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Concepts of Genetics, 3e (Brooker)
Chapter 7 Genetic Linkage and Mapping in Eukaryotes

1) Which of the following defines gene linkage?

A) Two or more genes that are physically connected on a chromosome.
B) Genes that are transmitted to the next generation as a group.
C) The process by which genetic information is exchanged between homologous chromosomes.
D) All of these choices are correct.
E) Both two or more genes that are physically connected on a chromosome and genes that are
transmitted to the next generation as a group.

Answer: E
Explanation: Genetic linkage, or simply linkage, is the phenomenon in which genes that are
close together on the same chromosome tend to be transmitted as a unit. For this reason, linkage
has an influence on inheritance patterns.
Page Ref: 132
Section: 07.01
Topic: Overview of Linkage
Bloom's: 2. Understand
Learning Outcome: 07.01.01 Define genetic linkage.
Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation

2) Assume that genes C and D are located on the same chromosome. On one chromosome alleles
C and D are found, while the homologue contains alleles c and d. Which of the following would
be an example of a recombination event?
A) alleles C and D together on one chromosome
B) alleles c and d together on one chromosome
C) alleles C and d together on one chromosome
D) alleles c and D together on one chromosome
E) both alleles C and d together on one chromosome and alleles c and D together on one
chromosome

Answer: E
Explanation: See Figure 7.2 for a pictorial representation of the consequence of recombination.
Page Ref: 133
Section: 07.02
Topic: Relationship Between Linkage and Crossing Over
Bloom's: 3. Apply
Learning Outcome: 07.02.01 Describe how crossing over can change the arrangements of
alleles along a chromosome.
Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation

1
Copyright 2019 © McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior
written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
3) The first observational evidence that genes may be inherited together rather than by simple
Mendelian inheritance was provided by ________.
A) Mendel
B) Morgan and Bridges
C) Bateson and Punnett
D) Boveri and Sutton

Answer: C
Explanation: Please see the subsection entitled "Bateson and Punnett Discovered Two
Characters That Did Not Assort Independently" on page 132 for additional details.
Page Ref: 132
Section: 07.01
Topic: Overview of Linkage
Bloom's: 1. Remember
Learning Outcome: 07.01.02 Explain how linkage affects the outcome of crosses.
Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation

4) Experimental evidence that crossing over occurs between the X chromosomes of female
Drosophila was provided by ________.
A) Morgan
B) Punnett
C) Darwin
D) Bateson

Answer: A
Explanation: Morgan provided evidence for the linkage of X-linked genes and proposed that
crossing over between X chromosomes can occur.
Page Ref: 133
Section: 07.02
Topic: Relationship Between Linkage and Crossing Over
Bloom's: 1. Remember
Learning Outcome: 07.02.01 Describe how crossing over can change the arrangements of
alleles along a chromosome.
Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation

2
Copyright 2019 © McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior
written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
5) Which of the following statistical tests is used to determine if two genes are linked or
assorting independently?
A) sum rule
B) binomial expansion
C) product rule
D) chi square test

Answer: D
Explanation: Please review page 136 for how a chi square analysis can be used to distinguish
between linkage and independent assortment.
Page Ref: 136
Section: 07.02
Topic: Relationship Between Linkage and Crossing Over
Bloom's: 1. Remember
Learning Outcome: 07.02.03 Apply a chi square test to distinguish between linkage and
independent assortment.
Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation

6) In a chi square test to determine if two genes are linked or assorting independently, what is the
default (null) hypothesis that is tested?
A) The genes are linked to one another.
B) The genes are assorting independently.
C) The genes are located on the sex chromosomes.
D) No crossing over occurs.

Answer: B
Explanation: The hypothesis we are testing is called a null hypothesis, because it assumes there
is no real difference between the observed and expected values.
Page Ref: 136
Section: 07.02
Topic: Relationship Between Linkage and Crossing Over
Bloom's: 2. Understand
Learning Outcome: 07.02.03 Apply a chi square test to distinguish between linkage and
independent assortment.
Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation

3
Copyright 2019 © McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior
written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
7) The visual proof that chromosomes exchange pieces of information during crossing over was
provided by ________.
A) Bateson and Punnett
B) Morgan and Bridges
C) Creighton and McClintock
D) Watson and Crick

Answer: C
Explanation: Please review Figure 7.6 on page 139 for a pictorial representation of Creighton's
and McClintock's work.
Page Ref: 139
Section: 07.02
Topic: Relationship Between Linkage and Crossing Over
Bloom's: 1. Remember
Learning Outcome: 07.02.04 Analyze the data of Creighton and McClintock and explain how it
indicated that recombinant offspring carry chromosomes that are the result of crossing over.
Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation

8) The process of recombination may rarely occur during mitosis.

