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Conference Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Mechanics Series

Sharlotte L.B. Kramer · Emily Retzlaff · Piyush Thakre ·

Johan Hoefnagels · Marco Rossi · Attilio Lattanzi ·
François Hemez · Mostafa Mirshekari · Austin Downey   Editors

Additive and Advanced

Manufacturing, Inverse
Problem Methodologies and
Machine Learning and Data
Science, Volume 4
Proceedings of the 2023 Annual Conference & Exposition
on Experimental and Applied Mechanics
Conference Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Mechanics Series

Series Editor
Kristin B. Zimmerman
Society for Experimental Mechanics, Inc.,
Bethel, USA
The Conference Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Mechanics Series presents early findings and case studies from
a wide range of fundamental and applied work across the broad range of fields that comprise Experimental Mechanics. Series
volumes follow the principle tracks or focus topics featured in each of the Society's two annual conferences: IMAC,
A Conference and Exposition on Structural Dynamics, and the Society's Annual Conference & Exposition and will address
critical areas of interest to researchers and design engineers working in all areas of Structural Dynamics, Solid Mechanics
and Materials Research.
Sharlotte L. B. Kramer • Emily Retzlaff • Piyush Thakre
Johan Hoefnagels • Marco Rossi • Attilio Lattanzi
François Hemez • Mostafa Mirshekari • Austin Downey
Editors

Additive and Advanced Manufacturing,

Inverse Problem Methodologies
and Machine Learning and Data Science,
Volume 4
Proceedings of the 2023 Annual Conference & Exposition on
Experimental and Applied Mechanics
Editors
Sharlotte L. B. Kramer Emily Retzlaff
Sandia National Laboratories United States Naval Academy
Albuquerque, NM, USA Annapolis, MD, USA

Piyush Thakre Johan Hoefnagels

Dow Inc. Eindhoven University of Technology
Lake Jackson, TX, USA Eindhoven, Noord-Brabant, The Netherlands

Marco Rossi Attilio Lattanzi

Università Politecnica delle Marche California Institute of Technology
Ancona, Italy Pasadena, CA, USA

François Hemez Mostafa Mirshekari

Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory Carnegie Mellon University
Livermore, CA, USA Pittsburgh, PA, USA

Austin Downey
University of South Carolina
Columbia, SC, USA

ISSN 2191-5644 ISSN 2191-5652 (electronic)

Conference Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Mechanics Series
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Preface

Additive and Advanced Manufacturing, Inverse Problem Methodologies and Machine Learning and Data Science represents
one of five volumes of technical papers presented at the 2023 SEM Annual Conference and Exposition on Experimental and
Applied Mechanics organized by the Society for Experimental Mechanics held on June 5–8, 2023. The complete proceedings
also include volumes on: Advancement of Optical Methods in Experimental Mechanics, Dynamic Behavior of Materials,
Fracture and Fatigue, Mechanics of Biological Systems and Materials, Mechanics of Composite and Multifunctional
Materials, Residual Stress, Thermomechanics and Infrared Imaging, and Time-Dependent Materials.
Each collection presents early findings from experimental and computational investigations on an important area within
Experimental Mechanics.
Mechanics of Additive and Advanced Manufactured Materials is an emerging area due to the unprecedented design and
manufacturing possibilities offered by new and evolving advanced manufacturing processes and the rich mechanics issues that
emerge. Technical interest within the Society spans several other SEM Technical Divisions such as: Composites, Hybrids and
Multifunctional Materials, Dynamic Behavior of Materials, Fracture and Fatigue, Residual Stress, Time-Dependent Materials,
and the Research Committee.
The topic of mechanics of additive and advanced manufacturing included in this volume covers design, optimization,
experiments, computations, and materials for advanced manufacturing processes (3D printing, micro- and nano-
manufacturing, powder bed fusion, directed energy deposition, etc.) with particular focus on mechanics aspects (e.g.,
mechanical properties, residual stress, deformation, failure, rate-dependent mechanical behavior, etc.).
The conference organizers thank the authors, presenters, and session chairs for their participation, support, and contribution
to this very exciting area of experimental mechanics.

Albuquerque, NM, USA Sharlotte L. B. Kramer

Annapolis, MD, USA Emily Retzlaff
Lake Jackson, TX, USA Piyush Thakre
Eindhoven, Noord-Brabant, The Netherlands Johan Hoefnagels
Ancona, Italy Marco Rossi
Pasadena, CA, USA Attilio Lattanzi
Livermore, CA, USA François Hemez
Pittsburgh, PA, USA Mostafa Mirshekari
Columbia, SC, USA Austin Downey

v
Contents

Quantifying Residual Stresses Generated by Laser-Powder Bed Fusion of Metallic Samples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Pouria Khanbolouki, Rodrigo Magana-Carranza, Eann Patterson, Chris Sutcliffe, and John Lambros
Loading-Unloading Compressive Response and Energy Dissipation of Liquid Crystal
Elastomers and Their 3D Printed Lattice Structures at Various Strain Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Bo Song, Dylan Landry, Thomas Martinez, Christopher Chung, Kevin Long, Kai Yu, and Chris Yakacki
Residual Stress Induced in Thin Plates During Additive Manufacturing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Eann A. Patterson, John Lambros, Rodrigo Magana-Carranza, and Christopher J. Sutcliffe
Investigating the Effects of Acetone Vapor Treatment and Post Drying Conditions on Tensile
and Fatigue Behavior of 3D Printed ABS Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Heechang Bae, Nicholas Blair, Matthew Michaelis, and Awlad Hossain
Mechanics of Novel Double-Rounded-V Hierarchical Auxetic Structure: Finite Element Analysis
and Experiments Using Three-Dimensional Digital Image Correlation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Rajesh Kumar and Iniyan Thiruselvam
Repeatability of Residual Stress in Replicate Additively Manufactured 316L Stainless Steel Samples . . . . . . . . . 39
Christopher R. D’Elia, Daniel R. Moser, Kyle L. Johnson, and Michael R. Hill
Acoustic Nondestructive Characterization of Metal Pantographs for Material
and Defect Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Silviya M. Boyadzhieva, Lea S. Kollmannsperger, Florian Gutmann, Thomas Straub, and Sarah C. L. Fischer
Rapid Prototyping of a Micro-Scale Spectroscopic System by Two-Photon Direct Laser Writing . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Anthony Salerni and Cosme Furlong
Bioinspired Interfaces for Improved Interlaminar Shear Strength in 3D Printed
Multi-material Polymer Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Umut Altuntas, Demirkan Coker, and Denizhan Yavas
Thermo-mechanical Characterization of High-Strength Steel Through Inverse Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Marco Rossi, Luca Morichelli, and Steven Cooreman
A Multi-testing Approach for the Full Calibration of 3D Anisotropic Plasticity Models
via Inverse Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Attilio Lattanzi, Mattia Utzeri, Marco Rossi, and Dario Amodio
Finite Element Based Material Property Identification Utilizing Full-Field Deformation Measurements . . . . . . . 85
Sreehari Rajan Kattil, Subramani Sockalingam, Michael A. Sutton, and Tusit Weerasooriya
Data-Driven Material Models for Engineering Materials Subjected to Arbitrary Loading Paths:
Influence of the Dimension of the Dataset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Burcu Tasdemir, Vito Tagarielli, and Antonio Pellegrino
Data-Driven Methodology to Extract Stress Fields in Materials Subjected to Dynamic Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Vijendra Gupta and Addis Kidane

vii
Quantifying Residual Stresses Generated by Laser-Powder
Bed Fusion of Metallic Samples

Pouria Khanbolouki, Rodrigo Magana-Carranza, Eann Patterson, Chris Sutcliffe, and John Lambros

Abstract We use numerical modeling to predict residual stresses and deformations of thin metallic structures manufactured
by laser-powder bed fusion. The effect of L-PBF process on residual deformations of thin quasi-2D structures is expected to
be more substantial and complex than for thicker/bulk or axisymmetric components. Two types of geometries are considered:
a thin horizontal plate for residual force measurements and thin vertical plates for residual deformations and support removal
experiments. In both cases knowledge of the initially deformed shape and internal residual stresses will affect experimental
interpretation. The numerical scheme used (ANSYS Additive Suite) involves weakly coupled thermomechanical simulations
in a commercially available finite element package. It is shown that the simulations are in qualitative and general quantitative
agreement with the experimental measurements within this numerical framework. Additionally, it is shown that the provided
numerical framework can be used to predict the effect of support removal sequence on the final geometry of thin metallic
structures.

