CHAPTER

1 Cell – The Unit of Life

"The cell, often called the 'building block of life,' is a marvel of nature's
engineering. Ever wondered how something so small can control all the
activities of a living organism? What secrets lie within its tiny structures like the
nucleus, mitochondria, and ribosomes? This chapter takes you on an exciting
journey to explore the fascinating world of cells – how they function,
communicate, and form the foundation of all life on Earth. Get ready to uncover
the mysteries of this microscopic yet mighty unit of life!"

Cell • Cytoplasm is main arena of cellular activities

• Cell is the fundamental structural and in both plant and animal cells.
functional unit of all living organisms.
Prokaryotic Cells
• Anton Von Leeuwenhoek first saw and
• Lack membrane bound nucleus and cell
described a live cell.
organelles.
Cell Theory • Represented by bacteria, blue-green algae,
mycoplasma and PPLO (0.1μm).
• Cell theory was given by two scientists
• In addition to genomic DNA, many bacteria
Schleiden and Schwann.
have small circular DNA outside the genomic
• It states that all plants or animals are composed DNA called plasmids.
of cells and their products. • All prokaryotes have a cell wall surrounding
• Rudolf Virchow explained that new cells arise the cell membrane (except mycoplasma).
from pre-existing cells (Omnis cellula-e • Most prokaryotic cells have cell envelope
cellula) and finally modified the cell theory as: which is tightly bound three layered structure
(i) All living organisms are composed of i.e., the outermost glycocalyx followed by the
cells and products of cells. cell wall and then the plasma membrane.
(ii) All cells arise from pre-existing cells. • Glycocalyx differs in composition and
thickness among different bacteria. It could be
An Overview of Cell a loose sheath called the slime layer in some,
• Cells vary in size, shape, and function. while in others it may be thick and tough,
Mycoplasmas are the smallest cells (0.3 µm), called the capsule.
• Mesosomes are extensions of plasma
while bacteria are 3–5 µm, and the ostrich egg
membrane into the cell. It helps in cell wall
is the largest cell. Human red blood cells are
formation, DNA replication, distribution of
7.0 µm, and nerve cells are among the longest. daughter cells, respiration, secretion process
Cell shapes, such as disc-like, cuboid, or and increase the surface area of plasma
irregular, align with their functions. membrane.

NEET (XI) BOTANY 1

• In cyanobacteria, chromatophores contain Cell membrane
pigments. • The membrane's detailed structure was studied
• Prokaryotic cells have surface structures - using the electron microscope in the 1950s.
flagella, pili and fimbriae. Pili and fimbriae • Chemical studies on human red blood cells
are also surface structures of the bacteria but (RBCs) revealed that the plasma membrane is
do not play a role in motility. primarily composed of lipids and proteins.
• Bacteria may be motile or non-motile. If motile • Phospholipids form a bilayer with:
they have flagella, composed of three parts: o Polar heads facing outward.
Filament (longest portion), hook and basal o Hydrophobic tails facing inward,
body. protecting them from the aqueous
• Bacteria can be classified into two groups on environment.
the basis of the differences in the cell • Cholesterol is also present in the membrane.
envelopes and the manner in which they • Proteins and carbohydrates are part of the
respond to the staining. Those who take up the membrane, with the protein-to-lipid ratio
gram stain are Gram positive and the others varying among cell types.
that do not are called Gram negative bacteria. • Example: Human erythrocyte membranes
• Ribosomes are non-membrane bound contain ~52% protein and ~40% lipids.
organelles. • Membrane proteins are classified into:
• Ribosomes are 70S, has subunits 50S and 30S. o Peripheral proteins: Located on the
Several ribosomes may attach to a single surface.
mRNA and form a chain called polyribosome o Integral proteins: Partially or fully
or polysome. embedded in the membrane.
• Reserve material is stored in the form of • Cell membrane is mainly composed of proteins
inclusion bodies in prokaryotic cytoplasm. and lipids (mainly phospholipids).
E.g., phosphate granules, cyanophycean • Membrane proteins can be integral or
granules and glycogen granules. peripheral.
• Gas vacuoles are found in blue-green, purple • Most accepted model for structure of cell
membrane is fluid mosaic model given by
and green photosynthetic bacteria.
Singer and Nicolson (1972).
Eukaryotic Cells • Membrane is selectively permeable.
• The quasi-fluid nature of lipid enables lateral
movement of proteins within the overall
bilayer. This ability to move within the
membrane is measured as its fluidity.

