English Language Teaching and Linguistics Studies

ISSN 2640-9836 (Print) ISSN 2640-9844 (Online)

Vol. 5, No. 4, 2023
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Original Paper

On the Pragmatic Functions of Vague Language in Political

Discourse: A Study on Vague Language in Donald Trump’s

Inaugural Address

Siying Qin1*
1
School of Foreign Languages, Guangzhou College of Commerce, Guangzhou, China
*
Siying Qin, Guangzhou College of Commerce, NO. 206 Jiulongdadao, Huangpu district, Guangzhou
511363, P.R. China, E-mail: [email protected]

Received: July 28, 2023 Accepted: September 15, 2023 Online Published: September 27, 2023
doi:10.22158/eltls.v5n4p118 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.22158/eltls.v5n4p118

Abstract
This study employs discourse analysis to examine the pragmatic functions of vague language in Donald
Trump’s Inaugural Address. By interpreting hedging, abstract concepts and generalizations in the
address, the author explores how vague language is strategically utilized by political leaders to achieve
his political purposes, such as establishing unity and inclusivity, alluding to past grievances, and
promising change, eliciting emotional reactions, allowing flexibility, and calling attention to threats.
The findings of this analysis enhance our comprehension of the inaugural address given by the former
US president, while also providing valuable insights into the language strategies utilized by politicians
in political discourses.
Keywords
pragmatic function, vague language, political discourses, inaugural speech

1. Introduction
As one of the natural attributes of human language, vague language holds a significant place in political
speech, allowing politicians to navigate complex issues, shape public perception, and maintain
flexibility in their positions. Politicians often find their aims best served by being vague and evasive
(Thomas J., 1995). Donald Trump’s inaugural speech, delivered on January 20, 2017, served as a
platform to outline his vision and agenda as the 45th President of the United States. One notable feature
of his address was the strategic use of vague language, which allowed Trump to connect with a diverse

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audience and shape public perception. By employing ambiguous terms and expressions, Trump utilized
the power of vagueness to foster unity, evoke emotional responses, and navigate the complexities of
political discourse. This essay aims to analyze the role and impact of vague language in the former U.S.
President Donald Trump’s inaugural speech, shedding light on its pragmatic functions and examining
its implications for political communication. Through a closer examination of specific examples, we
can gain insight into how vague language was strategically employed to engage and influence the
American public during this important moment in history.