Answer: TRUE
Explanation: Mitosis normally does not involve the homologous pairing of chromosomes to
form a bivalent. Therefore, crossing over during mitosis is expected to occur much less
frequently than during meiosis. Nevertheless, it does happen on rare occasions. Mitotic crossing
over may produce a pair of recombinant chromosomes that have a new combination of alleles, an
event known as mitotic recombination. Please review Section 7.4 for more information on
mitotic recombination.
Page Ref: 145
Section: 07.04
Topic: Mitotic Recombination
Bloom's: 2. Understand
Learning Outcome: 07.04.01 Describe the process of mitotic recombination, and explain how it
can produce a twin spot.
Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation

4
Copyright 2019 © McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior
written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
9) Twin spotting provides evidence of what genetic event?
A) meiotic recombination
B) mitotic recombination
C) linkage
D) mutation

Answer: B
Explanation: Refer to Figure 7.10 for a pictorial representation of how twin spotting can arise
due to mitotic recombination.
Page Ref: 145
Section: 07.04
Topic: Mitotic Recombination
Bloom's: 2. Understand
Learning Outcome: 07.04.01 Describe the process of mitotic recombination, and explain how it
can produce a twin spot.
Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation

10) An organism that contains patches of tissue that vary for a specific characteristic, such as a
pigment, is an example of ________.
A) linkage
B) meiotic recombination
C) mitotic recombination
D) translocations

Answer: C
Explanation: Refer to Figure 7.10 for a pictorial representation of how twin spotting can arise
due to mitotic recombination.
Page Ref: 145
Section: 07.04
Topic: Mitotic Recombination
Bloom's: 2. Understand
Learning Outcome: 07.04.01 Describe the process of mitotic recombination, and explain how it
can produce a twin spot.
Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation

5
Copyright 2019 © McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior
written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
11) Which of the following are necessary characteristics of an organism in order to easily
construct a genetic linkage map?
A) short generation times
B) produces large numbers of offspring
C) easily crossed
D) All of these choices are correct.

Answer: D
Explanation: The genetic linkage map approach has been useful for analyzing organisms that
are easily crossed and produce a large number of offspring in a short period of time.
Page Ref: 140
Section: 07.03
Topic: Genetic Mapping in Plants and Animals
Bloom's: 2. Understand
Learning Outcome: 07.03.01 Describe why genetic mapping is useful.
Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation

12) A genetic linkage map indicates the precise distance between two genes of interest.

Answer: FALSE
Explanation: The frequency of recombinant offspring due to crossing over provides a way to
deduce the linear order of genes along a chromosome and can provide an estimate of the distance
between genes of interest.
Page Ref: 140
Section: 07.03
Topic: Genetic Mapping in Plants and Animals
Bloom's: 2. Understand
Learning Outcome: 07.03.01 Describe why genetic mapping is useful.
Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation

13) Crossing over is more likely to occur between genes that are ________ on a chromosome.
A) close together
B) far apart
C) not

Answer: B
Explanation: In diploid eukaryotic species, homologous chromosomes can exchange pieces
with each other, a phenomenon called crossing over. See Section 7.3, including Figure 7.9, for
additional information.
Page Ref: 142
Section: 07.03
Topic: Genetic Mapping in Plants and Animals
Bloom's: 2. Understand
Learning Outcome: 07.03.01 Describe why genetic mapping is useful.
Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation

6
Copyright 2019 © McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior
written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
14) A testcross is always performed between the individual that is heterozygous for the genes to
be mapped and an individual who is ________.
A) heterozygous for the genes
B) homozygous dominant for the genes
C) homozygous recessive for the genes
D) lacking the genes

Answer: C
Explanation: To interpret a genetic mapping experiment, the experimenter must know if the
characteristics of an offspring are due to crossing over during meiosis in a parent. This is
accomplished by conducting a testcross. Most testcrosses are between an individual that is
heterozygous for two or more genes and an individual that is homozygous recessive for the same
genes.
Page Ref: 141
Section: 07.03
Topic: Genetic Mapping in Plants and Animals
Bloom's: 2. Understand
Learning Outcome: 07.03.01 Describe why genetic mapping is useful.
Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation

15) While mapping two genes in Drosophila, you observe 30 recombinants among 200 total
offspring. What is the distance between these genes?
A) 30 map units
B) 6.67 map units
C) 200 map units
D) 15 map units

Answer: D
Explanation: Map distance = (Number of recombinant offspring) / (Total number of offspring)
x 100 = (30 recombinants) / (200 offspring total) x 100 = 15 map units
Page Ref: 142
Section: 07.03
Topic: Genetic Mapping in Plants and Animals
Bloom's: 3. Apply
Learning Outcome: 07.03.02 Calculate the map distance between linked genes using data from
a testcross.
Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation

7
Copyright 2019 © McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior
written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
16) A map distance of 23.6 between two genes indicates which of the following?
A) The genes are 23.6 millimeters apart.
B) There are 23.6 other genes between the two genes of interest.
C) 23.6% of the offspring exhibit recombination between the two genes.
D) 23.6% of the offspring do not survive.

Answer: C
Explanation: The map distance is defined as the number of recombinant offspring divided by
the total number of offspring, multiplied by 100. One map unit is equivalent to a 1% frequency
of recombination.
Page Ref: 142
Section: 07.03
Topic: Genetic Mapping in Plants and Animals
Bloom's: 2. Understand
Learning Outcome: 07.03.01 Describe why genetic mapping is useful.
Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation

17) The individual who is credited with discovering genetic linkage in Drosophila is ________.
A) Thomas Hunt Morgan
B) Gregor Mendel
C) Alfred Sturtevant
D) Barbara McClintock

Answer: A
Explanation: Morgan discovered genetic linkage in Drosophila and proposed that recombinant
offspring are produced by crossing over during meiosis (see Figures 7.3, 7.4).
Page Ref: 133
Section: 07.02
Topic: Relationship Between Linkage and Crossing Over
Bloom's: 1. Remember
Learning Outcome: 07.02.01 Describe how crossing over can change the arrangements of
alleles along a chromosome.
Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation

8
Copyright 2019 © McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior
written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
18) In a mapping experiment with three genes, which phenotype should occur most often in the
F2 offspring?
A) parental phenotypes
B) phenotypes of individuals with single crossover events
C) phenotypes of individuals with double crossover events
D) All of these choices should be equal in the F2 generation.