• The eukaryotes include all the protists, plants,

animals and fungi.
• Besides the nucleus, eukaryotic cells have
other membrane bound structure called
organelles like ER, Golgi complex etc.

NEET (XI) Botany 2

• The fluid nature of membrane is important for • Middle lamella: It is a layer mainly composed
cell growth, formation of intercellular junctions, of calcium pectate that holds the different
secretion, endocytosis, cell division etc. neighbouring cells together.
• Many molecules can move briefly across the • Cell wall of algae: Cellulose, galactans,
membrane without any requirement of energy mannans and calcium carbonate.
and this is called the passive transport. • Cell wall of plants: Cellulose, hemicellulose,
• Neutral solutes may move across the pectin and proteins.
membrane by the process of simple diffusion
Endomembrane system
along the concentration gradient, i.e., from
• Endomembrane system is made up of
higher concentration to the lower. Water may Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER), Golgi complex
also move across this membrane from higher to (GC), lysosomes and vacuole.
lower concentration. Movement of water by
diffusion is called osmosis.
• A few ions or molecules are transported across
the membrane against their concentration
gradient, i.e., from lower to the higher
concentration. Such a transport is an energy
dependent process, in which ATP is utilised and
is clled active transport, e.g., Na+/K+ Pump.

Cell Wall
• Cell wall is a non-living rigid structure forms
an outer covering of the plasma membrane in
fungi and plants.

Endoplasmic reticulum

Golgi apparatus
• Electron microscopy reveals a network of
Plant Cell tubular structures in the cytoplasm called the
• Primary wall: Cell wall of a young plant cell endoplasmic reticulum (ER).
is capable of growth which gradually • The ER divides the intracellular space into two
diminishes as the cell matures. compartments:
• Secondary wall: As cell matures, it is formed • Luminal (inside ER).
on inner side (towards membrane) of the cell. • Extra-luminal (cytoplasm).

NEET (XI) Botany 3

Types of ER: Lysosomes:
• Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER): • Lysosomes are membrane-bound vesicular
o Has ribosomes on its surface. structures formed in the Golgi apparatus,
containing hydrolytic enzymes like lipases,
o Common in cells actively synthesizing
proteases, and carbohydrases. These enzymes
and secreting proteins. function optimally at acidic pH to digest
o Continuous with the outer nuclear carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic
membrane. acids.
• Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER): Vacuole:
o Lacks ribosomes and appears smooth. • The vacuole is a membrane-bound space in the
o Major site for lipid synthesis. cytoplasm, enclosed by the tonoplast, and
o Synthesizes steroidal hormones in animal contains water, sap, excretory products, and
other materials. In plant cells, vacuoles can
cells.
occupy up to 90% of the cell's volume and
maintain higher ion concentrations than the
Golgi Apparatus:
cytoplasm. In Amoeba, the contractile vacuole
• Camillo Golgi (1898) first observed densely
aids in osmoregulation and excretion, while
stained reticular structures near the nucleus, food vacuoles in protists form by engulfing
later named Golgi bodies. food particles.
Structure: Ribosomes
• Composed of flat, disc-shaped sacs called • Ribosomes are non-membrane bound
cisternae (0.5µm to 1.0µm in diameter). organelles (80S - cytoplasm and 70S -
mitochondria and chloroplast), involved in
• Cisternae are stacked parallel and arranged
protein synthesis.
near the nucleus.
• Has two distinct faces:
• Cis face (forming face):Convex and receives
materials from the ER.
• Trans face (maturing face): Concave and
releases modified materials.
• The cis and trans faces are interconnected.
Functions:
• Packages materials for delivery to intracellular Mitochondria
targets or secretion outside the cell. • Mitochondria is the site of aerobic respiration
• Vesicles from the ER fuse with the cis face and and produce cellular energy in the form of
ATP, hence called 'power house of the cell'.
move toward the trans face.
• Modifies proteins synthesized in the ER before
releasing them.
• Key site for the formation of glycoproteins and
glycolipids.
• The Golgi apparatus works closely with the
Structure of Mitochondrion
endoplasmic reticulum.