Keywords Additive manufacturing · FEA · Residual stress · L-PBF

Introduction

Additively manufactured parts made with the laser-powder bed fusion (L-PBF) process are susceptible to build defects
associated with residual stresses during processing. For bulk objects, these residual stresses manifest themselves in the
microstructure as stress/strain inhomogeneities at the grain level, as well as in the macroscale as dimensional tolerances of the
manufactured part. While the platform that the parts are built on constrains their distortion during the build process, the
removal of supports between part and platform (cut-off) activates additional permanent deformations and redistribution of
residual stresses in the parts. Thin metallic structures on the other hand, have been seen to generate additional complexities
during the build and removal process, requiring frames and lateral support structures [1]. These structures are less explored
while their use is commonplace in industries such as aerospace. Additive manufacturing can reduce the material waste of
traditional methods used for manufacturing these components [2]. Knowledge of the residual stresses in the final part is
important not only for corrections of possible geometric tolerances necessary in the finished part, but also for an assessment of
the part’s mechanical performance. In the past decade, many numerical schemes have been developed to predict the residual
deformations and stresses of an additively manufactured part [3–8]. Only a handful of these studies investigated the residual
stresses and deformations after the support removal steps [9]; and to the best of our knowledge, no studies were focused on the
residual deformations of thin metallic plates through numerical methods. Additionally, the part removal for the built
component in the mentioned studies incorporated a single-step plate removal scheme. Most often, the parts are removed
from the build platform in a series of steps by cutting techniques. One objective of this study is to predict the residual forces

P. Khanbolouki (✉) · J. Lambros

Department of Aerospace Engineering, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, IL, USA
e-mail: [email protected]
R. Magana-Carranza · E. Patterson
Department of Mechanical, Materials & Aerospace Engineering, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
C. Sutcliffe
Meta Consulting LDA, Lisbon, Portugal

© The Society for Experimental Mechanics, Inc. 2024 1

S. L. B. Kramer et al. (eds.), Additive and Advanced Manufacturing, Inverse Problem Methodologies and Machine Learning
and Data Science, Volume 4, Conference Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Mechanics Series,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-50474-7_1
2 P. Khanbolouki et al.

Fig. 1 Numerical scheme for simulation of L-PBF process of thin metallic structures in the commercial package ANSYS

and deformations in additively manufactured quasi-2D structures. Another objective of this study is to investigate whether the
sequence with which the supports are removed affects the redistribution of residual strains in the additively manufactured
parts.

Background

In recent experimental studies by Magana-Carranza et al. horizontal plates were manufactured with L-PBF process for the
in-situ force measurement of additive manufacturing process to infer the development of stresses [10, 11]. A four-by-four
array of force transducer devices (FTD) were implemented and the support-structures were built on top of the connecting rods
on the strain gauge load cells. In another experimental study, the additive manufacturing of vertical thin plates in portrait and
landscape mode were explored and challenges of additive manufacturing of thin plates were discussed [1]. Frames and lateral
triangular-shaped support buttresses were added to prevent the failure of the plates during the build process, indicating the
additional complexities in additive manufacturing of quasi-2D structures. The measurements included the out-of-plane
deformations of the plates at the end of the build process as well every support removal step. In both cases, knowledge of
the initially deformed shape and internal residual stresses will affect experimental interpretation. Here, both types of
geometries are considered: horizontal plates for in-situ force measurements during the build process and reinforced vertical
thin plates for residual deformation redistributions during the cut-off process. The numerical scheme used (ANSYS Additive
Suite) involves weakly coupled thermomechanical simulations in a commercially available FE package (Fig. 1). In this
scheme, a transient thermal history analysis is performed on the undeformed mesh in a layer lumping technique, the results of
which are utilized as input for a static mechanical simulation.

Analysis

As mentioned, two types of geometries are considered for this study: horizontal plates for in-situ force measurements during
the build process and reinforced vertical thin plates for residual deformation redistributions during the cut-off process. For the
horizontal plate simulation, a quarter symmetry design was implemented to the CAD model to reduce the computational costs.
Similar to the experiments and previous research, the calculated forces developed in the central region of the part were
compressive, while the corners undergo tension. The experimental measurements collected from FTDs during the build
process are shown in Fig. 2. Additionally, comparable values to the experimental measurement for residual forces at the center
Quantifying Residual Stresses Generated by Laser-Powder Bed Fusion of Metallic Samples 3

Fig. 2 Forces measured by each FTD versus time/layer number during the build process of the square flat plate built with Inconel 625 and the
arrangement of FTDs for in situ force measurements during build process of this square flat plate

Fig. 3 Finite element analysis results after the L-PBF part is removed from the build platform, presenting the calculated directional deformations of
the part and the supports in the build direction (z-axis)

and corners of the thin horizontal plate were acquired from the simulations. Figure 3 presents the results of calculated
directional deformations of the thin plate and the supports in the build direction (along z-axis).
The second set of simulations were included to compare the final deformed shaped of thin plates after cooling down and the
removal steps (Fig. 4). The symmetrical design of the plates as well as the sequence in which the supports were removed,
aimed at designing half of the plate for the simulations. The lateral supports are removed after the cool-down step, from both
sides, followed by incremental removal of the bottom supports in 5 mm increments from either side toward the center of the
plate. Additionally, full plates (without plane symmetry) were simulated to investigate the effect of support removal sequence
4 P. Khanbolouki et al.

Fig. 4 Simulation progression for LPBF process including layer-by-layer deposition, cool-down, and support removal
Quantifying Residual Stresses Generated by Laser-Powder Bed Fusion of Metallic Samples 5

of the vertical thin plates. Results from the simulations were post-processed in a third-party software (Origin pro and
MATLAB) to acquire a one-to-one comparison at each step. The resulting calculated geometries from FEA were compared
to stereo digital image correlation (stereo-DIC) measurements of manufactured specimens, before, during, and after the cut-off
process for the vertical plates. The results from the simulations are in qualitative agreement with the 3D-DIC measurements.
The effect of different cut-off sequences was explored on the residual deformations of the vertical plates. It was observed that
the cut-off sequence might introduce additional deformations in quasi-2D structures.

Conclusion

It has been shown that the simulations are capable of providing acceptable qualitative and generally quantitative predictions of
residual forces, residual deformations, and final geometries of thin structures. We can take advantage of these capabilities in
developing optimization approaches for minimizing the residual deformations of thin metallic structures that are manufactured
by L-PBF. The results also suggest that the cut-off sequence of the support structures of high aspect ratio components can
result in substantial additional deformations in the part.

Acknowledgements The research was supported by grants from both the EPSRC (Grant No. EP/T013141/1) in UK and NSF CMMI (Grant
No. 20–27082) in the USA. The opinions expressed in this article reflect only the authors’ view and EPSRC is not responsible for any use that may
be made of the information it contains.