Answer: A
Explanation: Generally, the parental phenotypes will be more common than recombinant
phenotypes due to the rarity of crossing over between two closely linked genes. See Section 7.3
and Table 7.1 for additional information.
Page Ref: 142
Section: 07.03
Topic: Genetic Mapping in Plants and Animals
Bloom's: 2. Understand
Learning Outcome: 07.03.02 Calculate the map distance between linked genes using data from
a testcross.
Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation

19) The middle gene of a three gene mapping experiment can be determined by examining the
genotypes of which of the following?
A) offspring that resemble the parents
B) offspring that exhibit a single crossover event
C) offspring that exhibit double crossover events
D) None of these choices are correct.

Answer: C
Explanation: When a chromatid undergoes a double crossover, the gene in the middle becomes
separated from the other two genes at either end.
Page Ref: 143
Section: 07.03
Topic: Genetic Mapping in Plants and Animals
Bloom's: 2. Understand
Learning Outcome: 07.03.02 Calculate the map distance between linked genes using data from
a testcross.
Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation

9
Copyright 2019 © McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior
written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
20) Which of the following is not one of the properties of gene linkage that Morgan obtained
from his experiments?
A) Genes that are on the same chromosome may be inherited together.
B) Crossing over exchanges pieces of chromosomes and creates new allele combinations.
C) The likelihood of crossing over occurring between two genes is dependent on the distance of
the genes from one another.
D) Genes that are on the same chromosome are always transmitted together as a unit.

Answer: D
Explanation: Refer to page 134 for a summary of Morgan's conclusions about gene linkage.
Page Ref: 134
Section: 07.02
Topic: Relationship Between Linkage and Crossing Over
Bloom's: 2. Understand
Learning Outcome: 07.02.02 Explain how the distance between linked genes affects the
proportions of recombinant and nonrecombinant offspring.
Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation

21) In humans, there are ________ autosomal linkage groups, plus an X and Y chromosome
linkage group.
A) 23
B) 46
C) 22
D) 92

Answer: C
Explanation: Chromosomes are sometimes called linkage groups, because a chromosome
contains a group of genes that are physically linked together.
Page Ref: 132
Section: 07.01
Topic: Overview of Linkage
Bloom's: 1. Remember
Learning Outcome: 07.01.01 Define genetic linkage.
Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation

10
Copyright 2019 © McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior
written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
22) Another name for a chromosome is a ________, since it contains genes that are often
inherited together.
A) linkage group
B) crossing over group
C) genetic recombinant
D) bivalent

Answer: A
Explanation: Chromosomes are sometimes called linkage groups, because a chromosome
contains a group of genes that are physically linked together.
Page Ref: 132
Section: 07.01
Topic: Overview of Linkage
Bloom's: 1. Remember
Learning Outcome: 07.01.01 Define genetic linkage.
Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation

23) Two genes that are located on the same chromosome are said to be ________.
A) linked
B) recombinant
C) parental-like
D) nonparental-like

Answer: A
Explanation: Genetic linkage, or simply linkage, is the phenomenon in which genes that are
close together on the same chromosome tend to be transmitted as a unit.
Page Ref: 132
Section: 07.01
Topic: Overview of Linkage
Bloom's: 1. Remember
Learning Outcome: 07.01.01 Define genetic linkage.
Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation

11
Copyright 2019 © McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior
written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
24) Creighton and McClintock worked with ________ as their model system to show that
homologous chromosomes physically exchange genetic information during crossing over.
A) fruit flies
B) peas
C) corn
D) tobacco

Answer: C
Explanation: Creighton and McClintock focused much of their attention on the pattern of
inheritance of traits in corn.
Page Ref: 138
Section: 07.02
Topic: Relationship Between Linkage and Crossing Over
Bloom's: 1. Remember
Learning Outcome: 07.02.04 Analyze the data of Creighton and McClintock and explain how it
indicated that recombinant offspring carry chromosomes that are the result of crossing over.
Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation

25) The rearrangement of alleles by the process of crossing over is called genetic linkage.

Answer: FALSE
Explanation: An event leading to a new combination of alleles is known as genetic
recombination.
Page Ref: 133
Section: 07.02
Topic: Relationship Between Linkage and Crossing Over
Bloom's: 1. Remember
Learning Outcome: 07.02.01 Describe how crossing over can change the arrangements of
alleles along a chromosome.
Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation

26) Map distance is the number of recombinant offspring divided by the total number of
nonrecombinant offspring.

Answer: FALSE
Explanation: Map distance = (Number of recombinant offspring) / (Total number of offspring)
x 100
Page Ref: 142
Section: 07.03
Topic: Genetic Mapping in Plants and Animals
Bloom's: 2. Understand
Learning Outcome: 07.03.02 Calculate the map distance between linked genes using data from
a testcross.
Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation

12
Copyright 2019 © McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior
written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
27) Following crossing over, chromosomes with genetic combinations that resemble the parents
are called nonrecombinant.