NEET (XI) Botany 4

• Each mitochondria is a double membrane • Flat membranous tubules, called stroma
bound structure. lamellae, connect thylakoids of different grana.
• It contain single circular DNA molecule, a few • Each thylakoid encloses a space known as the
RNA molecules, ribosomes (70S) and the lumen.
components required for the synthesis of • Chlorophyll pigments are located in the
proteins. thylakoid membranes.
• Chloroplast ribosomes (70S) are smaller than
Plastids cytoplasmic ribosomes (80S).
• Plastids are found in all plant cells and in • The stroma of chloroplast contains small,
euglenoids. double stranded circular DNA molecules and
• Chloroplast contain chlorophyll and ribosomes (70 S).
carotenoid pigments. • Cytoskeleton is an elaborate network of
• Leucoplast are colourless plastids. filamentous proteinaceous structures present in
• Amyloplasts store carbohydrates e.g. potato, the cytoplasm. It involves in many functions
elaioplasts store oils and fats whereas the such as mechanical support, motility and
aleuroplast store proteins. maintenance of the shape of the cell.
• Chloroplast are double membrane bound • Cilia and flagella are hair-like outgrowths of
structure. the cell membrane.

Sectional view of chloroplast

• Chloroplasts are double membrane-bound
organelles. Section of cilia/flagella
• The inner membrane is relatively less • The central core in cilia and flagella is
permeable. axoneme having 9 + 2 array of microtubules.
• The space enclosed by the inner membrane is • Both cilium and flagellum arise from centriole
called the stroma. like structure called basal bodies.
• It contains enzymes for carbohydrate and • Centrosome is an organelle usually containing
protein synthesis, circular double-stranded two cylindrical structures called centrioles,
DNA, and 70S ribosomes. having 9 + 0 array of microtubules.
• The stroma contains flattened, organized • Centrioles form the basal body of cilia or
membranous sacs called thylakoids. flagella, and spindle fibres that give rise to
• Thylakoids are arranged in stacks called grana spindle apparatus during cell division in animal
(singular: granum) or intergranal thylakoids. cells.

NEET (XI) Botany 5

• Nucleus was discovered by Robert Brown and • The centromere holds the two chromatids of a
the name chromatin was given by Flemming. chromosome together.
• Chromosomes are classified based on
centromere position:

1. Metacentric: Centromere in the middle,

forming two equal arms.
2. Sub-metacentric: Centromere slightly off-
center, creating one shorter arm and one longer
Structure of nucleus arm.
3. Acrocentric: Centromere near the end,
• Interphase Nucleus has chromatin, nuclear
resulting in one very short arm and one very
matrix and nucleolus. Nucleus has the
long arm.
membranes and the space between two
4. Telocentric: Centromere at the terminal end of
membranes is perinuclear space.
the chromosome.
• The nuclear matrix or the nucleoplasm
contains nucleolus and chromatin.
• Chromatin contains DNA,
some basic histones, some
nonhistones and some
RNA.
• Every chromosome has
primary constriction
called centromere on Types of chromosomes based on the position of
the sides of which disc- centromere
shaped structures • Microbodies are membrane bound minute
vesicles which contain enzymes and are
called kinetochores
present in both plant and animal cells.
are present.

NEET (XI) Botany 6

 CHAPTER

6 Morphology of Flowering Plants

Have you ever wondered how plants, though 2. Fibrous roots:-
rooted in one place, adapt so remarkably to These roots
their surroundings? From the vibrant petals originate from
of a rose to the twisting tendrils of a pea the base of the
plant, each structure has a unique story to
stem, as seen in
tell. In this chapter, we’ll delve into the
fascinating world of flowering plants to the wheat
understand how their forms and functions are plant. Fibrous roots
intricately designed for survival,
reproduction, and growth. Let’s explore how 3. Adventitious
a simple root, stem, leaf, or flower hides roots:-
incredible complexity, waiting to be These roots arise
uncovered!
from parts of the
plant other than the
radicle, as seen in
some plants, like
grass, Monstera
and the banyan
tree. Adventitious roots

Regions of the Root:

The four main regions of a root are:
1. Root Cap:
● Thimble-like structure at the root apex.
● Protects the tender root apex as it moves
through the soil.
Parts of a flowering plant
2. Region of Meristematic Activity:
ROOTS: ● Located a few millimeters above the root
1. Tap roots:- The cap.
primary roots and its ● Cells are small, thin-walled, and have dense
branches constitute
the tap root system, protoplasm.
as seen in the ● Cells divide repeatedly.
mustard plant.
3. Region of Elongation:
● Located proximal to the meristematic region.
● Cells undergo rapid elongation and
enlargement.
● Responsible for the increase in root length.

