UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF LAW AND LEGAL STUDIES

HISTORY ASSIGNMENT ON NAPOLEAN ERA

SUBMITTED TO: MR. ALTAF HUSSAIN

SUBMITTED BY: MAAHIN GUPTA

ENROLLMENT NO. 03216503823

BALLB (HONS), 4th SEMESTER

INTRODUCTION

Napoleon Bonaparte was born on August 15, 1769, in Ajaccio, Corsica. So, Napoleon was
French by birth. Originally known as the Bonaparte family, they were a minor Italian nobility
with Tuscan roots and Lombard ancestry. Napoleon’s father, Carlo (Charles) Bonaparte, was a
lawyer. He served as Corsica’s representative to the Court of Louis XVI in 1778. Napoleon came
from a noble and moderately wealthy family, which gave him more chances for education than
most Corsicans at the time. Since he was part of a large family, it was expected that he would
join the military early on. At the age of nine, in May 1779, Napoleon started attending a French
military school in Brienne. He graduated from Brienne in 1784 and then went to the prestigious
École Royale Militaire in Paris. Napoleon Bonaparte began his military career in 1785 as a
second lieutenant in an artillery regiment after graduating from the École Militaire in Paris.
Stationed in Valence and Auxonne, he spent the early years of the French Revolution (1789–
1793) navigating political and military conflicts in Corsica, where tensions with Corsican leader
Pascal Paoli forced his family to flee to France in 1793. Aligning with the Jacobins during the
civil war, Napoleon gained prominence as an artillery commander at the Siege of Toulon, where
his strategic planning led to victory against British forces, earning him a promotion to brigadier-
general at age 24.

Napoleon's defense of the National Convention during a royalist uprising in 1795 further
elevated his reputation. His decisive use of artillery to repel attackers solidified his status as a
hero of the Republic and garnered the support of influential figures like Barras. This success
brought him wealth, fame, and political connections, culminating in his marriage to Josephine de
Beauharnais in 1796.

CONSULATE PERIOD: 1799-1804

Assuming power on December 25, 1799, under a constitution that granted him supreme
authority, Napoleon operated more akin to an absolute monarch than a leader of revolutionary
ideals during his tenure as First Consul. His governance approach prioritised allegiance to the
state, merit-based rewards, and the establishment of a proficient hierarchical administrative
system. Nevertheless, social standing remained predominantly influenced by wealth.
PROBLEMS BEFORE NAPOLEON CAME TO POWER

France was plagued by a series of long-standing issues. In the western region, approximately
40,000 Chouans disrupted order, impeding communication between Paris and the Atlantic coast
while defying governmental authority. The southern areas and the Rhone Valley were overrun by
bandits, posing threats to travellers, postal services, and affluent households. Tax evasion was
prevalent, the currency had depreciated significantly, and the government’s credit was severely
damaged. The clergy rebelled against the state, while government officials exploited the
populace for personal gain. Urban workers faced unemployment, and merchants and
manufacturers suffered from economic stagnation. The Revolution’s challenges to Catholicism
and the organisation of the Catholic Church further exacerbated France’s difficulties.

REFORMS UNDERTAKEN BY NAPOLEON

POLITICAL REFORMS

By 1802, Napoleon had solidified his authority through a combination of political strategy and
institutional reform. After securing temporary peace in Europe with the Treaty of Amiens and
resolving religious tensions domestically via the Concordat, the Senate granted him expanded
powers, including the title of Consul for Life, following a heavily manipulated plebiscite where
over 99% of voters (approximately 3.65 million) approved the change. This transition was
formalized through the Constitution of Year X, which centralized power under Napoleon,
introduced succession rights for his heirs, and restructured governance by implementing a prefect
system. Under this system, each of France’s 83 departments was administered by state-appointed
prefects who enforced government policies, ensuring uniformity and compliance with directives
from Paris. These reforms marked a decisive shift from revolutionary republicanism to a
centralized authoritarian regime, laying the groundwork for Napoleon’s eventual coronation as
Emperor in 1804.
Centralised Government

In 1800, Napoleon Bonaparte introduced the Law of 17 February, fundamentally restructuring

France’s administrative system to centralize governance and enhance efficiency. Retaining the
83 departments established during the Revolution, he abolished the autonomy of elected
Departmental Councils, replacing them with appointed Prefects, Sub-Prefects, and Mayors to
oversee departments, districts, and municipalities. These officials were supported by councils at
various levels to ensure compliance with government directives. Napoleon also transformed the
Secretariat of State into the Ministry of State under Murat’s leadership, creating a centralized
registry for better oversight of ministries while avoiding collective responsibility. Additionally,
he centralized tax assessment and collection, requiring tax collectors to deposit a portion of
anticipated collections in advance. These measures reinstated centralization similar to the Ancien
Régime while introducing bureaucratic local governance, enabling Napoleon to maintain tight
control over administrative and financial systems.