Answer: TRUE
Explanation: Nonrecombinant cells occur when the arrangement of linked alleles have not been
altered from those found in the original cell.
Page Ref: 133
Section: 07.02
Topic: Relationship Between Linkage and Crossing Over
Bloom's: 2. Understand
Learning Outcome: 07.02.01 Describe how crossing over can change the arrangements of
alleles along a chromosome.
Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation

28) A map unit or centiMorgan is equal to a 10% recombination frequency.

Answer: FALSE
Explanation: One map unit, or centiMorgan is equivalent to a 1% frequency of recombination.
Page Ref: 142
Section: 07.03
Topic: Genetic Mapping in Plants and Animals
Bloom's: 1. Remember
Learning Outcome: 07.03.02 Calculate the map distance between linked genes using data from
a testcross.
Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation

29) Map distances above 50 are considered unreliable due to the occurrence of double-crossovers
between the genes.

Answer: TRUE
Explanation: Please refer to Figure 7.9 for a pictorial representation of the relationship between
the percentage of recombinant offspring and the actual map distance between genes.
Page Ref: 142
Section: 07.03
Topic: Genetic Mapping in Plants and Animals
Bloom's: 2. Understand
Learning Outcome: 07.03.02 Calculate the map distance between linked genes using data from
a testcross.
Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation

13
Copyright 2019 © McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior
written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
30) The locus is the physical place of a gene on a chromosome.

Answer: TRUE
Explanation: Each gene has its own unique locus. The locus is the site where the gene is found
within a particular chromosome.
Page Ref: 140
Section: 07.03
Topic: Genetic Mapping in Plants and Animals
Bloom's: 1. Remember
Learning Outcome: 07.03.01 Describe why genetic mapping is useful.
Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation

31) The parental genotypes for a series of crosses are wild-type male fruit flies mated to females
with white eyes and miniature wings. The phenotypes of the F1 generation were wild-type
females, and males with white eyes, and miniature wings, indicating sex chromosome linkage.
These flies were allowed to mate with each other and produced the following offspring:

Red eyes, long wings 770

White eyes, miniature wings 716
Red eyes, miniature wings 401
White eyes, long wings 318
Total 2205

What is the chi square value for this data to the nearest hundredth?

Answer: 275.81
Explanation: Beginning on page 136, follow the outlined steps to calculate the χ2 for the above
data.
Page Ref: 138
Section: 07.02
Topic: Relationship Between Linkage and Crossing Over
Bloom's: 3. Apply
Learning Outcome: 07.02.03 Apply a chi square test to distinguish between linkage and
independent assortment.
Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation

14
Copyright 2019 © McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior
written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
32) The parental genotypes for a series of crosses are wild-type male fruit flies mated to females
with white eyes and miniature wings. The phenotypes of the F1 generation were wild-type
females, and males with white eyes, and miniature wings, indicating sex chromosome linkage.
These flies were allowed to mate with each other and produced the following offspring:

Red eyes, long wings 770

White eyes, miniature wings 716
Red eyes, miniature wings 401
White eyes, long wings 318
Total 2205

How many map units is the gene for eye color from the gene for wing length to the nearest tenth?

Answer: 32.6
Explanation: Map distance is equal to the number of recombinant offspring divided by the total
number of offspring multiplied by one hundred.
Page Ref: 142
Section: 07.03
Topic: Genetic Mapping in Plants and Animals
Bloom's: 3. Apply
Learning Outcome: 07.03.02 Calculate the map distance between linked genes using data from
a testcross.
Accessibility: Keyboard Navigation

15
Copyright 2019 © McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior
written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
 Fig. 220.—Interior of a privy in Asakusa.

The receptacle in the privy consists of a half of an oil barrel, or a

large earthen vessel, sunk in the ground, with convenient access to
it from the outside. This is emptied every few days by men who
have their regular routes; and as an illustration of the value of this
material for agricultural [pg 232] purposes, I was told that in
Hiroshima in the renting of the poorer tenement houses, if three
persons occupied a room together the sewage paid the rent of one,
and if five occupied the same room no rent was charged! Indeed,
the immense value and importance of this material is so great to the
Japanese farmer, who depends entirely upon it for the enrichment of
his soil, that in the country personal conveniences for travellers are
always arranged by the side of the road, in shape of buckets or half-
barrels sunk in the ground.

Judging by our standards of modesty in regard to these matters

there would appear to be no evidence of delicacy among the
Japanese respecting them; or, to be more just, perhaps should say
that there is among them no affectation of false modesty,—a feeling
which seems to have developed among the English-speaking people
more exclusively, and among some of them to such ridiculous
heights of absurdity as often to be fraught with grave consequences.
But among the Japanese it would seem as if the publicity given by
them to the collecting of this important fertilizer had dulled all
sensitiveness on their part, if it ever existed, concerning this
matter.19 Indeed, privacy in this matter would be impossible when it
is considered that in cities—as in Tokio, for example—of nearly a
million of inhabitants this material is carried off daily to the farms
outside, the vessels in which it is conveyed being long cylindrical
buckets borne by men and horses. If sensitive persons are offended
by these conditions, they must admit that [pg 233] the secret of
sewage disposal has been effectually solved by the Japanese for
centuries, so that nothing goes to waste. And of equal importance,
too, is it that of that class of diseases which scourge our
communities as a result of our ineffectual efforts in disposing of
sewage, the Japanese happily know but little. In that country there
are no deep vaults with long accumulations contaminating the
ground, or underground pipes conducting sewage to shallow bays
and inlets, there to fester and vitiate the air and spread sickness and
death.