References

1. Patterson, E.A., Lambros, J., Magana-Carranza, R., Sutcliffe, C.J.: Residual stress effects during additive manufacturing of reinforced thin
nickel–chromium plates. Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 123, 1845–1857 (2022)
2. Blakey-Milner, B., Gradl, P., Snedden, G., Brooks, M., Pitot, J., Lopez, E., Leary, M., Berto, F., du Plessis, A.: Metal additive manufacturing in
aerospace: a review. Mater. Des. 209, 110008 (2021)
3. Li, C., Liu, Z.Y., Fang, X.Y., Guo, Y.B.: Residual stress in metal additive manufacturing. Procedia CIRP. 71, 348–353 (2018)
4. Kruth, J., Deckers, J., Yasa, E., Wauthlé, R.: Assessing and comparing influencing factors of residual stresses in selective laser melting using a
novel analysis method. Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. B J. Eng. Manuf. 226(6), 980–991 (2012)
5. Li, C., Guo, Y., Fang, X., Fang, F.: A scalable predictive model and validation for residual stress and distortion in selective laser melting. CIRP
Ann. 67(1), 249–252 (2018)
6. Setien, I., Chiumenti, M., Sjoerd van der Veen, M.S.S., Garciandía, F., Echeverría, A.: Empirical methodology to determine inherent strains in
additive manufacturing. Comput. Math. Appl. 78(7), 2282–2295 (2019)
7. Li, C., Liu, J.F., Fang, X.Y., Guo, Y.B.: Efficient predictive model of part distortion and residual stress in selective laser melting. Addit. Manuf.
17, 157–168 (2017)
8. Yakout, M., Elbestawi, M.A., Veldhuis, S.C., Nangle-Smith, S.: Influence of thermal properties on residual stresses in SLM of aerospace alloys.
Rapid Prototyp. J. 26(1), 213–222 (2020)
9. Li, C., Liu, Z.Y., Fang, X.Y., Guo, Y.B.: On the simulation scalability of predicting residual stress and distortion in selective laser
melting. J. Manuf. Sci. Eng. 140(4), 041013 (2018)
10. Carranza, R.M., Robinson, J., Ashton, I., Fox, P., Sutcliffe, C., Patterson, E.: A novel device for in-situ force measurements during laser powder
bed fusion (L-PBF). Rapid Prototyp. J. 27(7), 1423–1431 (2021)
11. Magana-Carranza, R., Sutcliffe, C.J., Patterson, E.A.: The effect of processing parameters and material properties on residual forces induced in
Laser Powder Bed Fusion (L-PBF). Addit. Manuf. 46, 102192 (2021)
Loading-Unloading Compressive Response and Energy Dissipation
of Liquid Crystal Elastomers and Their 3D Printed Lattice
Structures at Various Strain Rates

Bo Song, Dylan Landry, Thomas Martinez, Christopher Chung, Kevin Long, Kai Yu, and Chris Yakacki

Abstract Nematic liquid crystal elastomers (LCEs) are a unique class of network polymers with potential for excellent
mechanical energy absorption and dissipation capacity due to their ability to change the nematic director under mechanical
loading (sometimes called soft-elasticity) in addition to the viscoelastic behavior of the remaining polymer network. This
additional inelastic mechanism makes them appealing as candidate damping materials in a variety of applications from
vibration to impact. The lattice structures made from the LCEs provide further mechanical energy absorption and dissipation
capacity associated with packing out the porosity.
Understanding the extent of mechanical energy absorption versus dissipation depends on the mechanical stress-strain
response under both loading and unloading. In the past, the loading-unloading stress-strain response was only obtained within
quasi-static (slow) strain rates on standard material test frames. In this study, we used a newly developed bench-top linear
actuator to characterize the loading-unloading compressive response of polydomain and monodomain LCE polymers and
polydomain LCE lattice structures with two different porosities (nominally, 62% and 85%) at both low and intermediate strain
rates at room temperature. As a reference material, a bisphenol A (BPA) polymer with a similar glass transition temperature
(9 °C) as the nematic LCE (4 °C) was also characterized at the same conditions for comparing to the LCE polymers. Based on
the loading-unloading stress-strain curves, the energy absorption and dissipation for each material at different strain rates
(0.001, 0.1, 1, 10 and 90 s-1) were able to be calculated. The strain-rate effect on the mechanical response and energy
absorption and dissipation behaviors was determined.

Keywords Liquid crystal elastomer (LCE) · Lattice structure · Stress-strain · Energy dissipation

Introduction

Liquid crystal elastomers (LCEs) are a unique class of polymers that have multiple inelastic deformation mechanisms that
confer unusual rate-dependent mechanical behavior, which makes them particularly attractive materials for damping and
mechanical impact mitigation applications and potentially in biological or biomedical applications. In the LCEs studied here,
liquid crystals (mesogen) are covalently bonded into a flexible polymer network to enable unique mechanical, thermal, and
photo-mechanical properties, which make it be used as cell scaffolds, artificial muscles, interbody fusion cage, soft-active
robotics or actuators, and wearable devices [1–6].
Recent studies of LCEs have investigated their unusual energy dissipation capacity due to their ability to undergo mesogen
re-orientation under mechanical loading in addition to background viscoelastic effects [7–9]. Foam or lattice structures made
from the LCEs have also been proposed for better energy dissipation and shock mitigation performance as compressive
loading must first pack out the porosity before the mesogen re-orientation begins [10–12]. Understanding the energy
dissipation characteristics depends on the mechanical stress-strain response under both loading and unloading. Considering
the anticipated mechanical shock mitigation applications, strain rate becomes a critical variable for strain-rate-dependent
hysteretic stress-strain response of the LCEs with both soft elastic and viscoelasticity mechanisms. However, the study of

B. Song (✉) · D. Landry · T. Martinez · K. Long

Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM, USA
e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]
C. Chung · K. Yu · C. Yakacki
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Colorado, Denver, CO, USA
e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]

© The Society for Experimental Mechanics, Inc. 2024 7

S. L. B. Kramer et al. (eds.), Additive and Advanced Manufacturing, Inverse Problem Methodologies and Machine Learning
and Data Science, Volume 4, Conference Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Mechanics Series,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-50474-7_2
8 B. Song et al.

strain-rate effects on the stress-strain response and energy dissipation of the LCEs and LCE-based lattice structures is very
limited [8–14].
In this study, a high-speed bench-top linear actuator was employed to characterize the loading-unloading compressive
response of polydomain and monodomain LCE polymers and polydomain LCE lattice structures with two different porosities
(nominally, 62% and 85%) at low and intermediate strain rates. It is noted that the actual porosities for the two lattice
structures were 50.8% and 73.7%, which are ~11% lower than the nominal values. As a reference material, a bisphenol A
(BPA) polymer with a similar glass transition temperature (9 °C) as the nematic LCE (4 °C), both as characterized by the peak
of the loss to storage modulus ratio in a 1 Hz three-point-bend dynamic mechanical analysis test swept at 3 °C/min, was also
characterized at the same conditions for comparing to the LCE polymers. It is noted that, for the monodomain LCE polymer,
the loading direction was along the direction of the nematic director. Based on the loading-unloading stress-strain curves, the
energy absorption and dissipation for each material at different strain rates (0.001, 0.1, 1, 10 and 90 s-1) were calculated. The
strain-rate effect on the mechanical behavior and energy dissipation was determined and compared between materials.

Experiments and Results

The compressive experiments on all five materials were conducted with a bench-top high-speed linear actuator that is
presented in detail in the Journal of Dynamic Behavior of Materials [15]. As shown in Fig. 1, the test system consists of a
Rexroth® high-speed electromechanical actuator to which a front platen was connected via an adapting rod. Another identical
platen was installed on a Kistler load cell mounted on a back plate. The Kistler load cell was used to measure the force history
on the specimen during mechanical loading. A customized laser extensometer [16] was installed to directly measure the
displacement of actuator such that the specimen strain can be calculated. The compressive stress-strain curve of the material
under investigation was then obtained. The linear actuator has a maximum velocity of ~1.9 m/s with a closed-loop operation
mode, enabling loading-unloading stress-strain characterization at the strain rates up to 100 s-1 for the specimen design in this
study. The signals from the load cell and the laser extensometer were acquired with a LeCroy digital oscilloscope.
The loading and unloading stress-strain curves of the five materials are shown in Fig. 2, respectively. It is noted that, due to
significant strain-rate effect, the resultant stress-strain curves were plotted in two figures with the results at 1 s-1 used as a
divide to ensure sufficient resolution within the entire strain-rate range. The results show that the polydomain LCE exhibited a
very similar stress-strain response to the reference material BPA. A plateau was observed in the stress-strain curves of the
monodomain LCE due to the effect of mesogen re-orientation and alignment (sometimes referred to soft-elasticity), which
indicates that the monodomain LCE may have superior energy absorption to the polydomain LCE and BPA. The polydomain
LCE lattice structures exhibited typical compressive stress-strain response of foam materials. With increasing porosity
(85% vs. 62%), the stress at a certain strain significantly decreased.
Based on the compressive loading and unloading stress-strain curves shown in Fig. 2, the energy dissipation ratio was
calculated with the following equation,

Fig. 1 Photograph of the high-speed linear actuator

Loading-Unloading Compressive Response and Energy Dissipation of Liquid Crystal Elastomers. . . 9

Fig. 2 Loading and unloading stress-strain curves of all five materials at various strain rates
10 B. Song et al.