NEET (XI) BOTANY 1

4. Region of Maturation: Specialised functions:
● Located proximal to the elongation region. ● Storage of food.
● Cells differentiate and mature. ● Provides support and protection.
● Some epidermal cells form root hairs. ● Enables vegetative propagation.
● Root hairs are fine, thread-like structures. It
helps in water and mineral absorption from
THE LEAF
the soil.
Function of the root systems: General Features
● Main function is to absorb water and ● Definition: A lateral, flattened structure
nutrients for the plant's growth and survival. borne on the stem.
● It also helps anchor the plant in the soil. ● Origin: Develops from the shoot apical
meristems and arranged in acropetal order.
● Function: Primary organ for photosynthesis.

Parts of a Typical Leaf

1. Leaf Base:
● Attaches the leaf to the stem.
● May bear small, leaf-like structures
called stipules.
● In monocots: Expands into a sheath
around the stem.
The regions of the root-tip ● In legumes: Can be swollen, forming a
pulvinus.
STEM:
Structure and Origin:
2. Petiole:
● The stem is the ascending part of the plant
axis. ● Holds the leaf blade to light.
● Develops from the plumule of the embryo in ● Long, flexible petioles allow leaves to
a germinating seed. flutter, aiding cooling and air circulation.

Nodes and Internodes: 3. Lamina (Leaf Blade):

● Nodes: Regions where leaves are born. ● Green, expanded part with veins and
● Internodes: Portions between two nodes.
veinlets.
● Midrib: Prominent central vein.
Buds:
● Stem bears buds, which may be terminal or ● Functions: Provides rigidity, transport
axillary. channels for water, minerals, and food.
● Varies in shape, margin, apex, surface,
Colour and Texture: and extent of incision.
● Young stems are generally green.
● Later, stems may become woody and dark
brown.

Functions of the Stem:

Primary functions:
● Spreads branches bearing leaves, flowers,
and fruits.
● Conducts water, minerals, and photosynthates.

NEET (XI) Botany 2

Venation
Arrangement of veins and veinlets in the lamina.
● Types:
1. Reticulate Venation: Veinlets form a
network (common in dicots).
2. Parallel Venation: Veins run parallel
(common in monocots).

(c) Alstonia
Reticulate venation Parallel venation Inflorescence
The arrangement of flowers on the floral axis.
Types of Leaves ● Types:
1. Simple Leaf: 1. Racemose Inflorescence:
● Lamina is entire or has incisions that do ■ Growth: Main axis continues to grow
not touch the midrib. indefinitely.
2. Compound Leaf: ■ Flower Arrangement: Flowers are
● Incisions reach the midrib, dividing the borne laterally in acropetal succession
lamina into leaflets. (younger flowers at the tip, older
● Axillary Bud: Present at the petiole's flowers at the base).
axil but absent at the leaflet's axil.
● Types:
■ Pinnately Compound: Leaflets
arranged on a common axis (rachis),
e.g., neem.
■ Palmately Compound: Leaflets attached
at a common point, e.g., silk cotton.

2. Cymose Inflorescence:
■ Growth: Main axis terminates in a flower, so
growth is limited.
Neem Silk Cotton ■ Flower Arrangement: Flowers are borne in
basipetal order (older flowers at the tip,
Phyllotaxy (Leaf Arrangement) younger flowers at the base).
Pattern of leaf arrangement on the stem or branch.
Different types of phyllotaxy:
a. Alternate: One leaf per node in an alternate
pattern, e.g., china rose, mustard.
b. Opposite: Two leaves at a node, opposite to
each other, e.g., Calotropis, guava.
c. Whorled: More than two leaves form a
whorl at a node, e.g., Alstonia.