On the other hand it must be admitted that their water supply is

very seriously affected by this sewage being washed into rivers and
wells from the rice-fields where it is deposited; and the scourge of
cholera, which almost yearly spreads its desolating shadow over
many of their southern towns, is due to the almost universal
cultivation of the land by irrigation methods; and the consequent
distribution of sewage through these surface avenues renders it
impossible to protect the water supply from contamination.

[pg 234]
CHAPTER V. ENTRANCES AND
APPROACHES.

The study of the house-architecture of Japan, as compared with that

of America, it is curious to observe the relative degree of importance
given to similar features by the two peoples. With us the commonest
house in the city or country will have a definite front-door, and
almost always one with some embellishments, in the shape of heavy
panels, ornate brackets and braces supporting some sort of a
covering above, and steps approaching it equally pretentious; in the
ordinary Japanese house, on the contrary, this entrance is, as we
shall see, often, though not always, of the most indefinite character.
With us, again, the hall or front-entry stairs may be seen
immediately on entering the house,—and this portion has some
display in the baluster and gracefully curving rail, and in the better
class of houses receives special attention from the architect; in
Japan, however, if the house be of two stories the stairway is never
in sight, and is rarely more than a stout and precipitous step-ladder.
On the other hand, the ridge of the roof, which in Japan almost
invariably forms the most picturesque feature of the house exterior,
is with us nothing more than the line of junction of the plainest rain-
shed; though in great edifices feeble attempts have been made to
decorate this lofty and conspicuous line by an inverted cast-iron
design, which is not only absolutely useless as a structural feature,
but, so far as the design is concerned, might be [pg 235] equally
appropriate for the edge of a tawdry valentine or the ornamental
fringe which comes in a Malaga raisin-box.

Accustomed as we are, then, to a front-door with steps and rail and

a certain pretentious architectural display, it is difficult to conceive of
a house without some such distinctive characters to its portal. In the
ordinary Japanese house, however, we often look in vain for such
indications. In the common class of their houses, and even in those
of more importance, the entrance is often vaguely defined; one may
enter the house by way of the garden and make his salutations on
the verandah, or he may pass into the house by an ill-defined
boundary near the kitchen,—a sort of back-door on the front side. In
other houses this entrance is by means of a small matted area,
which differs in no respect from the other rooms save that the outer
edge of its raised floor is some distance within the eaves, and
between this and the sill the floor is mother earth. One or two steps,
consisting of single planks running the width of the room, lead from
the earth to the floor. The roof at this point may be a gable, as more
specially marking the entrance. These indefinite entrances, however,
belong only to the houses of what may be called the middle and
lower classes, though even in houses of the middle classes well-
marked entrances, and even entrances of some pretensions, are not
uncommon. Some may be inclined to doubt the statement that in
the ordinary houses the entrance is often more or less vaguely
defined. As a curious proof of this, however, I have in my possession
Japanese architects' plans of two houses, consisting of a number of
rooms, and representing dwellings far above the ordinary type; and
though I have consulted a number of Japanese friends in regard to
these plans, none of them have been able to tell me where the main
entrance is, or ought to be!

In a better class of houses the entrance is in the form of a wide

projecting porch, with special gable roof, having [pg 236] elaborately
carved wood-work about its front, the opening being as wide as the
porch itself. The floor consists of wide planks running at right angles
with the sill, which is grooved to accommodate the amado, or storm-
doors. From this floor one reaches the floor beyond by means of one
or two steps,—the edge of the floor near the steps being grooved to
accommodate the shōji. The back partition of this hall is a
permanent one. On either side sliding screens lead to the rooms
within. A dado of wood runs about the sides of the vestibule, while
the wall above is plastered. A low screen, called a tsui-tate, is
usually the sole ornament of the hall; and in olden times there hung
on the wall behind the tsui-tate curious long-handled weapons,
which now are seen only as museum specimens. This screen has no
[pg 237] folds; the frame is thick and lacquered, and the transverse
feet are ponderous and also lacquered.

Fig. 221.—Main entrance to house.

In some houses the floor of the hall, as well as that of the vestibule,
is composed of plank; and the polish of the steps and floor is of such
exquisite ivory smoothness that the decorated screen and fusuma
are reflected as from a shaded and quiet expanse of water. Even
here no special display is made beyond the porch-like projection and
gable roof of the external boundaries of this entrance.

[pg 238]
 Fig. 222.—Plan of vestibule and hall.

It would seem as if the fitting architecture of this important portal

had been transferred to the gateway,—ponderous hinged-doors,
bolts, bars, and all; for in the gateways a conspicuous, though
oftentimes fictitious, solidity is shown in the canopy of beams and
tiles, supported by equally massive posts.

