date, time, class, absentees, work done, punishment issued,
homework given (Burns and Hood, 1995).

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4. Interviews \ Discussions:
Face to face verbal sessions conducted by the researcher as unplanned, planned or
structured interactions. The researcher can use previously planned questions, structured
interview schedules or allow the interview to unfold spontaneously. The person conducting the
interview is called as the interviewer ; The person who is interviewed is called as interviewee
(McDonough and McDonough, 1997; Patton, 1990; Mischler, 1986).
An unstructured interview is guided by the responses of the interviewee rather than the
agenda of the researcher. In a semi structured interview, the interviewer does not enter the
interview with a list of pre-determined list of questions; However, the interviewer has a general
idea of where s\he wants the interview to go. In the structured interview, the agenda is totally
predetermined by the researcher.
Piloting the interview questions with a sample of participants before being used is
important. This enables the researcher to find out whether the questions are yielding the kind of
the data required and to eliminate any unambiguous or confusing questions (Burns and Hood,
1995).
5. Stimulated Recall:
Use of previously recorded or transcribed data to prompt responses from participants on
actions, feelings, thoughts, attitudes, beliefs, following events or activities being researched.
In this method, teachers watch their videotaped classroom teaching and then try to reconstruct
their thoughts during that lesson.
In a stimulated recall technique, the researcher or the teacher stops the videotape at
useful intervals to inquire about the thinking going on at that moment. It has been found out that
more interesting recollections are obtained when it is the teacher who decides where to stop the
video rather than the researcher.
In a stimulated recall procedure, it is important to get the responses immediately after the
class : If there is a time lag between the actual thinking and recalling it , the recalled thought
may be just an abstraction or reinterpretation of real thinking. Moreover, the researcher should
be very careful not to ask leading questions but only ask for information relating to a specific
problem or situation.
6. Classroom Diagrams and Maps:
Visual representations of how space and movement work in the classroom. They indicate the

location of people, desks, windows, and other relevant items. They can also show movement

patterns (see Day, 1990).

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7. Think Aloud:
Thinking aloud is the most immediate of the verbal report techniques. In this technique,
participants are simply asked to speak aloud their thoughts that go through their mind as they
perform a given teaching or learning task. Sometimes this thinking aloud occurs spontaneously
when we work on a task individually. Audio recording is the simplest method for the researcher
to gain access to the data generated by participants’ thinking aloud.
8. Self Report:
A process in which participants are asked to report to others , usually through an
interview, how they go about teaching or learning. Self-reports are highly conscious and
considered responses. They may also be well-removed from the events they are reporting
on (e.g., asking the informants to report how they learnt English when they were at high
school). However, the greater the time lapse, the greater the risk there is of the data not
being reliable.
9.Questionnaire:
Questionnaire is a relatively popular means of collecting data. It is conducted to elicit
information from a group of individuals, investigate respondents’ experiences, and interpret and
explain the existing situation.
Questionnaires can be divided into two groups:
1. Self administered questionnaires: postal and drop & collect
2. Interviewer administered questionnaires: telephone and structured interview.

The researcher decides on the type of the questionnaires regarding a set of criteria:

*Characteristics of the respondents,

* Importance of answers not being distorted,
*Size of the sample required,
*Type of the questions you need to ask,
*Number of questions,
*Time available for data collection, and financial implications of data collection.

*Piloting the questionnaire is important but difficult.

*Before preparing the questionnaire, the researcher should imagine the completed responses
regarding the analysis procedure:

*Participants may be more honest and informative in their responses if the questionnaires are
anonymous(i.e. they are not asked to write their names on the questionnaire).

*The instructions should be very clear and explicit.

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 Types of the items:
In closed ended question format, respondents are asked to choose from a limited range of
possible answers. They are easier and quicker to respond for respondents. Moreover, they also
make for quicker and more reliable scoring of the responses. However, they usually take longer
to devise than open questions. In open question format, the respondents can decide what to say
and how to say it. Open questions, on the other hand, are easy to design, but difficult to score and
analyze the responses.
Each item on the questionnaire should be relevant to the aim of the study. the questionnaires
should be made as user friendly as possible. That is to say, they should not be long or confusing.
Wording of the items is important as well. The researcher should not reveal their own attitudes
through leading questions. Only one thing should be asked at a time. The appearance and lay out
of the questionnaire should be attractive.
The parts of a questionnaire are called as items because the parts on a questionnaire do not
necessarily have to be in the form of questions: They may be affirmative or negative statements.

Some suggestions for preparing a questionnaire:

* Avoid using specialized or unusual words,
* Conduct the questionnaire under similar conditions,
* Number the questionnaire items and pages,
* Include brief and clear instructions in bold type.
* Put threatening or difficult questions near the end of the questionnaire,
* Avoid using the words “questionnaire” or checklist” on your form since most people are
prejudiced against these words,
 Pilot (pretest) the questionnaire to see ambiguities, poorly worded questions, unclear
choices, and instructions, and unfamiliar cultural elements,
* Use common- everyday language,
* Avoid leading items and double negatives, and the use of terms which bias responses.