Napolean code

One of Napoleon’s most significant accomplishments was the overhaul of the French legal
system, leading to the creation of seven legal codes, starting with the Napoleonic Code in 1804.
Over the following five years, additional codes covering criminal and commercial matters were
introduced. These reforms were designed to streamline the previously complicated legal
framework and reflect key ideals of the French Revolution, such as personal liberty, religious
freedom, and legal equality.

The Napoleonic Code, introduced in 1804, was a transformative legal reform that brought
consistency and modernization to French law, replacing the disjointed and outdated feudal
system. Rooted in Enlightenment and revolutionary ideals, it emphasized legal clarity, equality,
and secular governance. Key principles included equal treatment of all male citizens under the
law, protection of civil liberties and property rights, and the establishment of a secular legal
framework, reducing the Church's influence in civil matters like marriage and inheritance. The
Code ensured fairer inheritance practices and eliminated noble privileges, while also reinforcing
patriarchal structures by limiting women's legal rights. Judicial authority was streamlined, with
judges restricted to applying laws rather than interpreting them.
Concordat of 1801

The Napoleonic Code, along with related reforms such as the Concordat of 1801 and the Organic
Articles of 1802, redefined the relationship between the French state and the Catholic Church by
firmly establishing secular authority over religious institutions. While religion was recognized as
a stabilizing force in society, Napoleon curtailed the Church’s independence, stripping it of
control over civil matters like marriage and inheritance. The Concordat restored limited religious
influence but placed clergy under state supervision, requiring loyalty to the regime. The Organic
Articles extended state control by regulating religious practices and education among
denominations. Napoleon used religion as a tool to promote loyalty and obedience, turning the
Church into an instrument of state policy. These changes significantly weakened the Church’s
power and paved the way for France’s eventual full separation of church and state in 1905,
marking a lasting shift toward secular governance.

ECONOMIC REFORMS

1. Centralized Financial Institutions and Taxation

The establishment of the Bank of France in 1800 was a key step in stabilizing the post-
revolutionary French economy, which had been plagued by hyperinflation due to the failed
assignat currency. Created to restore financial confidence, the Bank issued a uniform currency
(the franc), regulated credit, and provided funding to both the government and private sector. It
played a central role in shaping France’s monetary policy and laid the foundation for modern
central banking practices across Europe. Napoleon’s tax reforms centralized the tax collection
process by replacing the inefficient and often corrupt local systems with a unified national
administration overseen by the Ministry of Finance. He implemented direct taxes, such as a land
tax based on property value and a personal tax tied to income, which provided a reliable source
of revenue.

2. Currency and Trade Policies

Napoleon’s currency and trade policies aimed to stabilize the economy and promote self-
sufficiency. The introduction of the Franc Germinal in 1803, backed by gold and silver, ended
inflation and restored confidence in the currency, with its stability lasting until World War I.

4. Agricultural Reforms

Napoleon’s agricultural reforms focused on land redistribution and increasing productivity. By

selling confiscated Church and noble lands (biens nationaux) to peasants, he created a loyal class
of small landowners. To boost output, he promoted practices like crop rotation and introduced
beet sugar to reduce dependence on British-imported cane sugar. He also eased the tax burden on
small farmers by lowering land taxes, encouraging greater cultivation.

5. War Economy and Financing

Napoleon financed his military campaigns through a war economy centered on the “Extra-
Ordinary Domain,” which relied on war indemnities from defeated nations like Prussia and
Austria to avoid taxing the French population. In addition, the seizure of valuable assets—such
as art, gold, and resources, from conquered regions enriched the French treasury. To support
constant warfare, he nationalized arms factories to guarantee a consistent supply of weapons and
introduced conscription, which not only maintained a vast army but also helped reduce
unemployment and channel potential social unrest into military service.

EDUCATIONAL REFORMS

Napoleon Bonaparte centralized France's education system under state control to cultivate
loyalty, meritocracy, and technical expertise. Through the Imperial University (1808), he
standardized curricula nationwide, replacing Church influence with a secular, three-tier structure:
primary schools (basic literacy), state-run secondary schools (classical and scientific education),
and specialized higher institutions like lycées and technical academies. These reforms prioritized
producing skilled bureaucrats, engineers, and soldiers, offering scholarships to talented students
regardless of class. However, access remained limited—only 1 in 8 children attended primary
schools by 1812—and girls were largely excluded, relegated to domestic training in Church-
affiliated schools. Teachers were licensed and monitored to enforce uniformity, while curricula
emphasized patriotism to bolster Napoleon’s regime. The lycées, modeled on military academies,
became incubators for future leaders, teaching rigorous subjects like mathematics, Latin, and
sciences to prepare students for civil service or military careers.