NEET (XI) Botany 3

THE FLOWER Floral Features
General Features Floral Appendages:
● The flower is the reproductive unit ● Trimerous: Appendages in multiples of 3.
inangiosperms, designed for sexual ● Tetramerous: Appendages in multiples of 4.
reproduction. ● Pentamerous: Appendages in multiples of 5.
● A flower is a modified shoot where the shoot
apical meristem transforms into a floral Presence of Bracts:
meristem. ● Bracteate: Flowers with bracts (reduced
● A shoot tip transforming into a flower is leaves at the base of the pedicel).
● Ebracteate: Flowers without bracts.
always solitary.

Flower Types Based on Position of Floral Parts

Structural Features:
Classification
● Internodes: Do not elongate, causing the
1. Hypogynous Flower:
axis to condense.
● Position: Gynoecium occupies the
● Floral Appendages: Produced at successive highest position; other floral parts are
nodes instead of leaves. situated below it.
● Ovary: Superior ovary.
Structure: ● Examples: Mustard, china rose, brinjal.
● A typical flower has four whorls
arranged on the thalamus (receptacle):
1. Calyx
2. Corolla
3. Androecium (male reproductive organ)
4. Gynoecium (female reproductive organ) 2. Perigynous Flower:
● Accessory Organs: Calyx and corolla. ● Position: Gynoecium is in the center;
● Reproductive Organs: Androecium other floral parts are located on the rim
and gynoecium. of the thalamus at the same level.
● In flowers like lily, calyx and corolla are ● Ovary: Half-inferior ovary.
fused and called perianth. ● Examples: Plum, rose, peach.

Sexuality
● Bisexual Flowers: Contain both
androecium and gynoecium.
● Unisexual Flowers: Contain either
stamens (male) or carpels (female).
3. Epigynous Flower:
Symmetry ● Position: Margin of the thalamus grows
1. Actinomorphic (Radial Symmetry): upward, enclosing and fusing with the
● Divisible into two equal radial halves ovary; floral parts arise above the ovary.
along any plane passing through the ● Ovary: Inferior ovary.
center. ● Examples: Guava, cucumber, ray florets
● Examples: Mustard, Datura, chilli. of sunflower.
2. Zygomorphic (Bilateral Symmetry):
● Divisible into two similar halves only in
one vertical plane.
● Examples: Pea, gulmohur, bean, Cassia.
3. Asymmetric (Irregular):
● Cannot be divided into similar halves by
any plane.
● Example: Canna.

NEET (XI) Botany 4

Parts of a Flower (wings), which overlap the smallest anterior
petals (keel).
Floral Whorls
1. Calyx: Outermost whorl; composed of sepals. Examples : Pea and bean.
Features:
■ Green, leaf-like structures that protect
the flower in the bud stage.
Types:
■ Gamosepalous: Sepals are united.
■ Polysepalous: Sepals are free.

2. Corolla: Second whorl; composed of petals.

Features:
■ Brightly coloured to attract pollinators. Androecium
■ Shape and colour vary widely (tubular, The androecium is the male reproductive
bell-shaped, funnel-shaped, wheel- organ, composed of stamens.
shaped).
Types:
■ Gamopetalous: Petals are united. Structure of Stamen:
■ Polypetalous: Petals are free. 1. Filament: The stalk of the stamen.
2. Anther: Usually bilobed, with each lobe
containing two pollen-sacs.
■ Function: Produces pollen grains.
● Sterile Stamen: Called a staminode.

Attachment of Stamens
● Epipetalous: Stamens attached to petals
(e.g., brinjal).
● Epiphyllous: Stamens attached to the
perianth (e.g., lily).
Parts of a flower

Arrangement of Stamens
Aestivation (Arrangement of sepals or petals in the
floral bud) ● Free (Polyandrous): Stamens are not united.
1. Valvate: Sepals/petals touch at the margins ● United:
without overlapping. 1. Monadelphous: Stamens united into one
Example: Calotropis. bundle (e.g., china rose).
2. Twisted: One margin of each petal/appendage 2. Diadelphous: Stamens united into two
overlaps the next in succession. bundles (e.g., pea).
Examples: China rose, lady’s finger, cotton. 3. Polyadelphous: Stamens united into more
3. Imbricate: Margins of sepals/petals overlap than two bundles (e.g., Citrus).
each other, but not in a specific direction.
Examples: Cassia, gulmohur. Variation in Filament Length
4. Vexillary (Papilionaceous): Largest petal Example: Found in Salvia and mustard.
(standard) overlaps two lateral petals