Fig. 3 Energy dissipation ratio of the five materials at various strain rates

σdε
unloading
δ=1- ð1Þ
σdε
loading

where loadingσdε and unloadingσdε are the integrals of the stress-strain curves for loading and unloading, respectively.
Figure 3 compares the energy dissipation ratios at various strain rates for the five materials. The BPA and polydomain LCE
had very similar strain rate effect on the energy dissipation ratio. At the strain rate of 0.001 s-1, both materials had energy
dissipation ratios around 0.8. When the strain rate increased to 0.1 s-1, the energy dissipation ratios decreased to 0.32 and ~0.5
for the BPA and polydomain LCE, respectively. With further increase of strain rate, the energy dissipation ratios for the BPA
and polydomain LCE increased. The monodomain LCE showed similar trend but the lowest energy dissipation ratio (~0.85)
at the strain rate of 1 s-1. All BPA, polydomain LCE, and monodomain LCE had a very close energy dissipation ratio (~0.90)
at the strain rate of 90 s-1, which suggests that viscoelasticity becomes dominant over the nematic director reorientation
mechanism at higher strain rates (since all materials have similar Tgs and approximately similar viscoelastic behavior at room
temperature). Although the porosities were different, the polydomain LCE lattice structures show very similar characteristic of
energy dissipation ratio. When strain rate was below 1 s-1, the energy dissipation ratio was the same (~0.90) for both
polydomain LCE lattice structures, indicating minimal strain rate effect. When strain rate is above 1 s-1, the energy
dissipation ratio increased with increasing strain rate. At the strain rate of 90 s-1, nearly 100% energy was dissipated in the
polydomain LCE lattice structures, which indicates that the polydomain LCE lattice structures had an excellent performance
to mitigate external shock and impact. It is noted that, at the strain rate of 0.001 s-1, the monodomain LCE had the highest
energy dissipation ratio among the materials including the lattice structures. This suggests that nematic director re-orientation
dominates the material response at low strain rates, but still warrant further investigation.

Conclusion

3D printed polydomain LCE, monodomain LCE, and two polydomain LCE lattice structures with 62% and 85% porosities
were mechanically characterized in compression with a high-speed linear actuator. A BPA polymer was also characterized as
a reference material. Compressive loading and unloading hysteretic stress-strain curves for all five materials were obtained at
various strain rates from 0.001 to 90 s-1. All five materials showed significant strain rate effect. Energy dissipation ratio was
calculated from the resultant loading and unloading stress-strain curves. All five materials showed significant but different
strain rates on energy dissipation ratio. In general, the solid LCE and BPA materials showed great energy dissipation
capabilities at both low (0.001 s-1) and high (above 1 s-1) strain rates, but not at the strain rates in between. The polydomain
LCE lattice structure showed superior energy dissipation performance compared with the solid polymers.
Loading-Unloading Compressive Response and Energy Dissipation of Liquid Crystal Elastomers. . . 11

Acknowledgements Sandia National Laboratories is a multimission laboratory managed and operated by National Technology and Engineering
Solutions of Sandia, LLC, a wholly owned subsidiary of Honeywell International, Inc., for the U.S. Department of Energy’s National Nuclear
Security Administration under contract DE-NA0003525. The views expressed in the article do not necessarily represent the views of the
U.S. Department of Energy or the United States Government.

References

1. Giamberini, M., Ambrogi, V., Cerruti, P., Carfagna, C.: Viscoelasticity of main chain liquid crystalline elastomers. Polymer. 47, 4490–4496
(2006)
2. Jiang, H., Li, C., Huang, X.: Actuators based on liquid crystalline elastomer materials. Nanoscale. 5, 5225–5240 (2013)
3. Ula, S.W., Traugutt, N.A., Volpe, R.H., Patel, R.R., Yu, K., Yakacki, C.M.: Liquid crystal elastomers: an introduction and review of emerging
technologies. Liq. Cryst. Rev. 6, 78–107 (2018)
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813 (2021)
5. Annapooranan, R., Wang, Y., Cai, S.: Highly durable and tough liquid crystal elastomers. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces. 14, 2006–2014 (2022)
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7. Mistry, D., Traugutt, N.A., Yu, K., Yakacki, C.M.: Processing and reprocessing liquid crystal elastomer actuators. J. Appl. Phys. 129, 130901
(2021)
8. Jeon, S.-Y., Shen, B., Traugutt, N.A., Zhu, Z., Fang, L., Yakacki, C.M., Nguyen, T.D., Kang, S.H.: Synergistic energy absorption mechanisms
of architected liquid crystal elastomers. Adv. Mater. 34, 2200272 (2022)
9. Zhang, Z., Huo, Y.: Programmable mechanical energy absorption and dissipation of liquid crystal elastomers: modeling and simulations. Adv.
Eng. Mater. 24, 2100590 (2022)
10. Traugutt, N.A., Mistry, D., Luo, C., Yu, K., Ge, Q., Yakacki, C.M.: Liquid-crystal-elastomer-based dissipative structures by digital light
processing 3D printing. Adv. Mater. 32, 2000797 (2020)
11. Luo, C., Chung, C., Traugutt, N.A., Yakacki, C.M., Long, K.N., Yu, K.: 3D printing of liquid crystal elastomer foams for enhanced energy
dissipation under mechanical insult. ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces. 13, 12698–12708 (2021)
12. Mistry, D., Traugutt, N.A., Sanborn, B., Volpe, R.H., Chatham, L.S., Zhou, R., Song, B., Yu, K., Long, K.N., Yakacki, C.M.: Soft elasticity
optimizes dissipation in 3D-printed liquid crystal elastomers. Nat. Commun. 12, 6677 (2021)
13. Azoug, A., Vasconcellos, V., Dooling, J., Saed, M., Yakacki, C.M., Nguyen, T.D.: Viscoelasticity of the polydomain-monodomain transition in
main-chain liquid crystal elastomers. Polymer. 98, 165–171 (2016)
14. Martin Linares, C.P., Traugutt, N.A., Saed, M.O., Martin Linares, A., Yakacki, C.M., Nguyen, T.D.: The effect of alignment on the rate-
dependent behavior of a main-chain liquid crystal elastomer. Soft Matter. 16, 8782–8798 (2020)
15. Song, B., Martinez, T., Landry, D., Aragon, P., Long, K.: Development of a bench-top intermediate-strain-rate (ISR) test apparatus for soft
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16. Nie, X., Song, B., Loeffler, C.M.: A novel splitting-beam laser extensometer technique for Kolsky tension bar experiment. J. Dyn. Behav. Mater.
1, 70–74 (2015)
Residual Stress Induced in Thin Plates During Additive
Manufacturing

Eann A. Patterson, John Lambros, Rodrigo Magana-Carranza, and Christopher J. Sutcliffe

Abstract Additive manufacturing is a technique for producing complex geometry engineering parts relatively quickly and
cheaply; however, residual stresses induced in the part during manufacture can result in significant distortion of the build. In
this study, nickel-chromium alloy (Inconel 625) geometrically-reinforced thin plates have been additively manufactured using
laser-powder bed fusion, that have comparable flatness to those built subtractively. The residual stresses induced in the thin
plates from manufacture are deduced by measuring out-of-plane displacements using stereoscopic digital image correlation.
The results demonstrate that residual stresses cause potentially severe out-of-plane displacements which can be alleviated by
using buttress supports to reinforce the plate edges during the build. In both landscape and portrait orientation builds, out-of-
plane displacement increased upon release from the baseplate but was reduced by incremental release.