10. Observation:
Observation is done to establish data concerning what goes on in most classrooms or in a
range of classrooms. The focus of the observation change with regard to the nature of the study;
It may be teachers, students, the classroom context, and the institutional context.
There are three ways of gathering observed data:
Real Time, Recording (Audio Taping & Video Taping) and Transcription.

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1. Real Time Observation: Observation is carried out and analyzed as the teaching \ learning
actually happens without using any electronic means of recalling the data. This can be done by
using check lists or simply taking notes.
2. Recording: Audio or video recordings, providing objective records of what occurred, which
can be re-examined. Photographs or slides can also be included.
a. Audio taping is more intrusive than real time observation, but usually after a few minutes,
students forget the presence of the recorder and interact normally and unself-consciously.
b. Videotaping is the most intrusive technique. It can provide a permanent record of contextual
and paralinguistic data such as chalkboard work, the layout of the classroom, gestures, and so on.
Videotaping, on the other hand, is selective: You can not capture everything.
Piloting is also important in both videotaping and audio taping procedures because the researcher
gets familiar with the procedures before the actual study. Otherwise, s\he may have difficulties in
using the video camera, standing at an appropriate spot, or managing the timing of the lesson
(Allwright Bailey, 1991;Burns and Hood, 1995; Van Lier, 1988).

3. Transcriptions
a. Making and transcribing audio recordings: Spoken interactions (i.e., verbal interactions) in
the activity or lesson.
b. Making and transcribing video recordings: Includes both verbal and nonverbal interactions in
an activity or lesson.
Audio taping and video taping provide rich data on a permanent –recall basis, but specific
items of data may not be very accessible. For example, if you are interested in how the teacher
corrected the errors, it would be much easier to locate examples in a transcript than by going
backwards and forwards on a tape. Moreover, after transcribing the material, the researcher can
easily make use of the transcript for the analysis of multiple factors such as student errors,
teacher talk, or question types. Sometimes, depending on the aim of the study, it is possible to
transcribe on a selective basis, not the whole thing.

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 TRIANGULATION
Fielding and Fielding(1986, p.23) explains “ a single landmark only locates you
somewhere along a line in the direction from the landmark, whereas with two landmarks you can
take bearings in two directions and locate yourself at their intersection.

Triangulation means using multiple tools of data collection, holding multiple points of
view on the topic, and covering multiple research questions and source of information. We can
triangulate our data on three levels: The level of data sources, the level of data collection or
research methods, and the level of data analysis or theoretical triangulation. Of the three,
triangulation of data sources and collection is the most common.

A sociologist, Denzin (in Patton, 1990, p.187.) outlines four basic of triangulation as follows:

Data Triangulation: Several sources of data are used in a study. In a study on student writing,
writing itself, teachers’ corrections and assessment of another teacher can be several sources of
data.

Investigator Triangulation : Uses more than one investigator to collect the data. The
researcher, in addition to him or herself, can ask a colleague to make field notes on the writing
class or conduct interviews.

Methodological Triangulation : Uses multiple ways to collect data in studying the problem.
You may conduct interviews, observations, and questionnaires to study the issue in depth.

Theoretical Triangulation : Uses more than one perspective in analyzing the data such as
analyzing a videotape for the sequence of activity; for gender and participation and for topic,
language used, and errors made (Burns and Hood, 1995).

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RESEARCH DESIGNS

1. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
Experimental research is conducted to establish cause and effect relationship between groups
of individuals. It is the only type that directly attempts to influence the independent variable.
This design is the strongest one to use in determining cause and effect. At least one of the
variables should be categorical. In each group, there should be at least 30 participants in an
experimental study.
Characteristics:
1. Comparison of Treatments
An experimental study usually includes an experimental group and a control group: the
experimental group receives some sort of treatment , whereas the control group receives no
treatment. Then, the researcher systematically observe what happens.
2. Direct Manipulation of the Independent Variable
The researcher deliberately and directly determines what form the independent variable
will take and then which group will get which form. Independent Variables that can be
manipulated: Teaching methods, learning activities, assignments given, materials used, rewards
given to the students, types of questions asked by the students and teachers. Dependent variables
refer to the results or outcomes of a study such as achievement, motivation and attitudes toward
school.
3. Randomization
It means that every individual who is participating in the experiment has an equal chance
of being assigned to any of the experimental or control groups that are being compared.
4. Pre-test and Post-test
Pre-test is conducted before the experiment is carried out , whereas post-test is conducted
after the experiment to observe the differences caused by the treatment. Pre and post-tests should
be the same.
EXAMPLES:
1. Comparison of computer-assisted cooperative, competitive, and individualistic learning.
2. The effect of student questions on concept acquisition
3. Comparing the inquiry method with the lecture method of instruction in teaching Chemistry.
4. Comparing the use of transparencies versus no transparencies in teaching statistics
5. The effects of word processing on written composition
6. The effects of weekly tutoring sessions on the reading ability of third graders