LEGION OF HONOUR

It was established by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1802, is France’s highest order of merit,

recognizing exceptional military and civilian contributions. Designed to replace feudal
hierarchies, it promoted meritocracy by rewarding individuals regardless of class or birth, with
membership divided into five ranks (Chevalier to Grand-Croix) and governed by the motto
Honneur et Patrie ("Honour and Fatherland"). Initially used to consolidate loyalty during
Napoleon’s regime, it evolved into a secular institution emphasizing equality, with recipients
swearing oaths to uphold republican values. Today, it remains a globally influential symbol of
meritocratic ideals, administered under the French President and awarded to figures like Marie
Curie, reflecting its enduring legacy as a bridge between revolutionary principles and modern
governance.

Aristocratic privileges with a system that incentivized service to the state. By rewarding both
soldiers and civilians—from battlefield heroes to scientists—it reinforced loyalty to his regime
while advancing Enlightenment ideals of equality. The order’s structure, with ascending ranks
like Chevalier and Grand-Croix, mirrored military hierarchies but was accessible to all,
symbolizing a break from the Ancien Régime.

WARS OF NAPOLEON

The Battle of Trafalgar

It was a pivotal naval clash where Admiral Horatio Nelson's British fleet decisively defeated the
combined Franco-Spanish forces under Admiral Villeneuve off Spain's coast. Nelson employed
innovative tactics, splitting his 27 ships into two columns to breach the enemy's 33-ship line,
enabling close-range combat that leveraged superior British gunnery. The victory cost Nelson his
life but annihilated 18 enemy vessels, ending Napoleon's invasion plans and securing British
naval supremacy for over a century. Trafalgar cemented Nelson's legacy as a national hero and
reshaped global power dynamics, ensuring Britain's dominance at sea while forcing Napoleon to
focus on continental campaigns.

Battle of Austerlitz

The Battle of Austerlitz (2 December 1805), also known as the Battle of the Three Emperors,
was Napoleon Bonaparte’s greatest victory, where his 73,000 French troops defeated an 85,000-
strong Austro-Russian coalition. Using strategic deception, Napoleon lured enemy forces to
attack his weakened right flank, then recaptured the Pratzen Heights and split their lines, leading
to a devastating rout. The battle resulted in heavy Allied losses (16,000 casualties, 11,000
captured) compared to French losses (8,500), forcing Austria’s surrender via the Treaty of
Pressburg and dissolving the Holy Roman Empire. Austerlitz cemented Napoleon’s dominance
in Europe, showcased his tactical genius in maneuver warfare, and remains a landmark in
military history for its use of psychological deception and decisive force concentration.

War of the Fourth Coalition

The War of the Fourth Coalition (1806–1807) saw Prussia, Russia, Saxony, Sweden, and
Britain challenge Napoleon’s dominance, ending in decisive French victories. Napoleon crushed
Prussia at Jena-Auerstedt , leading to Berlin’s occupation and the Continental System blockade
against Britain. The bloody stalemate at Eylau against Russia was followed by Napoleon’s
decisive triumph at Friedland, forcing Russia into the Treaties of Tilsit. These treaties carved up
Prussia, reduced it to a secondary power, and allied Russia with France, while creating
the Duchy of Warsaw to counter Austria. The coalition’s collapse solidified French hegemony in
Europe, though economic strain from the Continental System sowed seeds for future conflicts.

Battle of Borodino

Napoleon’s invasion of Russia (June–December 1812) aimed to force Tsar Alexander I to

comply with the Continental System, but ended in catastrophic failure. Leading a 600,000-
strong Grande Armée, Napoleon advanced deep into Russia, only to face scorched-earth
tactics and a retreating enemy. The Battle of Borodino yielded no decisive victory, and his
occupation of Moscow proved futile as the city burned and supplies dwindled. The subsequent
retreat, plagued by starvation, freezing temperatures, and guerrilla attacks, reduced his army to
fewer than 10% of its original size. This disaster shattered Napoleon’s military reputation,
emboldened the Sixth Coalition, and became a symbol of strategic overreach, illustrating the
fatal risks of attrition warfare against Russia’s vast terrain and climate.