In fig. 221 is shown a view of the entrance to the house figured on

pages 54 and 55. It is the house of a samurai, and is a fair example
of the entrance to the house of a gentleman in ordinary
circumstances. On the left of the entrance is a plastered partition
separating the hall from the kitchen. [pg 239] On the right is a small
room separated from the vestibule by shōji, not fusuma. This may
be considered a waiting-room, where parties on business are shown;
a servant usually waits here to attend callers. Directly beyond, one
enters a suite of rooms which border the garden at the back of the
house. At the immediate entrance is a sill; over this sill one steps
upon the earth floor.

The sill is grooved to accommodate the amado, which are put in

place when the house is closed for the night. When a house has a
definite entrance like this, there are usually conveniences for stowing
away travelling gear,—such as umbrellas, lanterns, and wooden
clogs. For example, in ordinary houses, for the sake of economy in
space, a portion of the raised floor of the vestibule consists of
movable planks, which may be lifted up, revealing a space beneath
sufficiently ample to accommodate these articles.

The plan here given (fig. 222) shows a hall often seen in the better
class of houses. The area between the entrance and the shōji
projects as a porch from the side of the house, the three-matted
area coming within the house proper. The lettering on the plan
clearly explains the various parts.

In a narrow hall in an old house near Uyeno, in Tokio, I got the

accompanying sketch of a shoe-closet (fig. 223). The briefest
examination of the various clogs it contained revealed the same
idiosyncrasies of walking as with us,—some were down at the heel,
others were worn at the sides. There were clogs of many sizes and
kinds,—common clogs of the school-children, with the dried mud of
the street still clinging to them, and the best clogs with lacquered
sides and finely-matted soles. At one side hung a set of shoe-cords
ready for emergency.
 Fig. 223.—Shoe-closet.

In another house, just within the vestibule, I noticed a shelf-rack

above the fusuma, designed for holding the family lanterns (fig.
224). It may as well be stated here,—a fact which is [pg 240]
probably well known to most of our readers,—that the Japanese
almost invariably carry lighted lanterns when they walk out at night.
Upon the outside of these lanterns is painted the crest, or mon, of
the family, or the name of the house: a man with an eye to business
may advertise it on his lantern by some quaint design. So persistent
is this habit of carrying lanterns, that on bright moonlight nights the
lantern is brought into requisition; and nothing strikes a foreigner as
so ludicrous as the sight of a number of firemen on the top of a
burning building, holding lighted lanterns in their hands! The
lanterns fold up into a small compass; and on the lantern-shelf
which we have shown were a number of thick pasteboard boxes in
which were [pg 241] stowed away the lanterns. On each box was
painted a design corresponding to the design of the lantern within.
In this case the name of the family, or the crest, was indicated.

Fig. 224.—Lantern-shelf in hall.

In this vestibule the fusuma, instead of being covered with thick

paper, consisted of panels of dark cedar. The effect was very rich.

In the houses of the Daimios the entrance is always grandly marked

by a special roof, and by a massive structure of carved beams
supporting it,—brilliantly colored oftentimes, and the surroundings in
keeping with the dignity of this important region.
 Fig. 225.—Grated entrance, with sliding door.

The doorways of shops and inns, when they definitely occur, are
large square openings stoutly but neatly barred,—and permanently
too, a portion of it being made to roll back. The sill of such an
opening is some little distance from the ground, and one on entering
steps over this sill to an earth floor within, called the do-ma. Here
the wooden clogs are left as he steps upon the raised floor. Fig. 225
illustrates the appearance of this doorway.

The verandah is an essential part of the Japanese house. The word

itself is of Oriental origin, and it is difficult to imagine an Oriental
house of any pretensions without a verandah of some kind. In the
Japanese house it is almost a continuation of the floor of the room,
being but slightly below its level. The verandah is something more
than a luxury; it is a necessity arising from the [pg 242] peculiar
construction of the house. The shōji, with their delicate frames and
white paper-coverings, which take the place of our glass windows in
admitting light to the room, are from their very nature easily injured
by the rain; the edge of the room; therefore, where these run, must
come a few feet within the eaves; of the roof, or of any additional
rain-shed which may be built above the shōji. At this line, therefore,
the matted floor ceases, and a plank floor of varying width continues
beyond, upon the outer edge of which is a single groove to
accommodate another set of screens made of wood. These are
called the amado, literally “rain-door,” and at night and during driving
storms they are closed. At times, however, the rain may beat in
between the amado; but though wetting the verandah, it rarely
reaches the shōji.

In ordinary houses the verandah has no outer rail, though in the

houses of the nobility a rail is often present. The width of the
verandah varies in proportion to the size of the house. In some of
the temples the verandah floor may be ten feet or more in width,
and thickly lacquered, as in some of the Nikko temples. In common
houses this area may be three or four feet in width. A reference to
the plans (figs. 97 and 98; pages 113, 116), and also to the vertical
section (fig. 103; page 126), will give a clear idea of this platform
and its relation to the house. There are various ways of treating this
feature; it is always supported on wooden posts, rough or hewn,
which, like the uprights of the house, rest on single stones partly
buried in the ground. The space between the edge of the verandah
and the ground is almost invariably left open, as will be seen by
reference to figs. 37, 48, 49, 50, and 95 (pages 55, 66, 68, 70, 106),
though in Kioto houses it is sometimes filled up by simple boarding
or panelling; and here and there are one or more panels which run
back and forth in grooves, so that one can go beneath the house if
necessary. The planks composing [pg 243] the floor of the verandah
may be narrow or wide; usually however they are quite narrow, and
run parallel with the edge of the verandah, though in some cages
they are wide planks running at right angles. When this platform
turns a corner, the ends of the planks may be mitred (as in fig. 226,
A), or square (as in fig. 226, B), in which latter case the ends project
beyond each other alternately. Sometimes the floor is made up of
narrow strips of thick plank with the edges deeply chamfered or
rounded (fig. 226, C). In this style a considerable space is left
between the planks. The effect of this treatment is looked upon as
rustic and picturesque, but is certainly not so pleasant to walk upon.
In such a form of verandah the amado runs in a groove in close
proximity to the shōji.