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2. CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH
This type is also sometimes called as associational research. Correlational studies aims to
investigate the possibility of relationship between two or more variables. It compares the
variables not the groups of individuals. In this design, the participants should be at least 50.
There is no manipulation of variables. It describes the degree to which two or more quantitative
variables are related by the use of a correlation coefficient:
This coefficient will be a decimal somewhere between 0.00 and –1.00 or +1.00. The closer
the coefficient to –1.00 or +1.00, the stronger the relationship is. The positive sign indicates
positive relationship: High scores on the one variable tend to go with high scores on the other
variable. The negative relationship indicates that high scores on the one variable tend to go with
low scores on the other variable. Coefficients that are at or near .00 indicate no relationship
exists between the variables in the study.
*Correlation coefficients below 35 : a slight relationship
*Correlation coefficients between .40 and .60: a theoretical and practical value depending on
the context.
*Correlation coefficients of .65 or higher: reasonable to make accurate predictions
(used in educational research since we are dealing with human beings)
*Correlation coefficients over .85 : a strong relationship between the variables

Warning: The results should be interpreted with caution since they may only suggest but
can not establish causation. Therefore, an experimental study should be conducted to provide
stronger evidence for cause and effect relationship.

EXAMPLES:
1. Relationship between IQ scores and achievement scores of the student in the same group
2. Relationship between the scores on a test of writing ability and a test of speaking ability for
the second class students at a high school
3. Relationship between high school success and university success
4. Relationship between students attention in the class and their reading achievement.
5. Relationship between reading ability and writing ability of the primary school children

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3. CAUSAL COMPARATIVE RESEARCH
This research is conducted as an alternative in situations where experimental designs will not
be appropriate due to ethical, time and health constraints. These constraints may prevent the
researcher from manipulating the independent variables.
This design aims to determine the cause or consequences of differences that already exist
between or among the groups of individuals. For this reason, causal comparative research is
called as ex post facto study (after the fact). This means that data are collected after all events
of interest occurred. In such studies, the groups are already formed; the researcher do not do
anything to group the individuals. Moreover, the researcher examines the data by going back
through and seeking out causes, relationships, and their meanings. This design is more popular in
the area of medicine and gender studies. There should be at least 30 participants in each group.

Causal Comparative Design versus Experimental Design

Causal comparative design requires at least one categorical variable as experimental design
does. Both causal comparative and experimental designs compare groups not variables.
However, causal comparative studies provides weaker evidence for causation than experimental
studies. For this reason, at a later time, an experimental study is conducted to establish causation.
In experimental study, the researcher has the greater flexibility in structuring the design: s\he
assigns the individuals to the groups, whereas, in causal-comparative studies the groups are
already formed. Moreover, no randomization takes place in causal comparative studies.

EXAMPLES
1. The effects of a new diet on young children
2. Relationship between lung cancer and smoking
3. Differences in abilities caused by the gender
4. Relationship between age and traffic accidents
5. The effects of a new drug on babies

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4. SURVEY (DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH)
This research owes much of its recent development to the field of sociology. The Gallup poll
is probably the best known survey used to sample public opinion. Market researchers employ
surveys to evaluate product acceptance and use.
All surveys possess three basic characteristics: (a) the collection of information (b) from a
sample (c) by asking questions in order to describe some aspects of the population of which that
group is a part. The major purpose of all surveys is to describe the characteristics of a population.
Surveys are not suitable for all research topics, especially those that require observation of
subjects or the manipulation of variables. The sample to be surveyed should be selected
randomly if possible. If the information is gathered from every member of the population, this
study can not be called as survey, rather census. In a survey, at least 100 participants should be
given questionnaires.

Types of Survey
1. Cross-Sectional Survey: The information is collected from different groups within the same
period of time to determine the various stages of development of a specific behavior among
subjects of different ages or status. For example, studying language development of children who
are between the age of 1-3. One child at the age of 1, one child at the age of 2, and another child
at the age of 3 will be the participant of this study.

2. Longitudinal Survey: The information is collected at different points in time in order to

study changes and developments within the same individuals over a long period of time. For
example, studying how a child acquires his or her native language within the firs three years.
These two types are also known as developmental studies, and they are applied in language
acquisition studies.

3. Follow Up Studies:This type of survey is conducted after a period of time to investigate the
possible improvement, decline, or deterioration within a group of individuals. These studies are
mostly employed in educational areas. For example, the development of a novice teacher into an
experienced teacher is a good example for this type.