Battle of Waterloo

The Battle of Waterloo (18 June 1815) was Napoleon Bonaparte’s final defeat, ending his brief
return to power (Hundred Days) and the Napoleonic Wars. Fought in Belgium, Napoleon’s
72,000 troops faced the Duke of Wellington’s Anglo-allied army and Field Marshal Blücher’s
Prussian forces. Despite initial victories at Ligny (16 June), Napoleon failed to destroy the
Prussians, allowing Blücher to reinforce Wellington at Waterloo. Critical French errors—
including Marshal Ney’s premature cavalry charges and Marshal Grouchy’s failure to intercept
Prussian reinforcements—proved decisive. The arrival of Blücher’s troops shattered Napoleon’s
flank, and the collapse of the elite Imperial Guard triggered a rout. With ~26,000 French
casualties, Napoleon abdicated days later, leading to his exile on Saint Helena and the restoration
of the French monarchy. Waterloo cemented Britain’s rise as a global power and marked the end
of French dominance in Europe.

DOWNFALL OF NAPOLEAN

Police State

Napoleon Bonaparte established a police state in France by centralizing surveillance and

suppressing dissent through a network of secret police, prefects, and informants who monitored
citizens and censored the press. He bypassed legal protections, detaining political opponents
without trial and stifling free speech, effectively undermining the revolutionary Declaration of
the Rights of Man. Institutions like the Ministry of General Police enforced loyalty to the regime,
controlling publications and public discourse. While less extreme than modern authoritarian
systems, Napoleon’s framework prioritized state security over civil liberties, influencing later
French governance and demonstrating how revolutionary ideals of freedom could be eroded
through centralized control.

Failure Of the Continental System

The Continental System (1806–1814) failed due to Britain’s naval supremacy, which enabled
smuggling and trade diversification to the Americas, countering Napoleon’s embargo. European
allies like Russia and Spain defied the blockade to avoid economic collapse from shortages of
British goods, while France’s own economy suffered from port stagnation and industrial
inefficiency. Napoleon’s heavy-handed enforcement—invading Portugal, Spain, and Russia—
exhausted his military and alienated allies, exacerbating unrest.

Peninsular War

As Napoleon lamented: "The Spanish ulcer ruined me," highlighting the Peninsular War's role in
his decline.The Peninsular War was a protracted conflict in which Napoleon's forces faced fierce
resistance after invading Spain and Portugal to enforce the Continental System and install his
brother Joseph as Spain's ruler. Sparked by Spanish uprisings and British intervention, the war
became a draining quagmire of guerrilla warfare and large-scale battles, with Arthur Wellesley
leading Anglo-Portuguese forces to key victories like Vitoria. Dubbed the "Spanish Ulcer" by
Napoleon, the war depleted French resources, weakened morale, and exposed logistical
vulnerabilities, contributing to his empire's decline. It also spurred Spanish liberal reforms and
bolstered Britain's military prestige, while leaving the Iberian Peninsula economically devastated
and politically fractured.

Russian Invasion

The Russian Invasion of 1812 was a catastrophic campaign in which Napoleon led over 600,000
troops into Russia to force Tsar Alexander I into compliance with the Continental System.
Despite capturing Moscow in September, the Russians employed scorched-earth tactics and
strategic retreats, leaving the city abandoned and burning. Facing extreme winter conditions,
starvation, and guerrilla attacks, Napoleon’s Grande Armée suffered devastating losses, with
fewer than 20,000 soldiers surviving the retreat. The invasion’s failure shattered Napoleon’s
military reputation, depleted French resources, and emboldened European powers to form
coalitions that ultimately led to his downfall.

Battle of Waterloo

The Battle of Waterloo marked Napoleon Bonaparte’s final defeat, ending his brief resurgence
during the Hundred Days. Leading a 72,000-strong French army against the Duke of
Wellington’s Anglo-Allied forces and Marshal Blücher’s Prussian reinforcements, Napoleon’s
initial assaults on fortified positions like Hougomont and La Haye Sainte failed due to Allied
resilience and strategic missteps, including Marshal Ney’s disastrous cavalry charges. The timely
arrival of Prussian forces shattered French flanks, forcing a chaotic retreat with over 25,000
French casualties. Napoleon abdicated days later and was exiled to Saint Helena, while the
Bourbon monarchy was restored..

Personal Overconfidence

Napoleon Bonaparte's personal overconfidence was a significant factor in his eventual downfall.
His belief in his invincibility and destiny led him to overestimate his abilities while
underestimating external factors and opponents. This flaw was evident in major missteps like
the Russian invasion of 1812, where he ignored warnings about logistical challenges and the
harsh winter, resulting in catastrophic losses for his army. Similarly, Napoleon underestimated
adversaries like Wellington at Waterloo, dismissing him as a subpar general, which contributed
to his defeat..