Keywords Residual stress · L-PBF · Digital image correlation · Additive manufacturing · Thin plates

Introduction

Thin plates with reinforced edges have potential applications as skins for divertors in fusion reactors and for hypersonic flight
vehicles [1–3]. Subtractive manufacturing of such parts can create significant waste and costly tool degradation for high
temperature and corrosion resistant materials, such as Inconel.
Additive manufacturing (AM) is a modern technique for producing engineering components in a variety of materials in a
layer-by-layer process based on the digital representation of the part. A key advantage of AM is the capability to produce
complex geometry parts without the need for part-specific tools; however, when parts are created layer-by-layer during AM,
differential strains caused by non-uniform plastic deformation and time-varying temperature distributions, induce macroscale
residual stresses that can cause large distortions of the part [4]. The direct measurement of residual stress is difficult and
instead residual stresses are usually deduced from measurements of displacements or strains induced by releasing residual
stresses after build completion, employing techniques such as X-ray and neutron diffraction [5, 6]. Magana-Carranza et al.
[7, 8] also evaluated residual stresses induced by AM by incorporating a force transducer into a laser-powder bed fusion
(L-PBF) AM machine to measure forces induced during the build process.
In this study, nickel-chromium alloy (Inconel 625) geometrically-reinforced thin plates were additively manufactured
using L-PBF and the residual stresses deduced from full-field stereoscopic digital image correlation (DIC) measurements of
surface strains. Information has been obtained from plates built in both landscape and portrait orientations and with various
build support structures. The study has resulted in a series of findings relating to build supports, orientation and support
removal procedures, that minimise the distortion of the final plate.

E. A. Patterson (✉) · R. Magana-Carranza

Department of Mechanical, Materials & Aerospace Engineering, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
e-mail: [email protected]
J. Lambros
Department of Aerospace Engineering, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana-Champaign, IL, USA
e-mail: [email protected]
C. J. Sutcliffe
Meta Consulting LDA, Foz do Arelho, Portugal

© The Society for Experimental Mechanics, Inc. 2024 13

S. L. B. Kramer et al. (eds.), Additive and Advanced Manufacturing, Inverse Problem Methodologies and Machine Learning
and Data Science, Volume 4, Conference Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Mechanics Series,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-50474-7_3
14 E. A. Patterson et al.

Methods

1 mm thick nickel-chromium alloy (Inconel 625) flat plates with in-plane dimensions of 130 mm × 230 mm surrounded by a
reinforced frame of 10 mm by 5 mm, were built using a L-PBF machine (Renishaw AM250, UK). In all builds, the laser power
was 400 W, the point distance 70 μm, and the layer thickness 60 μm; values that were selected based on prior experience [9].
A typical portrait orientation plate build, with support structures, is shown in Fig. 1a. The parts were built on a 170 °C
pre-heated standard base plate for the machine. Preliminary tests confirmed that a stripe scan strategy produced lower levels of
deformation, so this was implemented in all plate builds.
The shapes of the plates were measured using a stereoscopic DIC correlation system (Q400, Dantec Dynamics GmbH,
Ulm, Germany). The system was setup as shown in Fig. 1b to achieve a spatial resolution of 20 pixels/mm using a pair of
identical CCD cameras with 1292 × 964 pixels and 50 mm lenses. Each specimen was painted black at the end of its build
process and a white speckle pattern applied to allow for DIC analysis. The equipment was calibrated before each set of
measurements to determine the measurement uncertainty which typically had a mean of zero and a standard deviation of
0.0014 mm (see Fig. 1c).
After completion of the build process and specimen paint preparation, the base plate with the reinforced plate attached was
placed on an optical table for DIC measurements. The supports were released incrementally alternating between each end of
the geometry with stereoscopic images taken at each increment to allow the evolution of shape to be evaluated.

Fig. 1 (a) Exemplar of a successful L-PBF build of an Inconel 625 thin plate before base plate release (dimensions in mm); (b) Schematic diagram
of the setup used for stereoscopic digital image correlation (DIC) measurements of out-of-plane displacement; (c) DIC map of measurement
uncertainty. (Modified from Patterson et al. [4])
Residual Stress Induced in Thin Plates During Additive Manufacturing 15

Results and Discussion

An out-of-plane step occurred in a number of the initial builds in the landscape orientation at a height of around 105 mm as
illustrated in Fig. 2a, prompting trials with different support structures to prevent its occurrence. An enveloping structure
successfully produced a plate with a flatness of 5.05 mm but created significant material waste which negated any advantage
of using AM. Metrologically flatness is defined as the minimum distance between two planes within which all the points on a
surface lie [10]. Successful landscape builds, with minimal material wastage, were produced when triangular support
buttresses orientated perpendicular to the plane of the reinforced plate were used. Although the builds in landscape orientation
with triangular supports were successful, they produced significant out-of-plane displacement and a flatness of 5.7 mm when
released from the support structures. An alternate build approach was sought, so it was decided to build the plates in a portrait
orientation with triangular support buttresses orientated perpendicular to the plane of the reinforced plate. This strategy was
unsuccessful and resulted in a horizontal discontinuity at a height of 113 mm and a delamination at 225 mm as shown in
Fig. 2b. The addition of in-plane buttresses removed the delamination and discontinuity, resulting in a successful build
(Fig. 1a) that when released from the base plate, resulted in a flatness of 4.6 mm as shown in Fig. 3a; an improved flatness of
approximately 9% when compared with the build in landscape orientation with the envelope supports. The difference between
displacement in the plates built in landscape and portrait orientations, likely results from the geometric effects associated with
constraining the long and short edges to the base plate; as well as from differential thermal strains between layers in the
transverse and longitudinal directions.
The formation of residual stresses and consequential deformation of the plates are time-varying processes and history-
dependent. They occur when the balance of forces in the plate changes during the build process due to the addition of mass to
the part as well as due to energy transfers from the laser and to the surroundings. This balance of forces within the plate also
changes during the removal of the plate from the baseplate and the supporting structures. The sequence of out-of-plane
displacement fields shown in Fig. 3b for a reinforced plate built in the portrait orientation, illustrates this changing state of the
forces during release from the baseplate. Each step shows the changes to the shape of the part as the supports are released in
5 mm increments. Figure 3b shows that the displacements are substantially larger in the bottom half of the plate when
compared to the top (also observed for the builds with the landscape orientation). This result was anticipated as the effect of
the residual forces reacted through the base plate would be expected to be greater adjacent to the baseplate and to dissipate
with distance from the baseplate.
For builds that use other aspect ratios or materials, it seems likely that the use of buttress supports would be effective in
reducing out-of-plane displacement. Although it is hard to predict this behaviour from the data collected in this study, the
datasets should be invaluable for the development and validation of computational models that could provide such predictions
of residual stress development in AM builds.

Fig. 2 (a) Example of a failed build in the landscape orientation; (b) Example of a failed build in the portrait orientation. (Modified from Patterson
et al. [4])
16 E. A. Patterson et al.

Fig. 3 (a) Measurements of out-of-plane displacement, before and after baseplate release, for a build in the portrait orientation with both in-plane
and out-of-plane buttresses; (b) Out-of-plane displacements measured at increments of 5 mm release from the baseplate for the first 12 steps and final
4 steps. (Modified from Patterson et al. [4])

Conclusion

Geometrically reinforced thin plates have been successfully built using laser-powder bed fusion (L-PBF) and their shapes
measured using stereoscopic DIC before, during and after release from the baseplate of the AM machine. The results
demonstrate that residual stresses induced by AM cause severe out-of-plane deformation that can be minimised by using
in-plane and out-of-plane support buttresses. The out-of-plane displacement that occurs during release from the base plate can
be minimised by incremental releases of 5 mm. Plates built in the portrait orientation with both in-plane and out-of-plane
support buttresses resulted in builds with an out-of-plane deformation of 4.6 mm; the lowest out-of-plane displacement for all
geometries built in this study.