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Modes of Data Collection:
a. Direct Administration to a Group b. Mail Surveys
c. Telephone Surveys d. Personal Interviews

Data Collection Tools :

1. Questionnaire

The appearance of the questionnaire is very important to the overall success of the study. It
should be attractive and not too long. The questions should be as easy to answer as possible. The
way they are asked is of crucial importance. Here are some suggestion for preparing good
questionnaires:

1. Avoid using specialized or unusual words,

2. Ask the same questions to all respondents in the sample
3. Conduct a questionnaire under similar conditions
4. Number the questionnaire items and pages
5. Include brief and clear instructions in bold type.
6. Put threatening or difficult questions near the end of the questionnaire
7. Avoid using the words “questionnaire” or “checklist” on your form because most people are
prejudiced against these words
8. Pretest the questionnaire to reveal ambiguities, poorly worded questions, unclear choices and
instructions and unfamiliar cultural elements.
9. Use common language
10. Avoid the use of terms that might bias responses
11. Avoid leading questions and double negatives.

The items on a questionnaire do not necessarily have to be in the form of questions. They may
be affirmative or negative statements or incomplete propositions. For this reason parts of a
questionnaire are called as items.

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2. Interview

Both telephone and face to face interviewers need to be trained beforehand. The questions
that will be asked at the interview should be decided on before the interview. Most of the
considerations given above for the questionnaire are the same for the interview.

The questions can be either close ended such as multiple choice and true false etc. or open
ended such as WH questions in survey. Since interpreting open ended questions is sometimes
difficult to interpret, score, and generalize, close ended or short-answer questions are generally
preferable.

Item and Total Nonresponse:

Item nonresponse refers to situations in which some members of the sample do not respond
to some items in the questionnaire. Total non response refers to situations in which the subjects
refuse to be interviewed or completing the whole questionnaire.

EXAMPLES
1. Dimensions of effective school leadership: The teacher’s perspective
2. Two thousand teachers view their teaching
3. What do parents think about the new grading system at public high schools?
4. Do economic factors cause teachers to leave the profession early?
5. Essay versus multiple-choice type classroom Exams: The student’s perspective.

18
5. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
This research investigates the quality of relationships, activities, situations or materials.
The natural setting is a direct source of data and the researcher is a key Part of the data collection
process. Data are mainly collected in the form of words or pictures and seldom involve numbers.
Qualitative research is especially interested in how things occur from the perspectives of the
participants. Therefore, there is no hypothesis formulated before the study is conducted: it
emerges as the study develops.
Qualitative studies try to find out what goes on in a particular classroom or school. The
researcher observe the class regularly and then describes as fully and as richly as possible.

Types of Qualitative Research

1. Participant Observation: The researcher actively participates in the setting he or she is

observing. This observation may be overt or covert. In overt observation, the participants know
that they are being observed by the researcher, whereas in latter situation, the participants are not
informed about the researcher and the researcher disguises him or herself and act like any of the
participant

2. Nonparticipant Observation: The researcher does not participate in the setting as an active
member. S\he just observes the setting from the sidelines. Three types of nonparticipant
observation are popular in educational areas: Naturalistic Observation, Simulation, Case Study,
and Content Analysis.

a. Naturalistic Observation: The researcher observes the participants in their natural

settings without controlling their activities. S\he simply observes and records what
happens as things naturally occur.
b. Simulation : An artificial situation is created by the researcher and the participants are
asked to act out certain roles.
c. Case Study: Only one or at most a few units such as a classroom, a school, or a or three
students are studied in detail.
d. Content Analysis: Written or visual contents of a document are analysed.

19
 Observer Effect
This term refers to two different conditions which can not easily be eliminated :
1. The presence of an observer in the setting can have a considerable effect on the behavior
of the participants.
2. The data may reflect the biases of the researcher.

3. Ethnographic Research: A highly detailed and ongoing observation of the behaviors in

their natural settings. This type of research provides a much more comprehensive perspective
than any other forms of research. However, the data obtained from ethnographic research can
rarely be generalized to population

Data Collection Tools

Observation, interviews, field notes and field diaries are the common instruments used in
qualitative research. Field notes are the notes a researcher takes in the field: What he or she sees
and hears and also what s\he thinks about what has been observed. Field diary is a personal
statement of the researcher’s feelings and ideas about the situation s\he is observing at the time.

EXAMPLES

1. What kinds of things EFL teachers do as they teach in the class?

2. How does a student prepare him or herself for the university exam?
3. What is going on in a graduate language classroom at a language center?
4. How do teachers interact with young students at the playground?
5. How does a particular student learn a second language?
6. How are the men presented in the text written by the feminist writes in the seventeen
century?
7. Does a particular teacher deal with his or her student to the same extent?
8. What does it mean to become an experienced teacher?

20
6. HISTORICAL RESEARCH
This research is the systematic collection and evaluation of data to describe , explain, and
thus understand past events and actions. Historical research is conducted for different reasons:
a. To make people aware of what has happened in the past so that they can learn from
past failures and successes .
b. To see if the things in the past can be applicable to present day problems and
concerns.
c. To make predictions and understand present educational practices and policies more
fully.
The unique characteristics of historical research is that it focuses exclusively on the past. There
are four essential steps involved in a historical research:

a. Defining the problem or hypothesis to be investigated

b. Searching for relevant sources
c. Summarizing and evaluating the available sources
d. Interpreting the evidence obtained and draw some conclusions.

