Data Management

This presentation covers key concepts in data management and

statistics, including data types, measurement levels, sampling
techniques, and data presentation methods. We'll explore how to
organize, analyze and visualize data to extract meaningful insights and
support decision making.
by Christian Boy Cacho
General
Objectives
Organize and Use Statistical
Present Data Tools
Learn to organize and Use a variety of statistical
present data in forms that tools to process and manage
are both meaningful and numerical data
useful for decision makers

Apply Advocate
Regression and Data-Driven
Use the methods of linear
Correlation Advocate
Decisionsthe use of
regression and correlations statistical data in making
to predict the value of a important decisions
variable under certain
conditions
Introduction to Statistics
Influence of Statistics Encountering Statistics
Statistics has a great influence in almost all fields of human Whenever we watch television, listen to a radio, or read
endeavor. It may have different meanings, but what matters newspapers, magazines or books, we encounter statistics.
is how we understand statistics so we can make proper We can find statistics in articles on business, politics, science
judgments when a person or company presents us with an and technology, education, sports, and many other subjects.
argument supported by data. Thus, there is a need of In order to comprehend all the information presented, we
statistical data in every walk of life. must possess a considerable level of understanding about
statistics.
Role of Statistics
Making Summarizing
Inferences and Data
Decisions Helps in summarizing or
Statistics aids in making describing large amounts of
inferences and decisions data
based on data

Forecasting Establishing
Assists in forecasting or Relationships
predicting future outcomes Helps in comparing or
establishing certain
relationships between
variables
Applications of Statistics

Education Business
Provides information about school Helps in quality control and maintenance of
population changes products

Government Finance
Assists in policy-making and resource Aids financial analysts in making
allocation investment decisions
Etymology of Statistics
Origin Modern Usage
The word "statistics" was derived from the Latin word It is actually used to describe collection, reliability,
"status" or from the Italian word "statista", which means organization, representation, analysis, and interpretation of
"political state" or "government". data and not just a collection of numerical results.
Definition of
Statistics
Statistics is a branch of mathematics that deals with collection,
tabulation or representation, analysis, and interpretation of
numerical or quantitative data, and drawing of conclusions about a
population from knowledge of the properties of a sample.
Division of Statistics
Descriptive Statistics Inferential Statistics
A statistical procedure concerned with the description of the A statistical procedure that draws inferences from the
characteristics and properties of a group of persons, places population on the basis of information obtained from the
or things which are based on easily verifiable facts. It sample using the various techniques of descriptive statistics.
organizes the presentation, description, and interpretation
of the gathered data. It also includes the study of
relationships between or among variables.
Descriptive vs. Inferential
Statistics
Descriptive Statistics Inferential Statistics

Describes what is or what the data shows Draws conclusions that extend beyond the
immediate data alone

Provides summaries about the sample and Infers from the sample data what the
the measures population might think

Describes the data in hand Infers the nature of a larger (typically infinite)
set of data

Simply describes what's going on with the Makes inferences from the data to more
data general conditions

Uses sampling techniques Uses sampling distributions and hypothesis

testing

Presents the summary measures of data Uses simple time series analysis, correlation,
and regression

Works in a normal distribution Works in a test on proportion and chi-square

Examples of Descriptive Statistics
Student Interest Basketball Player Performance
"How many students are interested to take Statistics A basketball player wants to find his average shots for
online?" the past 10 games.
Examples of
Inferential Statistics
Academic Election
Performance Prediction
Comparison A politician wants to estimate
"Is there a significant his chance of winning in the
difference in the academic upcoming senatorial
performance of the male and election.
female students in
Statistics?"
Target Practice:
Descriptive vs
Inferential
Read the research article, then classify whether each statement is
descriptive or inferential. Write DS for descriptive statistics and IS for
inferential statistics.
Philippine Economic Update:
Investing in the Future
Growth Economic Growth Poverty Reduction
1 2 3
Performance Rate Projection
In 2017, the Philippines was The Philippine economy grew A sustained economic growth is
among the top three growth from 6.9 percent year-to-year in likely to continue to contribute in
performers in Region III. 2016 to 6.7 percent year-to-year poverty reduction.
in 2017.