Acknowledgements The research was supported by grants from both the EPSRC (Grant No. EP/T013141/1) in UK and NSF CMMI (Grant
No. 20–27082) in the USA. The opinions expressed in this article reflect only the authors’ view and EPSRC is not responsible for any use that may
be made of the information it contains. The authors are grateful to funders for providing the resources for the research and to the University of
Liverpool for access to facilities to perform the research.

References

1. Santos Silva, A.C., Sebastian, C.M., Lambros, J., Patterson, E.A.: High temperature modal analysis of a non-uniformly heated rectangular plate:
experiments and simulations. J. Sound Vib. 443, 397–410 (2019)
2. Lopez-Alba, E., Sebastian, C.M., Santos Silva, A.C., Patterson, E.A.: Experimental study of mode shifting in an asymmetrically heated
rectangular plate. J. Sound Vib. 439, 241–250 (2019)
3. Silva, A.C.S., Lambros, J., Garner, D.M., Patterson, E.A.: Dynamic response of a thermally stressed plate with reinforced edges. Exp. Mech.
60(1), 81–92 (2020)
4. Patterson, E.A., Lambros, J., Magana-Carranza, R., Sutcliffe, C.J.: Residual stress effects during additive manufacturing of reinforced thin
nickel–chromium plates. Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 123(5), 1845–1857 (2022)
5. Mercelis, P., Kruth, J.-P.: Residual Stresses in Selective Laser Sintering and Selective Laser Melting. Emerald Group Publishing Limited (2006)
6. Qian, W., Wu, S., Wu, Z., Ahmed, S., Zhang, W., Qian, G., Withers, P.J.: In situ X-ray imaging of fatigue crack growth from multiple defects in
additively manufactured AlSi10Mg alloy. Int. J. Fatigue. 155, 106616 (2022)
7. Magana Carranza, R., Robinson, J., Ashton, I., Fox, P., Sutcliffe, C., Patterson, E.: A novel device for in-situ force measurements during laser
powder bed fusion (L-PBF). Rapid Prototyp. J. 27(7), 1423–1431 (2021)
8. Magana-Carranza, R., Sutcliffe, C.J., Patterson, E.A.: The effect of processing parameters and material properties on residual forces induced in
Laser Powder Bed Fusion (L-PBF). Addit. Manuf. 46, 102192 (2021)
9. Bartlett, J., Li, X.: An Overview of Residual Stresses in Metal Powder Bed Fusion, vol. 27, pp. 131–149 (2019)
10. Thomas, G.G.: Engineering metrology. Butterworths, London (1974)
Investigating the Effects of Acetone Vapor Treatment and Post
Drying Conditions on Tensile and Fatigue Behavior of 3D Printed
ABS Components

Heechang Bae, Nicholas Blair, Matthew Michaelis, and Awlad Hossain

Abstract Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM), an additive manufacturing/3D printing process, is widely used where the
material is melted, extruded, and deposited in layers to build up the desired object. The applications of FDM technologies
have significantly increased recently not only for rapid prototyping but also for mass production of finished products. In 3D
printing, parts are usually built in discrete layers. Hence, this manufacturing process results in a certain amount of structural
uncertainty in the form of discontinuities, voids, and poor inter-layer bonding. In our previous research, we successfully
investigated the differences in the ultimate strength and fatigue life for 3D printed Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS)
components built by various build/layer orientations. Our previous research successfully highlighted the ultimate strengths
and fatigue life, including SN Curves. However, there is a need for further research to improve the tensile strength and fatigue
life of the 3D printed ABS components. This research explores effects of the surface treatment on the tensile strength and
fatigue life of the 3D printed ABS components with various layup-orientation. In this study, Acetone Vaper Smoothing (AVS)
method was used as the surface treatment of the 3D printed ABS components. Our research found that the AVS method could
reduce stress concentrations on the surface and structural uncertainty of the 3D printed ABS components to improve the
tensile and fatigue strength. However, these results were occurred after adjusting the Acetone vapor exposure and improving
the drying methods because Acetone weakened the layer bonding of the ABS and reduced the tensile strength and fatigue life
of the 3D printed ABS components. This research provides the optimal conditions of the Acetone Vapor exposure time and
the drying time.

Keywords 3D printing · ABS · Strength · Acetone · Fatigue

Introduction

The Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) is a form of additive manufacturing (AM) in which a material is melted, extruded, and
fused in layers to build the intended model, often through the use of 3D printers. Additive manufacturing is a manufacturing
process where material is added to form the object rather than removing material or using some form of a mold. Subtractive
manufacturing (SM) requires material to be removed to form the desired part utilizing equipment such as cut-ting, milling,
grinding, drilling, etc. The requirement to use multiple machines and the expertise to use each one individually is a limitation
when using SM for rapid prototyping or other short-run applications. Historically, AM had been primarily used to fill the role
of rapid prototyping, but it is expanding and increasingly used to create end user products. The use of AM products has
increased design flexibility and speed and is being used to customize products for consumers while reducing waste and the
amount of production steps.
Current AM capabilities have limitations due the nature of the fused material being added in layers, which impacts the
us-ability for end user products. The products produced by AM methods are not formed from a solid continuous piece of
material and so the properties differ based on how the manufacturing process is conducted (i.e., not isotropic). The surface
finish is a property of AM that is limited by the layering process. The layers fuse to each other but do not form a continuous
and smooth surface finish. Instead, it consists of ridges and valleys of material. Besides the cosmetic drawbacks, such surface

H. Bae (✉) · N. Blair · M. Michaelis · A. Hossain

Department of Mechanical Engineering & Technology, College of Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics, Eastern Washington
University, Cheney, WA, USA
e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]

© The Society for Experimental Mechanics, Inc. 2024 17

S. L. B. Kramer et al. (eds.), Additive and Advanced Manufacturing, Inverse Problem Methodologies and Machine Learning
and Data Science, Volume 4, Conference Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Mechanics Series,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-50474-7_4
18 H. Bae et al.

texture is undesirable for product properties such as fatigue life, which is significantly impacted by surface quality and
roughness.
Many researchers have investigated the anisotropic behavior of tensile test specimens fabricated by FDM AM techniques
[1–6]. However, few researchers have studied the fatigue behavior of ABS specimens fabricated by FDM AM techniques.
Ziemian et al. studied the tensile and fatigue behavior of layered acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) samples, fabricated by
FDM method [7]. In that research, typical tensile tests were performed first on FDM specimens with four different layup
orientations. Then, the ABS samples were subjected to tension-tension fatigue cycling load to generate SN plots, which were
finally used to determine the fatigue strength. SEM images of fracture surfaces of fatigue specimens with different layup
orientations were also presented in this research paper. In a study of Bae et al. [8], several fatigue tests were conducted and
generated SN curves for the ABS samples with the different layup orientations. The research also calculated and estimated the
fatigue strengths of the ABS samples for the different layup orientations.
Dimethyl ketone (acetone) is a solvent of acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) and is a common secondary process to
improve smoothness of ABS printed objects in the hobbyist community. The acetone is vaporized on a heated surface and the
model is lowered into the fumes, dissolving the outer surfaces and penetrating into the material based on fume exposure time.
After the sample is removed, and given enough time, the acetone evaporates from the material returning it to the original
composition but with a visually smoother surface finish.
The application of a chemical post-process to ABS material manufactured with FDM has been the focus of several studies
but is still an emerging discussion. Multiple studies have been focused on the effectiveness of acetone vapor being used as a
smoothing process for ABS parts made with FDM [9–12]. From these experiments, it was concluded that the treatment was
very effective at improving the surface quality. To improve the process, the use of a vacuum chamber was able to reduce the
amount of time and solvent needed to achieve the same smoothing effect from the acetone vapor at atmospheric conditions
[13]. Concern that the process would impact the geometric accuracy of the parts was the focus of Garg et al. and the authors
concluded that cold vapor treatment significantly improved the surface roughness of the part while having minimal impact to
the geometric accuracy [14]. Adding a solvent to a material will put it at risk of altering the mechanical properties of the
material as well as the surface quality. In a study of vapor smoothing in relation to mechanical strengths, it was determined that
the process altered strengths which ruled it out to be used in certain applications, otherwise it was effective at smoothing
surface quality [15]. In a study by Cunico et al., the mechanical strengths were tested before and after exposure to a solvent.
The peak-peak roughness was greatly reduced when exposed to a correct amount of solvent and it also increased the
mechanical strengths [16]. In a study by Neff et al., they concluded that the vapor polishing on thin specimens had minimal
impact to mechanical properties but still had vast improvement of surface quality [17]. Vapor polishing is not the only method
to improve surface finish, other methods include tumbling, hand finishing, shot peening, etc. ABS immersion in acetone
yielded the best geometric accuracy of methods tested [18].
In this study, ABS specimens were manufactured using FDM methods utilizing a 3D printer. The specimens had two
unique layup orientations and underwent acetone vapor polishing with two distinct drying methods. After undergoing the
vaporization treatment process, the samples were tested in tension and rotational bending fatigue. Conclusions are drawn from
the ultimate strength and fatigue life; the latter being estimated by the Stress-Life approach.