Sources
In this design the sources are grouped into four categories: Documents,Numerical
records, Oral Statements, and Relics:

1.Documents: Any documents written or printed are included in this category such as annual
reports, artwork, bills, books, court records, cartoons, legal records, newspapers, school
yearbooks, memos, tests, and so on. Documents may be published or unpublished; they may be
for private or public consumption; they may be original or copies; drawn or sketched.

2.Numerical Records: Any type of numerical data in printed form such as test scores, census
reports, school budges and the like. In a way, this type is as a subcategory of documents.

3.Oral Statements: These are the statements people make orally such as stories, myths, tales,
legends, songs, and so on. Interview- with people who witnessed the past event or were a part of
it – is a special form of historical design.

21
4.Relics: A relic is any object whose physical or visual characteristics can provide some
information about the past. Some examples are clothing, artwork, equipment, furniture, or
buildings.

Examples of Historical Sources:

a. A diary kept by a woman teacher during the WW2
b. A 1987 high school yearbook
c. Attendance records from two different schools over a forty year period.
d. Essays written by university students during the Turkish civil war.
e. Test scores attained by students in various cities at different times.
f. A historical vase belonging to the time of old Egyptians.
g. A taped oral interview with İsmet İnönü on the war strategies of Atatürk.

Primary versus Secondary Sources:

A primary source is a source prepared by the person who was a participant or a direct
witness to the event, whereas a secondary source is prepared by the person who was not a direct
witness to the event but who obtained some information on that event from someone else.

Examples of Primary Sources

a. A republican period teacher’s account of what it was like to live and teach a new language at
that time.
b. Essays written by the students to the question:
“What I like most and least about the new program”
c. Letters written by a Turkish student and an American student describing their school
experiences.
d. A photograph of a graduating university class in 1950s

Examples of Secondary Sources

a. An encyclopedia describing different feminist movements in English Literature around 1930
b. A magazine article summarizing Reşat Nuri Güntekin’s views on education
c. A book on political issues of USA in the first part of the 19th century.
d. A student’s description of a conversation between her teacher and another student.

22
External Criticism (= Genuineness of Documents):
Was this document written by the supposed author?
For what purpose, When, Where and Under what conditions Was it written?
Do different forms or versions of the document exist?

Internal Criticism (=Accuracy of Documents):

Is the information contained in the document true?
Was the author present at the event s\he is describing?
Was the author emotionally involved in the event ?
Does the language of the document suggest a bias of any sort?
Would people behaved as described?

Some Examples of Historical Research

a. What was instruction like in atypical 7th grade language class 40 years ago?
b. How have working conditions changed for women changed since 1965s?
c. What were the major political problems in Turkey in 1930 as compared to today?
d. How have the ideas of Schon influenced present day educational practices?
e. How has the Turkish minority been treated in German high school during the 20th century?
f. How has the language teaching policy changed in Turkey from the republican period to the
present

23
7. ACTION RESEARCH
Action research is a different research type because it is conducted by the teacher him or
herself to solve the problems they face in the class. In action research, the design can not be
planned completely before the study is conducted.
Action research is conducted to solve problems diagnosed in specific situations, provide
new skills and methods , increase self-awareness of teachers, and come to decision about what
their future practice should be. Action research is an empowering procedure employed by
teachers to explore their own classrooms, which overlaps the areas of professional development
and conventional research.
When teachers actively involved in the research, as in action research, they can easily
draw some implications for their classroom practice, learning styles of their students, and their
teaching methods. Action research will also yield very valuable data for the development of
curriculum and textbooks at hand.

Reflection as an Essential Component of Action Research

Since teachers regard their professional development as an ongoing process and have
more demanding expectations, action research is an effective tool for these teachers to develop
themselves on the basis of their class experiences and reflections. Reflection is the key part of
any action research conducted in learning and\or teaching settings. In reflection sessions, either
teacher himself or other colleagues reflect on what he has discovered and applied to professional
activities in relation to his own class and teaching style. In addition, all the decisions for the
changes are made at the reflection stage and other colleagues help us view our class atmosphere
and teaching practice objectively in evaluating the results obtained from the research.

Dissemination is another important component of action research: It requires the teacher

to publish an article or present a paper in a conference or seminar to inform other teachers about
the design and results of the study. This will certainly encourage and guide other teachers to
conduct action research in their classes and they may also adapt some of the results to put into
practice in their classes in the case they come across similar problems.

24
 Approaches in Action Research
There are two approaches in action research, namely individual and collaborative
approaches. Individual approaches do not directly involve anyone else except the teacher him
or herself such as field notes and keeping a diary. Collaborative approaches involve others
usually colleagues at the same institution; for example, observing a colleague’s lesson.
Collaborative action research is more effective than individual research in that it saves time and
yields richer input from the combination of insights of the others involved; therefore, the right
kind of co-operation is essential in collaborative research.