Fig. 226.—Verandah floor.

The verandah varies considerably in its height from the ground;

more often it is so low that one sitting on its edge may rest his feet
comfortably on the ground. In this case a single wide block, either of
stone or wood, forms the step. When the verandah is at a greater
height from the ground, permanent or adjustable steps, two or three
in number, are placed in position. A common form of verandah-step
is shown in fig. 179 (page 199). A very good type of verandah
sketched from an old house in Kioto is shown in fig. 227. The
manner in which the uprights support the broad over-hanging eaves,
the appearance of the supplementary roof called hisashi, the shōji as
they are seen, some closed and some open, disclosing the rooms
within, [pg 244] and other details which will presently be described,
are shown in this figure.
 Fig. 227.—Verandah of an old Kioto house.

Rooms in the second story also open upon a balcony, the platform of
which is generally much narrower than the one below. This balcony
has of necessity a rail or balustrade; and here much good artistic
work is displayed in design and finish, with simple and economical
devices, apparent as in so many other features of the house. This
structure, with a firm hand-rail above, has the interspaces between
the posts which support it filled with many quaint and curious
devices, either of lattice, bamboo, or panels with perforated designs.
Generally a narrow bar runs from post to post close to the platform,
so that any object dropped may not roll out; between the end posts
of the rail this piece is often removable, to allow dust and dirt to be
more easily swept away. (In fig. 228 the piece marked A is
removable).

[pg 245]
Fig. 229 represents a panel from a balustrade in Matsushima. In this
the design of bamboo was cut through, producing a very light and
pretty effect. Fig. 230 shows another panel from a balustrade in
Fujisawa; a perforated design of dragons in various attitudes
ornamented each panel, which was held in place by a frame
composed of round sticks of the red pine.

Fig. 228.—Balcony rail.

It seems surprising that our architects do not oftener employ this

method of perforation in their ornamental work,—the designs can be
so clearly and sharply cut, while the dark shade of the room or
space beyond gives a depth of color to the design, which is at the
same time permanent. With the Japanese this method of
ornamentation is a favorite one both for outside and inside finish,
and they have shown great ingenuity and originality in the infinite
variety of designs for this mode of treatment. Nothing seems too
difficult for them to attempt,—flying birds, swimming fishes, dashing
waves and the rising sun, flowers and butterflies; indeed, the whole
range of pictorial design has offered no difficulties to them. In their
process of figuring cloths and crape, stencil-plates of thick paper are
employed, and in the printing of wall-paper the same methods are
resorted to.

Fig. 229.—Balcony rail and perforated panels.

In a balcony rail (fig. 231) a most delicate device was made using
for a middle rail a small bamboo, directly beneath [pg 246] which
was another rail composed of a longitudinal section of the middle of
a large bamboo; such a section included the transverse partitions of
the bamboo as well. This process is often resorted to in the
construction of the frame-work of delicate shōji, but it is rare to see
it used in a balustrade. The effect is exceedingly refined and
delicate; and one realizes that in a country where such fragile
tracery is incorporated in such an exposed structure, there must be
an absence of the rough, boisterous children with whom we are
familiar, and who in a short time would be as disastrous to a
Japanese house as a violent earthquake and typhoon combined. One
further realizes that in that country men must keep their feet where
they properly belong.

Fig. 230.—Balcony rail.

The balustrade is often made very solid and substantial, as may be

seen in fig. 232, sketched from the house of a celebrated potter in
Kioto. The posts had metal tops, and at intervals along the upper rail
metal plates were fixed.
 Fig. 231.—Balcony rail.

Transient guests are often received on the verandah; which place

the hibachi, tabako-bon, and tea and cake are [pg 247] brought. In
summer evenings it is much cooler here than on the matted floor
within, and with the garden in view forms a pleasant place for
recreation. Flower-pots are sometimes placed along its edge;
children play upon it; and in a long suite of rooms it forms a
convenient thoroughfare from one apartment to another. It is often
the only means of reaching a room at one end of the house, unless
by passing through other rooms, as in many cases there are no
interior passage-ways, or corridors, as with us. It is needless to say
that the verandah is kept scrupulously clean, and its wooden floor is
often polished.20
 Fig. 232.—Balcony rail.

The amado, or rain-doors, by which the verandah is closed at night

and during stormy weather, are in the form of light wooden screens
about the size of the shōji. These are made [pg 248] of thin boards
held together by a light frame-work having a few transverse bars.
The amado run in a single groove on the outer edge of the
verandah; at night the house is effectually closed by these shutters,
and during hot summer nights the apartments become almost
stifling. In many houses, however, provision is made for ventilation
in the shape of long, narrow opening just above the amado. Panels
are made to fit into these openings, so that in winter the cold to
some extent may be kept out. On unusually stormy days and during
the prevalence a typhoon, the house closed in this way is dark and
gloomy enough.