Poverty Rate Projection Poverty Alleviation Trend

4 5
The responsiveness of the poverty rate to economic These projections would imply a continuing trend of
growth was then projected to decline from 27.0 one million Filipinos being lifted out of poverty each
percent in 2015 to 22.9 percent and 21.7 percent in year.
2018 and 2019, respectively.
Philippine Economic Update (Continued)

1 2020 Growth 2 Economic Potential 3 Inclusive Growth

Projection The economy is currently growing at In the recent years, the Philippine
In 2020, growth is expected to level its potential, making productive economy has made great strides in
up at 6.6 percent. investment in physical and human delivering inclusive growth, as
capital essential so that it can evidenced by the declining poverty
continue to grow along its current rates and a falling Gini coefficient.
growth trajectory.

4 Employment Trends 5 Wage Stagnation

Underemployment has reached historic low rates, but The employment rate increased between 2006 and 2015,
underemployment remains high, near its 18-20 percent whilst mean wages remained stagnant with only a four
decade-long average. percent increase in real terms over the same period.
Lesson 1: Data
Lesson Objectives:

Define what data is and identify its Classify information according to Identify the most commonly used
types their level of measurement methods of data collection

Determine the different ways of deriving a sample Identify the different methods of presenting a data
What is Data?
Data is a set of observations, values, elements or objects under
consideration.

For a statistician to gain information, he collects data for certain

variables which are used to describe an event.
Types of Data
Raw Data Grouped Data
Data collected from the Data placed in a tabular form
original information. and characterized by class
intervals with a corresponding
frequency.

Primary Data Secondary Data

Data measured and gathered Data republished by another
by the researcher who researcher or agency.
published it.
Lesson 1.1: Levels of
Measurement
When we collect data, we usually classify the information obtained according
to one of the four levels of measurement:

1 2
Nominal Ordinal
The lowest level of measurement The next level of measurement

3 4
Interval Ratio
The third level of measurement The highest level of measurement
Nominal Level of Measurement
Definition Examples
The data at this level of measurement consist of names Sex (male or female), Soft drinks brands (Pepsi, Fruit
only, or qualities with no implied criteria by which the Soda, Coke, Sparkle), Religious affiliation
data can be identified as greater than or less than other
data items.
Ordinal Level of
Measurement
Definition Example
The data at the ordinal level Responses of students on
may be arranged in some the Faculty Evaluation Sheet:
order, but the actual 4 – Excellent, 3 – Very
differences between the data Satisfactory, 2 – Satisfactory,
values are neither 1 – Poor
determined nor
meaningless. It permits the
rank ordering of the
members of a group, but
exact differences are not
computed.
Interval Level of Measurement
Definition Example
The interval level of measurement is like the ordinal Mental ability as defined by IQ
level, but it has the additional property that meaningful
differences between the data values can be computed.
However, interval level data may not have a starting
point or "zero" point.
Ratio Level of
Measurement
Definition Examples
The ratio level of Length, Weight, Number of
measurement is the highest objects
level. This ratio level is
similar to the interval level,
but it includes an inherent
zero as a starting point for all
measurements.
Consequently, at this level,
both differences and ratios
are meaningful.
Target Practice: Levels of
Measurement
Categorize these measurements associated with student life according to level: nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio.

Class category: freshman, Subject evaluation scale: poor, Time of first class
1 2 3
sophomore, junior, senior acceptable, good

Score on last exam (based on 100 possible points) Age of a student

4 5
Target Practice: Levels of
Measurement (Continued)
Weekly allowance of a student Length of time to complete an Grade of a student in Math
1 2 3
exam

Civil status Class standing in a particular section

4 5
Lesson 1.2: Methods of Collecting
Data
There are five (5) most commonly used methods of data collection in educational and psychological research:

1 2 3
Interview method Questionnaire method Observation method

4 5
Registration method Experiment method
Interview Method
Characteristics Advantages Disadvantages
It is a person-to-person exchange It provides consistent and more It is time-consuming, expensive, and
between the interviewer and the precise information since clarification has limited field coverage.
interviewee. may be given by the interviewee. The
questions may be repeated or
modified to suit each interviewee's
level of understanding.
Questionnaire Method
Characteristics Advantages Disadvantages
The responses are written and the It saves time and money. Also, a large There is a high level of probability of
research participants are given more number of samples can be reached in having no response, especially if the
time to answer the prepared a shorter span of time. Additionally, questionnaires are mailed. Likewise,
questions. A questionnaire is a list of the informers may feel a greater the questions which are not easily
questions which are intended to elicit sense of freedom to express their understood will probably not be
answers to the problems of a study. It views and opinions because their answered.
may be mailed or personally anonymity is maintained.
delivered.
Observation Method
Characteristics Advantages Disadvantages
The investigator observes the The data can be easily gathered The information may be subjected to
behavior of persons or organizations during the available time of the subjective judgments.
and their outcomes. It is usually used researcher since it can be done
when the subjects cannot talk or anytime.
write.
Registration Method
Characteristics Advantages Disadvantages
Gathering information from the The most reliable information is kept The data are limited to what is listed
respondents is enforced by certain systematized and made available to in the documents.
laws, policies, rules, regulations, all because of the requirement of the
decrees, or standard practices. law.
Examples are the registration of
births, deaths, motor vehicles,
marriages and licenses.
Experiment Method
Characteristics Advantages Disadvantages
It is used when the objective is to It can go beyond plain description. There are lots of threats to internal
determine the cause-and-effect and external validity.
relationship of certain phenomena
under controlled conditions.
Target Practice: Data Collection
Methods
Identify the best method of collecting data applicable in each objective. Write your answer on the second column aligned to
the item number.

To differentiate the actuations To identify the effects of To determine the proportion of

1 2 3
and actions of elementary pupils trainings and physical workshops dismissed students from the
and high school students. in the Body Mass Index (BMI) of total number of enrolled
the dancers. students.

To identify the students' preferred type of To know the teachers' opinion on the K-to-12 program
4 5
examination. of the Basic Education Curriculum.
Lesson 1.3: Sampling
Techniques
Sampling refers to the process which involves selecting a part of the
population, making observations on this representative group, and
then generalizing the findings to the bigger population.

Sampling techniques or strategies refer to the different ways of deriving

a sample. There are two kinds of sampling techniques:

1 2
Probability Non-probability
Sampling Sampling
Probability Sampling
Definition Characteristics
Probability sampling is a The representative samples
technique where all of the population are
elements in the population selected using this
frame have an equal chance technique. The findings of
of being selected. researches using a
probability sampling can be
used to infer the
characteristics of the
population.
Validity
The findings are more valid when probability sampling is used.
Types of Probability
Sampling

Random Sampling Systematic Sampling

Using lottery sampling or table of random Selecting every kth number from the
numbers population

Stratified Sampling Cluster Sampling

Dividing population into homogeneous Selecting groups rather than individuals
subgroups
Random Sampling
Process Example
Number each subject in the Using a lottery method to
population. Place each select students from a class
number in a bowl, and select list for a survey.
as many card numbers as
needed. The subjects whose
numbers are selected will
constitute the sample.
Systematic
Sampling
Process Example
Number each subject of the In a city with 5000 families,
population and then select selecting every 100th family
every kth number. The first for a survey, starting with a
subject will be selected at randomly chosen number
random from subjects 1 to k. between 1 and 100.
Stratified Sampling
Process Characteristics
Divide the population into Strata are designed so that
specific subgroups or strata. members in each stratum
Select representatives from are more homogenous, that
each stratum to ensure is, more similar to each
sufficient numbers for other.
sub-analysis.

Application
Particularly useful in populations that can be stratified into groups
by gender, race, or geography.
Cluster Sampling
Process Characteristics
Select the members of your Any intact group of similar
sample in clusters rather characteristics is a cluster.
than use separate
individuals. Groups, not
individuals, are randomly
selected.

Application
Sometimes referred to as area sampling because it is frequently
applied on a geographical basis.
Multi-Stage
Sampling
Process Application
Uses several stages or Multi-stage sampling is
phases in getting the sample useful in conducting
from the general population. nationwide surveys or any
The selection of the sample survey involving a large
is still done at random. universe.
Non-probability
Sampling
Definition Characteristics
Non-probability sampling is a Certain parts in the overall
strategy where not all group are deliberately not
elements in the population included in the selection of
frame have an equal chance the representative subgroup.
of being selected.