Data Collection Tools

Self-observation and think-alouds are effective techniques to develop self – awareness. Some
other common tools are interview, peer observation, video or tape recording, questionnaire, and
diary.
Action research is valuable in teacher development since it is practical and simple to conduct and
provide a first hand account of teaching and learning experience.

Some Examples for Action Research:

1. How can I distribute the turns more equally in the class?

2. Do I ask enough referential questions especially in the reading classes?
3. Why do I have management problems in the prep class?
4. Why do my students insist on talking Turkish in the classes?
5. What happens if I structure the design of the class differently in Listening \ Speaking classes?
6. I wonder whether our usual textbook is responsible for the low grades in the grammar class?
7. How can I make my students speak English more in the class?
8. My students avoid studying in groups or pairs. Why?
9. I think I should provide more opportunities for the second year students to control their
learning. Making them present the lessons in groups may be a good strategy to do this.

25
Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association ( APA STYLE)
A. Reference List

1. Periodicals:
Kernis, M. H., Cornell, D. P., & Harlow, T. (1993). There is more self esteem than whether it is
high or low: The importance of stability of self esteem. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 65(8), 187-200.
Buss, D.M., & Schmitt, D.P. (1998). English language teaching strategies. ELT Journal, 100,
200-245.

a. In Press (articles that have not been published yet)

Buss, D.M., & Schmitt, D.P. (in press). English language teaching strategies. ELT Journal.

2. Non-Periodicals (Books)

a. Books with authors:

Chamot, A.U., O’Malley, J.M. (1986). A cognitive academic language learning approach: An
ESL content-based curriculum. Virginia: National Clearinghouse for Bilingual Education.

b. Books with no author or editor

The second language curriculum (1st ed.). (1989). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

c. Edited book
Gibbs, J. T. (Ed. ). (1991). Children of color. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Sein, J.T., & Huang, L.N. (Eds.). (1987). Revision strategies of EFL writers. San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass.

d. Edited by someone else other than the author (parts of an edited book)
Hudson, T. D. (1989). Mastery decisions in program evaluation. In R.K. Johnson & H.F.
Robertson (Eds.), The second language curriculum (pp. 259-269). Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Hudson, T. D. (1989). Mastery decisions in program evaluation. In R.K. Johnson (Ed.), The
second language curriculum (pp. 259-269). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

26
 e. Non-English book
Kuzgun, Y. (1998). Rehberlik ve psikolojik danışmanlık [Guidance and psychological
counseling]. Ankara: Hacettepe Yayınları.

f. English translation of a book

Stein, P. S. (1989). Experimental design (A. S. Johnson, Trans.). New York: Prentice Hall Inc.
(Original work published 1978).

h. Book, revised edition

Rosenthal, R. (1987). Meta-analytic procedures for social research (Rev. ed.). Newbury Park,
CA: Sage.

İ. Book, Group author (government agency) or corporate as publisher

Australian Bureau of Statistics. (1991). Estimated resident population by age and sex in
statistical local areas. Australia: Australian Capital Territory.

3. Encyclopedia or dictionary
Cowie, A. P. (1989). Oxford advanced learner’s dictionary of current English (4th ed.). Oxford:
Oxford University Press.

a. No author or editor, dictionary or encyclopedia

Merriam-Webster’s collegiate dictionary (10th ed.). (1993). Springfield: Merriam-Webster.

b. Entry in an encyclopedia
Bergmann, P.G. (1993). Relativity. In The new encyclopaedia Britannica (Vol. 26, pp. 501-508).
Chicago: Encyclopaedic Britannica.

4. Unpublished Master Thesis and Doctoral Dissertations

Sendan, F. C. (1992). Learning to teach: A case study of EFL student teachers’ preactive
thoughts and decision making. Unpublished master’s thesis, University of Reading,
England.

Wilfley, D.E. (1989). Interpersonal analyses of bulimia. Unpublished doctoral dissertation,

University of Missouri, Columbia.

27
 5. Retrieval Information: Electronic-Online Source

a. On-line Document
Dewey, R. (1996). APA publication manual crib sheet. Retrieved May 20, 2002, from
http://www. Apa.org/ journals/webref.html
(Do not put a period at the end of the entry if the reference entry ends with an internet address)

b. Periodicals as online sources (not duplicates of their print versions)

Markam, P. L. (1989). Foreign language instructional programs. Language Learning, 35, 123-
127. Retrieved November 19, 2000, from the PsycINFO database.

c. Exact duplicates of their print versions

Markam, P. L. (1989). Foreign language instructional programs [Electronic version]. Language
Learning, 35, 123-127.

d. Stand-alone document with no author identified, no date

Language teaching theories. (n.d.). Retrieved August 6, 2000, from http://www.cc.gatech.edu

6. Work with no date available

Robinson, D. N. (n.d.). Social discourse and moral judgement. San Diego: Academic Press.