These shutters are the noisy features of a Japanese house. Within

are no slamming doors or rattling latches; one admires the quiet and
noiseless way in which the fusuma are gently pushed back and
forth; and the soft mats yielding to the pressure of still softer feet,
as the inmates like cats step lightly about, are soothing conditions to
overstrained nerves and one cannot help contrasting them with the
clatter of heavy boots on our wood floors, or the clouds of filthy dust
kicked out of our carpets in any rough play of children. All these
miseries are happily avoided in a Japanese house. Truth compels me
to say, however, that in the morning you are roughly awakened by
the servants pushing back into their appropriate recesses these
outer wooden screens; and this act is usually noisy enough. In public
houses this performance takes the place of clanging bell or
tympanum-bursting gong (a Chinese instrument of torture which our
people seem to take peculiar delight in); for not only the rattling
bang of these resonant shutters, but the bright glare of daylight
where before you had been immersed in darkness, assails you with a
sudden and painful shock.
 Fig. 233.—Rain-door lock unbolted.

Fig. 234.—Rain-door lock bolted.

The Japanese have a number of curious devices by which lock or

bolt these shutters. So far as I know, the only night [pg 249] lock
the house possesses is attached to them. So feeble are these
devices that they would hardly withstand the attack of a toothpick in
the hands of a sneak-thief. To a Japanese our houses must appear
like veritable prisons with locks, bolts, and automatic catches at
every opening,—the front door with such mysterious devices that it
is quite as impregnable from within as from without. What a land of
thieves he must think himself in when he finds door-mats, door-
scrapers, fountain-dippers, thermometers, etc., chained, screwed, or
bolted to the house! The simplest device for locking a sliding door, or
amado, is by means of a ring fastened to the post by the side of
which the amado comes. In the frame of the amado is a little loop of
iron; the ring is pushed over the loop, and a wooden pin holds it in
place. Another form of lock consists of an upright bolt of wood that
passes through the upper frame of the amado as well as through a
transverse bar just below. This bolt being pushed up is held in place
by another piece of wood, which slides along in such a way as to
prevent the bolt from dropping back. A reference, however, to [pg
250] the sketches (figs. 233, 234) will better explain the working of
this ingenious device. Sometimes a simple wooden pin is used to
hold the last amado in place. All these various devices are on the
last amado; as when this is locked, all the others are secured.

In old houses round-headed iron knobs (fig 235) will be noticed on

the outer edge of the groove in which the amado run. These are
placed at intervals corresponding to the number of amado, and are
to prevent the amado from being lifted out of the groove from the
outside and thus removed. This device is rarely seen nowadays.

Fig. 235.—Knob for rain-door.

In the second story the to-bukuro may be on a side of the house

which runs at right angles with the balcony. As the amado are
pushed along one after the other, it is necessary to turn them
around the corner of the balcony, outside the corner post. To
prevent them from slipping off the corner as they turn the post, a
little iron roller is secured to the corner of the balcony; the amado is
pushed by it part way, and then swung around into the other
groove. A reference to the sketch (fig. 236) shows the position of
this roller, and two forms of it. It will be noticed that there is no
groove at this point, so that the amado may be turned without lifting
them.

In the amado which close the entrance to the house, the end one
contains a little square door called a kuguri-do; this [pg 251] may
slide back and forth, or may swing upon hinges. It is used as an
entrance after the house is closed for the night. It is also called an
earthquake-door, as through it the inmates may easily and quickly
find egress, at times of sudden emergency, without the necessity of
removing the amado.

Fig. 236.—Corner-roller for rain-door.

Not only the verandah but the entrance to the house, as well as the
windows when they occur, are closed at night by amado. In the
daytime these shutters are stowed away in closets called to-bukuro.
These closets are placed at one side of the opening or place to be
closed, and just outside the groove in which the shutters are to run.
They have only the width of one shutter, but are deep enough to
accommodate the number that is required to close any one
entrance. By reference to the plans (figs. 97 and 98; pages 113,
116) the position of these closets may be seen; and in the views of
the houses already given, notably in figs. 35, 38, 49 and 50 (pages
53, 56, 68, and 70), they may be seen at the ends of the verandahs,
balconies, entrances, and windows.

In an ordinary house the to-bukuro is made of thin boards, and has

the appearance of a shallow box secured to the side of the house. In
large inns the front of the to-bukuro is often composed of a single
richly-grained plank. The closet has a notch [pg 252] on the side, so
that the hand may grasp the edge of each amado in turn, as it is
drawn toward the groove in which runs. A servant will stand at the
to-bukuro and rapidly remove the amado one after the other,
pushing them along the groove like a train of cars.

The to-bukuro is almost always a fixture on the side of the house;

sometimes, however, it has to come on the verandah in such a
position that if it were permanent it would obstruct the light. In such
a case it is arranged on pivots, so that after the amado are stowed
away for the day, it may be swung at right angles away from the
verandah, and against the side of some porch or addition. This form
of swinging to-bukuro is presented in the above sketch (fig. 237).