Materials and Methods

3D Printing

The fatigue and tensile samples were printed using a Prusa Mk3 3D printer in an enclosure to maintain consistent print
conditions. Table 1 shows all the parameters that are used to prepare the 3D printed samples (Fig. 1).
The tensile samples are the standard dog-bone shape samples, as shown in Fig. 2a. The dimensions of these samples are
adjusted so that they could fit to our existing tensile testing machine. The fatigue samples are also dimensioned to properly fit
the testing machine, but to account for the strength differences between metal and ABS samples, the minimum neck diameter
recommended by the fatigue tester manual is increased, as shown in Fig. 2b.

Table 1 3D printing parameters and settings

Room temperature Bed temperature Nozzle temperature Print speed Infill setting Filament material
20 °C 100 °C 255 °C 2400 mm/mm 100% Black ABS, matter hacker
Investigating the Effects of Acetone Vapor Treatment and Post Drying Conditions on Tensile. . . 19

Fig. 1 Prusa i3 MK3 3D printer in its printing enclosure

Fig. 2 Basic dimensioning for (a) tensile samples and (b) fatigue samples (units: inch [mm])

Fig. 3 Tensile samples in the (a) horizontal orientation (b) vertical orientation

Tensile and fatigue samples were printed in two variations of the print layup orientation, as shown in Fig. 3. The horizontal
print orientation is made by the printer nozzle running parallel to the length axis. If the nozzle is printing normal to the length
axis, it is called vertical. The same naming convention applies to the tensile and fatigue samples.
20 H. Bae et al.

Fig. 4 Acetone vapor treatment process of fatigue samples

Acetone Vapor Treatment Process

To begin the acetone vapor treatment process, the samples were lightly sanded with 320 grit sandpaper to remove any large
printing surface defects. In a well-ventilated area, acetone is poured into a glass beaker with a heat safe lid that is non-sealing.
The beaker is put on a hot plate set to a medium heat setting. The samples to be treated are held by a copper wire that is bent
into a shape that holds the end of the samples by pinching them shown in Fig. 4. When the acetone vapor has risen enough to
submerge the entire length of the samples, the samples are lowered into the vapor for 5 s. After the 5 s have passed, the
samples are removed and hung up to dry for 5 min.
For the long-term drying process, two different methods were used. The first method was to allow the sample to dry
exposed to the open room environment for 3 days. The samples were placed on a paper surface to prevent the material bonding
to a hard surface. The other method was in a heated environment produced in a modified food dehydrator shown in Fig. 5.
The samples were dried at 64 °C for 24 h.

Surface Roughness Measurement

Before and after each sample goes through the acetone treatment process, the surface roughness is measured using a
profilometer. The surface roughness was measured at the smallest neck diameter for the fatigue samples and on the thickness
direction for tensile samples. The samples roughness was measured along the axial and transverse directions. Figure 6 shows a
fatigue sample being measured in the transverse direction.

Tensile Testing

Tensile testing was performed with a Tinius Olsen H50KS tensile testing machine shown in Fig. 7. Testing included both of
the orientations and curing conditions, horizontal air-dried, horizontal heated-dry, vertical air-dried, and vertical heated dry.
With each configuration, three samples were tested to determine the failure force in tension.
Investigating the Effects of Acetone Vapor Treatment and Post Drying Conditions on Tensile. . . 21

Fig. 5 Food dehydrator used to heat sample to 64 °C. The lid has been removed in the photo to show samples

Fig. 6 Mitutoyo profilometer with a device to hold fatigue samples

Fatigue Testing

Fatigue testing utilized an RFB-200 rotating beam fatigue machine from Fatigue Dynamics. Fatigue test data were gathered
for the four different sample configurations: vertical air-dried, vertical heated-dry, horizontal air-dried, and horizontal heated-
dry. Three samples were tested at each of the five stress amplitudes which translated to 5 in-lb., 4.5 in-lb., 4.0 in-lb., 3.5 in-lb.,
and 3.0 in-lb. in the machine settings (Fig. 8).
22 H. Bae et al.

Fig. 7 Tinius Olsen H50KS tensile tester

Fig. 8 RFB-200 rotational fatigue machine

Experimental Results
Surface Roughness

The surface roughness was measured before and after the samples were treated with the acetone vapor process. Measurements
were taken in two directions because the printing orientation changes which direction the maximum roughness occurs.
Table 2 shows that the chemical vapor smoothing process was able to reduce the overall surface roughness by a minimum
of 15 times the highest pre-treatment value. The horizontal prints had an increased surface roughness in the transverse
direction because the measurement was going over the layer indents left from the printing process. Inversely, the vertical
prints had the largest roughness in the axial direction for the same reasons as the horizontal. The highest pre-treatment
roughness values for the vertical and horizontal were all within a 0.753 μm spread. For the post-treatment, the significant
reduction of largest pre-treatment roughness values was all within 0.321 μm.
From Figs. 9 and 10, it can be seen that the vapor treatment significantly reduced the visibility of the ridges left from the 3D
printing process. The large-scale views of the samples in Fig. 9 show that the vertical print was more uniform before vapor
treatment. The more uniform initial surface of the vertical print (Fig. 9b, c) appears to yield a more uniform post treatment
surface than the horizontal (Fig. 9e, d). In Fig. 10a, d, the layers are clearly defined and in subsequent images the surface
Investigating the Effects of Acetone Vapor Treatment and Post Drying Conditions on Tensile. . . 23

Table 2 Averaged surface roughness values (Ra) from the four conditions for the fatigue tests (unit: μm)
Horizontal heated-dry Horizontal air-dried Vertical heated-dry Vertical air-dried
Pre-treatment axial 0.4261 0.4009 9.5510 9.5484
Post-treatment axial 0.3117 0.1855 0.3787 0.2275
Difference 0.1144 0.2154 9.1723 9.3209
Pre-treatment transverse 9.0273 9.7803 0.3973 0.4000
Post-treatment transverse 0.5485 0.4174 0.3284 0.1997
Difference 8.4788 9.3629 0.0689 0.2003

Fig. 9 Overview images of fatigue samples using a camera to show how the outer surfaces of the samples were altered by the acetone treatment. Top
row is of the vertical prints (a) untreated (b) treated and air-dried (c) treated and heated-dry. Bottom row is of horizontal print (d) untreated (e) treated
and air-dried (f) treated and heated-dry. (units of scale cm [mm])

appears smooth. The images do not show a clear difference in the surface quality between the two drying conditions. They do
appear to show the print direction impacted the surface quality after treatment with the horizontal orientation having a bumpier
texture than the vertical print directions, although surface roughness values were comparable. The images support the
numerical results gained from the profilometer that the use of acetone vapor is very effective in improving the surface quality
of 3D printed ABS objects.

Tensile Testing

The tensile samples were printed in the vertical and horizontal orientations, treated with the acetone vapor treatment, and
air-dried or heated-dry. Three samples for each of the four conditions were tested in tensile strength. The tensile test results are
shown in Fig. 11.
24 H. Bae et al.