NEET (XI) Botany 5

Gynoecium
Gynoecium is the female reproductive part
of the flower, composed of one or more
carpels.
● Structure of Carpel:
1. Stigma: Receptive surface for pollen grains,
located at the tip of the style.
2. Style: Elongated tube connecting the ovary 4. Free Central: Ovules are borne on a central
to the stigma. axis without septa.
3. Ovary: Enlarged basal part containing Examples: Dianthus, Primrose.
ovules attached to the placenta.
● After fertilization, ovules develop into
seeds, and the ovary matures into a fruit.

Types of Gynoecium
● Apocarpous: Carpels are free (e.g., lotus,
rose). 5. Basal: Placenta develops at the base of the
● Syncarpous: Carpels are fused (e.g., ovary with a single ovule.
mustard, tomato). Examples: Sunflower, marigold.

Placentation (Arrangement of ovules within the

ovary)
1. Marginal: Placenta forms a ridge along the
ventral suture, with ovules in two rows.
Examples: Pea.

FRUIT
● Definition: The fruit is a mature ovary that
develops after fertilisation.
● Parthenocarpic Fruit: A fruit formed
without fertilisation (e.g., seedless fruits).
2. Axile: Placenta is axial, with ovules in a ● Structure of Fruit:
multilocular ovary. ● Pericarp: The fruit wall, which may be dry
Examples: China rose, tomato, lemon. or fleshy.
● Fleshy Pericarp:
■ Epicarp (outer layer),
■ Mesocarp (middle, edible layer),
■ Endocarp (inner layer).
● Types of Fruits:
● Drupe: One-seeded fruit, developed from a
monocarpellary superior ovary.
Examples: Mango, coconut.
3. Parietal: Ovules develop on the inner wall of
the ovary or periphery. A false septum may Mango: Pericarp consists of a thin outer epicarp,
form. fleshy mesocarp, and stony endocarp.
Examples: Mustard, Argemone. Coconut: Mesocarp is fibrous.

NEET (XI) Botany 6

 Structure of dicotyledonous seed
Parts of a fruit: (a) Mango (b) Coconut
SEED
Structure of Monocotyledonous Seed
A seed develops from a fertilized ovule.
Endospermic Seeds:
● Structure of Seed:
● Most monocot seeds are endospermic (e.g.,
1. Seed Coat: Protective outer covering.
maize), but some, like orchids, are non-
2. Embryo: Composed of:
endospermic.
■ Radicle: Develops into the root.
Seed Coat:
■ Embryonal Axis: Connects the root to
● Membranous and generally fused with the
the cotyledons.
fruit wall in monocots.
■ Cotyledons: One (in wheat, maize) or
● Endosperm:
two (in gram, pea).
● Bulky and stores food, separated from the
embryo by a protein layer called the
Structure of a Dicotyledonous Seed aleurone layer.
Seed Coat: ● Embryo:
● Composed of two layers: ● Small and situated in a groove at the end of
1. Testa (Outer layer), the endosperm.
2. Tegmen (Inner layer). ● Consists of one large, shield-shaped
● Hilum: A scar on the seed coat where the cotyledon known as the scutellum, and a
seed was attached to the fruit. short axis with plumule and radicle.
● Micropyle: A small pore above the hilum. ● Sheaths:
● The plumule and radicle are enclosed in
Embryo: sheaths called the coleoptile (for plumule)
● Consists of an embryonal axis and two and coleorhiza (for radicle).
cotyledons.
● Cotyledons store reserve food materials.
● Radicle and Plumule:
● Radicle: Develops into the root.
● Plumule: Develops into the shoot.