7. Citation of a work discussed in a secondary source

(Give the secondary source in the reference list ; in text, name the original work and give a
citation for the secondary source)
Reference list entry
Atkins, P., & Curtis, B. (1993). Models of reading aloud: Dual route. Psychological Review,
100, 589-608.
Text Citation
Brown’s study (as cited in Atkins & Curtis, 1993) indicates..........

8. Unpublished paper presented at a meeting

Şire, E. (2001, May). Learning to Teach: On-line Decisions of Student Teachers. Paper
presented at the The Second International ELT Research Conference, Çanakkale
University, Turkey.

28
B. How to order the reference entries in the Reference List
a. Brown, J. R. (1989)
Browning, G.H. (1999)

Order of several works by the same first author

* One author entries by the same author are arranged by year of publication, the earliest first:
Bailey, K.Y. (1987)
Bailey, K.Y. (1999)

* One-author entries precede multiple-author entries beginning with the same surname:
Johnson, H.R. (1994)
Johnson, H. R., & Evans, A. J. (1993)

* References with the same first author and different second or third authors are arranged
alphabetically by the surname of the second or, if the second author is the same, the surname of
the third author, and so on:
Levine, K., Bronowski, J., & Hayman, P. M. (1989)
Levine, K., Bronowski, J., & Synder, S. (1999)

*References with the same authors in the same order are arranged by the year of publication, the
earliest first:
Chamot, A. U., & O’Malley, J. M. (1986)
Chamot, A. U., & O’Malley, J. M. (1989)

* References by the same author(s) with the same publication date are arranged alphabetically by
the title that follows the publication date:
Baheti, J. R. (2001a). Design ...........
Baheti, J. R. (2001b). Roles of .........

*Works by different authors with the same surname are arranged alphabetically by the first
initial:
Jackson, F. Y., & Wallston, J. (1998)
Jackson, T. G., & Sein, F. (1997)

29
*Alphabetize group authors, such as associations or government agencies, by the first significant
word of the name. Full official name should be used:
Jackson, T. G., & Sein, F. (1997)
Research and Training Center on Animals. (1989)

* If and only if, the work is signed “ Anonymous,” the entry begins with the word Anonymous
spelled out, and the entry is alphabetized as if Anonymous were a true name:
Anonymous. (1989)

* If there is no author, the title moves to the author position, and the entry is alphabetized by the
first significant word of the title
Beyond the melting pot. (1990).
Henry, W. A. (1998)
* Alphabetize the prefixes M’, Mc, and Mac literally. Disregard the apostrophe:
MacArthur, F. R. (1979)
McAllister, G. U. (1989)

C. Reference Citation in the Text:

* The surname of the author and the year of publication are inserted in the text
Walker (20009 compared....... or
In a recent study of reaction times ( Walker, 2000)

* When a work has two authors, always cite both names every time the reference occurs in the
text:
Stein and Roberts (1978) claim.........

30
* When a work has three, four or five authors, cite all authors the first time the reference occurs;
in subsequent citations, include only the surname of the first author followed by et al. And the
year:

First citation: Smiths, Zappula, Rock, and Roberts (1998)

Second and subsequent citation: Smiths et al. (1998)

*When a work has six or more authors, cite only the surname of the first author followed by et
al. and the year for the first and subsequent citations. However, in the reference list, provide the
initials and surnames of the first six authors, and shorten any remaining authors to et al.
If two references with six or more authors shorten to the same form, cite the surnames as many
of the subsequent authors to distinguish the two references, followed by a comma and et al.

Kosslyn and Koenig, et al. (1996) and Kossyln and Gabrieli, et al. (1996)

* Join the names in a multiple-author citation in running text by the word and. In parenthetical
materials, in tables and captions, and in the reference list, join the names by an ampersand(&):

as Klein and Littlewood (1978) demonstrated

as has been shown (Klein & Littlewood, 1978)
*Groups as authors: The names of some groups are spelled out in the first citation and
abbreviated thereafter:

First Citation: (World Health Organization [WHO], 1999)

Second citation: (WHO, 1999)

* The name of the universities should be written out in full every time they appear in the text:

University of Cukurova (1999)

31
* When a work has no author or editor , cite in text the first few words of the reference
entry(usually the title). Use double quotation marks around the title:

..... financial problems (“Study on Economics,” 1989)

* Authors with the same surname: Include the initials of the first author’s initials in all text
citations even if the year of publication differs

D. R. Goldberg (2001) and M. E. Goldberg (1989) also found

D. R. Goldberg and Neff (2001) and M. E. Goldberg and Wurtz (1989)

*Arrange two or more works by the same authors by the year of publication. Place in press
citations last and identify works by the same author with the same publication date by the
suffixes a, b, c and so forth after the year:

.............. (Johnson & Hailey, 1991, 1995, 2000a, 2000b, 2002, in press)

* List two or more works by different authors who are cited within the same parenthesis in
alphabetical order by the first author’s surname. Separate the citations with semicolons:

............. (Balda, 1980; Kamil, 1988; Levin, 1999; Johnson, 2001)

32
D. General Instructions for preparing the Paper Manuscript

*** Whether you type the project yourself or have someone prepare it, as author you are
responsible for the quality of all aspects of the project such as spelling, subject-verb agreement,
punctuation, spacing, citations etc.