2. Literature Review
Vague language refers to the use of words, expressions, or statements that are imprecise, ambiguous, or
lacking in specificity. It is commonly used in everyday conversations, advertising, political speeches,
and legal discourse. According to Channel (1983), speakers can be vague by employing “hedges” (in
the sense of Lakoff, 1972) such as “probably” or “might”, generalizations like “some people say”. This
chapter reviews and summarizes the main topics and discoveries from previous studies on vague
language.
2.1 Previous Studies on Vague Language
Scholars’ interests in vague language can be traced back to Pierce’s entry for “vague” in 1902. “A
proposition is vague when there are possible states of things concerning which it is intrinsically
uncertain whether, had they been contemplated by the speaker, he would have regarded them as
excluded or allowed by the proposition” (Peirce, 1902, p. 748). In other words, vagueness arises when
there is inherent uncertainty about whether certain states of things would be considered part of the
proposition or not. In Vagueness, Russell (1923) argued “all language is more or less vague” and that
vagueness allows for multiple interpretations and can be intentionally used to avoid commitment,
provide flexibility, or create a sense of uncertainty. The study of vagueness in linguistics comes after
the concept of “fuzzy set” proposed by Zadeh, which is defined as “a class of objects with a continuum
of grades of membership” (Zadeh, 1965, p. 338). It is a generalization of the traditional idea of a set,
where an object either fully belongs or does not belong to a set, meaning that the degree to which an
element belongs to a fuzzy set can vary along a continuum. Based on Zadeh’s fuzzy theory, Lakoff
(1972) defined words involving vagueness or fuzziness like this:
“For me, some of the most interesting questions are raised by the study of words whose meaning
implicitly involves fuzziness- words whose job is to make things fuzzier or less fuzzy. I will refer to
such words as ‘hedges’” (Lakoff, 1972, p. 192).
That means hedges serve to downplay the assertiveness or certainty of a statement and can be seen as a
form of vague language, allowing speakers to express caution, uncertainty, or politeness while still
conveying their intended message. Hence, Kasper (1981) believed that the use of hedges serves the
purpose of politeness, allowing for greater flexibility in word choice, minimizing negative impact, and
protecting one’s face.
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Political discourse plays a pivotal role in shaping public opinion, influencing policy decisions, and
constructing political identities. Within this context, the use of vague language by politicians has
attracted significant scholarly attention. In his analysis of Bush’s Presidential Address to the Nation on
Presidential Address to the Nation, Chilton (2004) examined vague language as a persuasive tool in
political discourses and asserted the use of the term “history” seems to assume several rather unclear
conceptualizations, but within the notion of history, it becomes even more vague. The demonstration of
vagueness being a language device can be also seen in Ren and Hao’s (2011) study on vague language
in Obama’s inaugural speech, noting that using vague language in a flexible manner has enabled his
speeches to achieve greater effectiveness and accuracy, thereby helping the president to effectively
communicate with the public and achieve his intended goals. As part of political discourse, the
diplomatic and delicate nature of interpreting foreign affairs shapes the use of euphemisms and
flexibility in its interpretation. Consequently, the extensive utilization of vague language also becomes
a notable characteristic of foreign affairs interpretation. The significance of vague language in the
interpretation of foreign affairs should not be underestimated (Wen, 2016).
2.2 Previous Studies on the Pragmatic Functions of Vague Language
One key pragmatic function of vague language is to facilitate politeness and mitigate face threats in
communications. As Chanell (1983) noted in the analysis of deference and politeness example, “the
hearer is provided with the opportunity to act upon the speaker’s utterance in different ways, and so
uncertainty passed on to him, at least until he has made a choice.” Vague language thus can be a
strategy for speakers to soften potentially confrontational or offensive statements, maintaining positive
social relationships. Vagueness can also facilitate cooperation and maintain harmony among
participants. Cutting (2007) found that vague language plays a crucial role in facilitating cooperative
communication and social interaction in everyday conversations, enabling participants to express
politeness, manage turn-taking and coherence, and reduce potential conflicts or tensions. According to
Ren and Hao (2011), however, vague language can allow politicians to pose threats and create a sense
of crisis and urgency to achieve their political intentions, which further proves vagueness in
expressions is a linguistic strategic device. Zhu and Li (2013) revealed that the use of vague language
in commercial advertising has dual effects. On one hand, it enhances the flexibility and persuasiveness
of communication, ensuring that information is conveyed accurately. However, on the other hand, it has
the potential to mislead readers and result in false understanding. As Zhao and Nie (2015) pointed out
“the vagueness pragmatic motivations of hedging are found to be deception and self-protection.” This
implies that when speakers intentionally use vague language, their intentions may involve deceiving
others or safeguarding themselves. As vague language is an integral feature of human communication,
it is reasonable to expect t it may have negative effects. This idea is consistent with Chiasson’s
philosophical views on vagueness. Chiasson’s (2001) argued that critical thinking is required to engage
genuine doubt in the course of inquiry, and understanding the “logic of vagueness” should be a priority
in a democratic society. It is important to investigate this aspect since many individuals seem to
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habitually adopt a state of vagueness, which can lead to ignorance and absolutism.
This chapter presents previous studies on vague language in different discourses and highlights
pragmatic functions of vague language in communication. It can be concluded that vague language in
political discourse can negatively or positively influence readers or listeners. Hence, analyzing vague
language in political discourse is important for uncovering strategies, examining ideological
manipulation, etc. By studying vague language, we gain deeper insights into the complexities of
political discourse and its impact on society.

3. Research Method
This study employs a discourse analytical approach to examine vague language used in Donald
Trump’s inaugural address, with a specific focus on its pragmatic functions. The full inaugural text is
collected from the website of The White House, and qualitative analysis is adopted to study the
pragmatic functions of different types of vague language in it. Instances of vague language are initially
identified and then the use of it in specific examples will be pragmatically examined in detail. The
study particularly emphasizes hedging, generalizations, and abstract concepts. Hedging, as described
by Hyland (1995), involves “the expression of tentativeness in language use that represents an absence
of certainty in describing any linguistic item or strategy employed to indicate either a lack of
commitment to the truth value of an accompanying proposition or a desire not to express that
commitment categorically”. This includes the use of words and phrases such as “will”, “small”, “too
long”, which is tentative or cautious language that conveys uncertainty or lack of commitment.
Generalizations can be words and phrases such as “many”, “there have been instances…”, which
involves using imprecise or vague terms to describe concepts or groups, making their exact meaning
subjective and open to interpretation. Examples of such terms include “many” and “about”. Abstract
concepts are the words such as “victory”, “effort”, which are ideas without clear explanations or
tangible references.

4. Pragmatic Functions of Vague Language in Donald Trump’s Inaugural Speech

4.1 Establishing Unity and Inclusivity
One pragmatic function of vague language is its ability to promote consensus and unity among diverse
groups. Phrases like “fellow Americans”, “the citizens of America” and the term “we” as forms of
hedging is used by Donald Trump in his address. Some of them can be seen in the following examples:
(1) Chief Justice Roberts, President Carter, President Clinton, President Bush, President Obama, fellow
Americans and people of the world, thank you.
(2) We, the citizens of America, are now joined in a great national effort to rebuild our country and
restore its promise for all of our people.
(3) Together we will determine the course of America and the world for many, many years to come.
(4) We will make America strong again. We will make America wealthy again. We will make America
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proud again. We will make America safe again.