Alternative Names
Also called non-random or judgment sampling because it makes
use of judgment in the selection of items to put into the subgroup.
Types of Non-probability
Sampling

Purposive Sampling Quota Sampling

Based on specific criteria set by the Selecting samples based on predetermined
researcher characteristics

Convenience Sampling
Based on the convenience of the
researcher
Purposive or
Deliberate Sampling
Process Example
Based on certain criteria laid A researcher might choose to
down by the researcher. interview key executives of
People who satisfy the the five biggest banks to
criteria are interviewed. gauge reactions to a Central
Bank Circular, believing their
reactions are most
significant.

Limitation
The answers obtained through this procedure are not
representative of the entire population (e.g., the entire banking
system).
Quota Sampling
Process Assumption
Identify a set of important It is assumed that the
characteristics of a samples will match the
population and then select population with regard to the
your desired samples in a chosen set of characteristics.
non-random way.

Example
In a research class, determining the most favored soft drinks by
interviewing televiewers who drink soft drinks until reaching a
quota.
Convenience or
Accidental Sampling
Process Example
This sampling strategy is Conducting telephone
based on the convenience of interviews about national
the researcher. reconciliation in the
Philippines, which would
only include those who have
telephones.

Limitation
This method can introduce bias, as it excludes certain segments of
the population (e.g., those without telephones).
Target Practice: Sampling
Techniques
Identify what sampling technique is exemplified in each statement. Write your answer on the second column aligned to the
item number.

Every 12th customer entering a In a university, all teachers from Supervisors are selected using
1 2 3
shopping mall is asked to select three buildings are interviewed random numbers in order to
his or her favorite store. to determine whether they think determine their annual salaries.
students have higher grades now
than in previous years.

A teacher writes the name of each student in a card, A head nurse selects 10 patients from each floor of a
4 5
shuffles the cards, and then draws five names. hospital.
Lesson 1.4: Methods of
Presenting Data
The collected data must be organized in order to show significant characteristics.
They can be presented in three (3) forms:

1 2
Textual Tabular
Data presented in a paragraph form Data presented in rows and columns

3
Graphical
Data presented in a visual form
Textual Form
Description Characteristics
This is the simplest method Results are explained in a
of presenting data paragraph form. This
particularly when there are includes enumerating the
only a few numbers to be important characteristics,
presented. emphasizing the most
significant features, and
highlighting the most striking
attributes of the set of data.

Example: In the College of Education, the data show that out of 186
freshmen, 89 or 47.85% are male while 97 or 52.15% are female.
Tabular Form
Description Key Component
The data are presented in a The frequency distribution
systematic and orderly table (FDT) is a statistical
manner to catch one's table showing the frequency
attention as it may facilitate or number of observations
the comprehension and contained in each of the
analysis of the data defined classes or categories.
presented.
Parts of a Statistical
Table
Table Heading Body
1 2
Includes the table number Refers to the main part of
and title of the table. the table that contains the
information of figures.

Stubs or classes Box head

3 4
Located at the top of the
Refer to the classifications body.
or categories describing the
data and are usually found
at the leftmost side of the
table.
Graphical Form
Description Definition
In this form, the data are presented in a visual form. A graph is a pictorial presentation of a given set of data.
The numerical data provided in a frequency distribution It should have good appearance, and should be
or contingency table can be made more interesting and accurate, clear and simple.
easier to understand when depicted in a graphical
form.
Types of Graphs

Scatter Graph Line Graph Bar or Column Circle Graph

Used for related interval or Shows trends over time Graph Represents parts of a whole
ratio data For nominal and ordinal
data
Scatter Graph
Use Application
It is a graph used to present Useful for showing
values or measurements that relationships between two
are thought to be related. variables.
This graph is used when the
data are interval or ratio.
Line Graph
Use Application
It is a graphical presentation Ideal for displaying changes
of data especially useful in in data over time.
showing trends over a period
of time. This graph is used
when the data are interval or
ratio.
Bar or Column Graph
Use Application
It is like a circle graph and Effective for comparing
only applicable to grouped quantities across different
data. This consists of bars or categories.
heavy lines of equal widths,
either vertical or horizontal.
This graph is used when the
data are considered nominal
and ordinal.
Circle Graph
Use Application
It is also known as a circular or pie chart. This is used to This graph is used when the data is nominal, ordinal,
represent the parts that make up a whole. Pie charts interval, or ratio. However, it is not practical to use a pie
are most effective when illustrating budget allocations chart when there are more than five or six possible
of a family or an agency, or in dealing with qualitative values for a variable.
variables involving popularity.