1. Use standard -sized heavy white bond paper and print it from your computer on one side of
the paper.

2. 12-pt Times Roman and Courier are two of the mostly preferred typefaces.

3. Double-space between all lines of the project- title, headings, footnotes, quotations,
references, figure captions, and all parts of tables.

4. Leave at least 2.54 cm at the top, bottom, left, and right of every page. Do not type more than
27 lines on each page.

5. Set your computer for 65 characters for each line and do not justify the lines; that is, do not
adjust spacing between words to make all lines the same length. Leave the right margin
uneven. Do not divide words at the end of a line; just let a line be shorter instead of breaking
it at the end of a line.

6. After arranging the pages in the correct order, number them consecutively in the upper right-
hand corner.

7. Indent the first line of every paragraph and the first line of every footnote. You can use the
tab key for consistency. Indent five to seven spaces. The only exceptions are the abstract,
block quotations, titles and headings, table titles and notes and figure captions.

8. Begin the abstract on a new page. Type the label Abstract in uppercase and lowercase letters
centered at the top of the page. Type the abstract itself as a single paragraph in block format
without any paragraph indention and do not exceed 120 words.

33
9. Start the reference list on a new page. Type the word references in uppercase and lowercase
letters centered at the top of the page. Double space all entries. Do not number the entries and
arrange the entries alphabetically regarding the first letter of the entry.

10. Double space the appendixes and begin each one on a separate page. Type the word
Appendix and the identifying capital letters (A, B, etc.) centered at the top of the page.

11. Center the label footnotes in uppercase and lowercase letters at the top of a separate page.
Type all footnotes together double spaced. To indicate in text the material being footnoted
use arabic numerals. Type the footnote numbers slightly above the line. Footnotes that are
mentioned in the text are numbered consecutively in the order they appear in the text. Indent
the first line of each footnote five to seven spaces. Number the footnotes to correspond to
their numbers in the text.

12. For most articles, three or four levels of heading are sufficient:

FOUR LEVEL HEADINGS:

Centered Uppercase and Lowercase Heading

Centered, Italicized, Uppercase and Lowercase Heading
Flush Left, Italicized, Uppercase and Lowercase Side heading
Indented, italicized, lowercase paragraph heading ending with a period.

34
Spacing and Punctuation:

Space once after all punctuation as follows:

a. after commas, colons, and semicolons

b. after punctuation marks at the ends of sentences
c. after periods that separate parts of a reference citation
d. after the periods of the initials in personal names

Do not space

a. after internal periods in abbreviations: e.g.

b. around colons in ratios: 10:20
c. before and after a hyphen: step-by-step

Space twice after periods at the end of sentences in the running text

35
REFERENCES
Atkins, P., & Curtis, B. (1993). Models of reading aloud: Dual route. Psychological Review,

100, 589-608.

Australian Bureau of Statistics. (1991). Estimated resident population by age and sex in
statistical local areas. Australia: Australian Capital Territory.
Buss, D.M., & Schmitt, D.P. (in press). English language teaching strategies. ELT Journal.

Buss, D.M., & Schmitt, D.P. (1998). English language teaching strategies. ELT Journal, 100,

200-245.

Chamot, A.U., O’Malley, J.M. (1986). A cognitive academic language learning approach: An

ESL content-based curriculum. Virginia: National Clearinghouse for Bilingual

Education.

Cowie, A. P. (1989). Oxford advanced learner’s dictionary of current English (4th ed.).

Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Dewey, R. (1996). APA publication manual crib sheet. Retrieved May 20, 2002, from

http://www. Apa.org/ journals/webref.html

Gibbs, J. T. (Ed. ). (1991). Children of color. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Gibbs, J.T., & Huang, L.N. (Eds.). (1998). Anxiety and success. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass

Hudson, T. D. (1989). Mastery decisions in program evaluation. In R.K. Johnson & H.F.

Robertson (Eds.), The second language curriculum (pp. 259-269). Cambridge: CUP.

Hudson, T. D. (1999). Mastery decisions in program evaluation. In R.K. Johnson (Ed.), The

second language curriculum (pp. 259-269). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Kernis, M. H., Cornell, D. P., & Harlow, T. (1993). There is more self esteem than whether it

is high or low: The importance of stability of self esteem. Journal of Personality and

Social Psychology, 65(8), 187-200.

Kuzgun, Y. (1998). Rehberlik ve psikolojik danışmanlık [Guidance and psychological

counselling]. Ankara: Hacettepe Yayınları.

36