The theme of Trump’s speech is people supremacy and U.S. Supremacy. He emphasized there is no
racial boundaries or distinctions in the nation and every American should stand as one and promote
patriotism, aiming to create a broad sense of community and togetherness. And this is realized by the
use of terms “fellow Americans”, “people of the world”, “all of our people”, and “we” in the above
sentences. It should be noted that in an address around 1800 words, the term “we” appears 50 times,
showing that the speaker wants to connect the government and the people together. These expressions
create an inclusive atmosphere and helps to bridge gaps between different ideological perspectives and
foster a sense of shared purpose. At the same time, the vagueness allows the speaker to tap into the
emotions and aspirations of individuals, evoking positive sentiments and forge bonds with their
supporters.
4.2 Alluding to Past Grievances and Promising Change
One of the purposes of employing vague language by politicians is to allude to past grievances and to
promise change because it allows them to appeal to a wide range of people without making specific
commitments that may be difficult to fulfill, which is embodied in the following sentences.
(5) For too long, a small group in our nation’s capital has reaped the rewards of government while the
people have born the cost.
(6) Their victories have not been your victories. Their triumphs have not been your triumphs.
(7) …and spent trillions and trillions of dollars overseas, while America's infrastructure has fallen into
disrepair and decay.
(8) The forgotten men and women of our country will be forgotten no longer.
In example (5) and (6), hedges - “too long” and “a small group”-, and abstract concepts -“victories”
and “triumphs”-, and the generalization- “trillions and trillions” are employed by Trump to emphasize
who have reaped the rewards of government, while the people have borne the cost. With the vague
language, Trump highlights the establishment’s shortcomings without explicitly naming specific
individuals or groups and his expression allow individuals to project their own experiences and
frustrations onto the politician’s message. The generalization- “the forgotten men and women” and the
hedge “will” in example (8) allows Trump to make promise without outlining clear steps or policies
since specific commitments may be difficult to fulfill. The use of vagueness allows for a broad critique
of the existing system and the promise of change without directly accusing anyone.
4.3 Eliciting Emotional Response:
Another pragmatic function of vague language in the address is its capacity to evoke emotional
responses and establish connections with the audience, which is realized by hedges like “will”, abstract
concepts like effort, generalizations like “tens of millions”, and generalization like “historic
movement” in the following examples.
(9) We, the citizens of America, are now joined in a great national effort to rebuild our country and
restore its promise for all of our people.
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(10) You came by the tens of millions to become part of an historic movement, the likes of which the
world has never seen before.
(11) We will make America strong again. We will make America wealthy again. We will make America
proud again. We will make America safe again.
“Great national effort”, “restore its promise”, and “historic movement”, “the tens of millions”, etc. in
example (9) & (10) are emotionally charged and open to interpretation. They allow listeners to project
their own hopes, desires, and emotions onto these statements, eliciting a sense of enthusiasm and
motivation. I have discussed the use of vague language in example (11) helps to build unity and
inclusivity. It should also be noted that they help to tap into the emotions and aspirations of individuals
without explicitly defining what constitutes greatness or who the forgotten are. This allows Trump to
evoke positive sentiments and forge bonds with his supporters.
4.4 Calling on Attention to Threats
Vague language can be used to emphasize the potential severity of a threat, without being specific
about the details. This can evoke fear and anxiety in the audience and encourage them to take actions.
(12) We will face challenges.
(13) We will confront hardships, but we will get the job done.
In Merriam-Webster Dictionary, “challenge” is defined as a summons that is often threatening,
provocative, stimulating, or inciting while “hardship” means things “that causes or entails suffering or
privation”. Both are abstract concepts and can evoke fear and anxiety in the audience without sufficient
information and thus a sense of struggle and resilience is elicited. However, vagueness in “we will get
the job done” shows that the speaker acknowledges the existence of challenges and hardships without
discouraging optimism, which raises a sense of unity and collaboration, leading to greater support for
policies or actions aimed at mitigating the threat.

4. Conclusion
The analysis of vagueness in examples shows that the use of vague language in Donald Trump’s
inaugural speech served multiple pragmatic functions. Firstly, it helped establish unity and inclusivity
by promoting consensus among listeners. Secondly, vague language allowed Trump to allude to past
grievances and promise change without making specific commitments. Thirdly, vague language elicited
emotional responses and established connections with the audience. Furthermore, vague language
provided flexibility for politicians to adapt their positions and policies based on changing
circumstances. Lastly, vague language could be used to emphasize the severity of threats without
providing specific details. These shows that tactical use of vague language like hedges, generalizations,
generalizations, and abstract concepts allows politicians to connect with their audiences and achieve
their goals effectively. For audiences, however, they should be aware of the potential manipulation
behind vague language and should focus on more specific policies and actions from their political

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leaders.

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Advertising. English Language Teaching, 6(6), 103-112. https://doi.org/10.5539/elt.v6n6p103

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