Endosperm:
● In castor seeds, the endosperm stores food
(endospermic seeds).
● In seeds like bean, gram, and pea, the
endosperm is absent (non-endospermic Structure of a monocotyledonous seed
seeds).
Semi-Technical Description of a Typical Flowering
Plant
When describing a typical flowering plant,
several key morphological features are
considered. The description is presented in a
sequence from the overall habit to individual
parts of the plant. The following points

NEET (XI) Botany 7

 summarise the important aspects of this G = Gynoecium (carpels).
description: ♂ = Male (stamens only).
1. Habit and Vegetative Characters
♀ = Female (carpels only).
● Habit: The overall growth form of the plant,
which may be herbaceous, shrubby, or tree- ♂♀ = Bisexual (both stamens and carpels).
like. ⊕ = Actinomorphic (radial symmetry).
● Roots: The root system (e.g., fibrous or % = Zygomorphic (bilateral symmetry).
taproot) is described, including its type and ( ) = Fusion of parts (enclosed in brackets).
function.
— = Adhesion of parts (indicated by a line above
● Stem: The stem is described based on its
structure (e.g., woody, herbaceous), its the symbols).
branching pattern, and its role in supporting An example floral diagram and formula might
the plant. describe the mustard plant (Brassica species),
● Leaves: The shape, size, venation, and
which belongs to the Brassicaceae family.
arrangement of leaves are described.
2. Floral Characters
● Inflorescence: The arrangement of flowers
on the plant. It can be racemose or cymose,
depending on whether the main axis grows
continuously or terminates in a flower.
● Flowers: The individual parts of the flower
(calyx, corolla, androecium, and gynoecium)
are described based on their structure and
function.

3. Floral Diagram and Formula Floral Formula and Floral Diagram

● A floral diagram visually represents the
■ The flower has both male and female parts, is
number of parts in each floral whorl, their actinomorphic, and the ovary is superior.
arrangement, and their relationships with one
another. Solanaceae (Potato Family)
● The diagram shows the sequence of parts: The Solanaceae family, commonly known as
calyx (outermost), corolla, androecium, and the potato family, is a large and diverse
gynoecium (center). family found in tropical, subtropical, and
● The mother axis (stem or pedicel) is depicted temperate zones. Some key plants from this
by a dot at the top of the diagram. family include potato, tomato, and tobacco.
● The diagram helps show symmetry
(actinomorphic or zygomorphic) and the Vegetative Characters:
● Habit: Primarily herbs and shrubs, with a
position of the ovary (superior or inferior).
few small trees.
● A floral formula provides a compact
● Stem:
representation using symbols:
● Usually herbaceous but can occasionally be
Br = Bracteate (flower has bracts).
woody.
K = Calyx (sepals). ● The stem is aerial, erect, cylindrical, and can
C = Corolla (petals). be branched, solid or hollow.
P = Perianth (if calyx and corolla are not distinct).
A = Androecium (stamens).

NEET (XI) Botany 8

● Some species, like the potato (Solanum Economic Importance:
tuberosum), have underground stems that Many plants in the Solanaceae family are
form tubers. economically significant:
● Leaves: ● Food: Potato (Solanum tuberosum), tomato,
● The leaves are usually alternate and simple, brinjal (eggplant), and chili.
● Spices: Chili.
although they can occasionally be pinnately
● Medicinal: Belladonna, Ashwagandha.
compound.
● Fumigatory: Tobacco.
● Exstipulate (lacking stipules).
● Ornamentals: Petunia.
● The leaf venation is reticulate (net-like).

Floral Characters:
● Inflorescence: Flowers can be solitary,
axillary, or cymose, as seen in Solanum
species.
● Flower: Bisexual and actinomorphic (radial
symmetry).
● Calyx: Five sepals, united, persistent, with
valvate aestivation.
● Corolla: Five petals, united, with valvate
Solanum nigrum (makoi) plant : (a) Flowering
aestivation.
twig (b) Flower (c) L.S. of flower (d) Stamens
● Androecium: Five stamens, epipetalous
(e) Carpel (f) Floral diagram
(attached to the petals).
● Gynoecium: Bicarpellary, syncarpous
(carpels fused), and the ovary is superior,
bilocular. The placenta is swollen with many
ovules and axile placentation.

Fruits and Seeds:

● Fruits: Typically a berry or capsule.
● Seeds: Numerous seeds with endosperm.

Floral Formula:
● Floral formula:

NEET (XI) Botany 9