Fig. 10 Images of Fatigue samples outer surfaces at 50× magnification through the use of a microscope. Top row is the vertical print (a) untreated
(b) treated and air-dried (c) treated and heated-dry. Bottom row is horizontal print (d) untreated (e) treated and air-dried (f) treated and heated-dry

39
38 12
37 10
Stress (MPa)

36
Stress (MPa)

8
35
34 6
33 Heated-Dry 4 Heated-Dry
32 Air-Dried Air-Dried
2
31 Untreated Average Untreated Average
30 0
1 2 3 1 2 3
Sample Number Sample Number

(a) (b)

Fig. 11 Plots of failure stress for tensile samples: (a) horizontal print (b) vertical print. Each plot has three sets air-dried, heated-dry, and untreated.
Untreated samples data was from a previous experiment and the data was aver-aged and plotted as the single average over the three sample trials

From Fig. 11, it can be seen that the failure stress was not substantially impacted by the vapor treatment. The average stress
for the horizontal heated-dry samples was 37.5 MPa and was 1.3 MPa higher than the air-dried and 0.3 MPa higher than the
untreated samples average. The heated-dry of the vertical print had an average stress of 10.5 MPa that was 0.8 MPa stronger
than the air-dried but 0.7 MPa weaker than the untreated samples. The horizontal heated-dry samples were on average 20 MPa
stronger than the vertical heated-dry samples. The differences in the samples’ strength are due to the anisotropic properties of
3D printing and it is much stronger when loaded parallel to print orientation. The acetone treatment is a process that starts on
the surface and the longer it is in contact with the material the deeper the vapor penetrates. Tensile failure is related to the
cross-sectional area. For the process to have an impact on the failure stress, it needs to penetrate most of the thickness. The
treatment exposure time was 5 s, which is not long enough for the vapor to seep into the inner material and affect the layer
bonding to result in a change in the tensile failure.
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Title: The Human Race

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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE HUMAN

RACE ***
Please see Transcriber’s Notes at
the end of this document.
 THE

HUMAN RACE.
 Imp. Dupuy, 22, R. des Petits G. Regamey,
P. Sellier, p.t Hôtels lith.

NORTH AMERICAN SOUTH AMERICAN

INDIAN INDIAN
RED RACE

THE
HUMAN RACE.
 BY

LOUIS FIGUIER.

ILLUSTRATED BY
TWO HUNDRED AND FORTY-THREE ENGRAVINGS ON WOOD,
AND EIGHT CHROMOLITHOGRAPHS.

NEW YORK:
D. APPLETON AND CO., BROADWAY.
1872.

LONDON:
BRADBURY, EVANS, AND CO., PRINTERS, WHITEFRIARS.
 CONTENTS.

INTRODUCTION.

PAGE
CHAPTER I.—Definition of Man—How he differs from other Animals—
Origin of Man—In what parts of the Earth did he first appear?—Unity of
Mankind, evidence in support—What is understood by species in Natural
History—Man forms but one species, with its varieties or kinds—
Classification of the Human Race 1
CHAPTER II.—General characteristics of the human race—Organic
characteristics—Senses and the nervous system—Height—Skeleton—
Cranium and face—Colour of the skin—Physiological functions—Intellectual
characteristics—Properties of human intelligence—Languages and literature
—Different states of society—Primitive industry—The two ages of
prehistoric humanity 21

THE WHITE RACE.

CHAPTER I.
EUROPEAN BRANCH 41
TEUTONIC FAMILY 41
LATIN FAMILY 66
SLAVONIAN FAMILY 113
GREEK FAMILY 149

CHAPTER II.
ARAMEAN BRANCH 163
LIBYAN FAMILY 163
SEMITIC FAMILY 183
PERSIAN FAMILY 190
GEORGIAN FAMILY 203
CIRCASSIAN FAMILY 203

THE YELLOW RACE.

CHAPTER I.
HYPERBOREAN BRANCH 206
LAPP FAMILY 206
SAMOIEDE FAMILY 209
KAMTSCHADALE FAMILY 209
ESQUIMAUX FAMILY 211
TEMISIAN FAMILY 217
JUKAGHIRITE AND KORIAK FAMILIES 217

CHAPTER II.
MONGOLIAN BRANCH 218
MONGOL FAMILY 218
TUNGUSIAN FAMILY 223
YAKUT FAMILY 223
TURKISH FAMILY 229

CHAPTER III.
SINAIC BRANCH 254
CHINESE FAMILY 256
JAPANESE FAMILY 302
INDO-CHINESE FAMILY 324
 THE BROWN RACE.

CHAPTER I.
HINDOO BRANCH 336
HINDOO FAMILY 339
MALABAR FAMILY 354

CHAPTER II.
ETHIOPIAN BRANCH 355
ABYSSINIAN FAMILY 355
FELLAN FAMILY 363

CHAPTER III.
MALAY BRANCH 365
MALAY FAMILY 365
POLYNESIAN FAMILY 380
MICRONESIAN FAMILY 400

THE RED RACE.

CHAPTER I.
SOUTHERN BRANCH 407
ANDIAN FAMILY 407
PAMPEAN FAMILY 419
GUARANY FAMILY 433

CHAPTER II.
NORTHERN BRANCH 452
SOUTHERN FAMILY 452
NORTH-EASTERN FAMILY 460
NORTH-WESTERN FAMILY 492
 THE BLACK RACE.

CHAPTER I.
WESTERN BRANCH 495
CAFFRE FAMILY 495
HOTTENTOT FAMILY 498
NEGRO FAMILY 500

CHAPTER II.
EASTERN BRANCH 518
PAPUAN FAMILY 518
ANDAMAN FAMILY 531
 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

RED RACE: NORTH AMERICAN INDIAN, SOUTH AMERICAN INDIAN

THE WHITE RACE.

FIG. PAGE
1. —MEN AND WOMEN OF ANATOLIA 5
2. —SAMOIEDES OF THE NORTH CAPE 7
WHITE OR CAUCASIAN RACE: SCANDINAVIAN, GREEK
3. —WAKE OF ICELANDIC PEASANTS IN A BARN 42
4. —WOMEN OF STAVANGER, NORWAY 43
5. —CITIZEN OF STAVANGER 44
6. —COSTUMES OF THE TELEMARK (NORWAY) 45
7. —WOMEN OF CHRISTIANSUND (NORWAY) 46
8. —BOY AND GIRL OF THE LAWERGRAND (NORWAY) 47
9, 10.—SUABIANS (STUTTGARD) 48
11,12.—SUABIANS (STUTTGARD) 50
13.—BAVARIANS 52
14. —BADENERS 53
15.—ENGLISHMAN 63
16.—DRUIDS, GAULS, AND FRANKS 70
17. —FRENCHMAN 75
18.—CATTLE-DEALER OF CORDOVA 81
19.—NATIVES OF TOLEDO 83
20.—SPANISH PEASANT 84
21.—A MADRID WINE-SHOP 85
22.—SPANISH LADY AND DUENNA 88
23.—THE FANDANGO 89
24. —THE BOLERO 91
25.—FISH VENDORS AT OPORTO 92
26.—ROMAN PEASANT GIRL 94
27. —ROMAN PEASANTS 95
28.—YOUNG GIRL OF THE TRANSTEVERA 96
29.—STREET AT TIVOLI 98
30.—A CARDINAL ENTERING THE VATICAN 99
31.—EXALTATION OF POPE PIUS IX. 100
32.—A MACARONI SHOP AT NAPLES 103
33.—NEAPOLITAN ICED-WATER SELLER 104
34. —NEAPOLITAN PEASANT WOMAN 104
35.—ITINERANT TRADER OF NAPLES 105
36.—AN ACQUAJOLO, AT NAPLES 106
37. —WALACHIAN 108
38.—LADY OF BUCHAREST 110
39.—WALACHIAN WOMAN 111
40.—NOBLE BOSNIAK MUSSULMAN 112
41.—RUSSIAN SENTINEL, RIGA 115
42.—RUSSIAN DEVOTEES, RIGA 117
43.—TRAFFIC IN ST. PETERSBURG 121
44. —A RUSSIAN TAVERN 122
45.—INTERIOR OF AN ISBA 123
46.—LIVONIAN PEASANTS 124
47. —TARTAR OF KASAK 125
48.—TARTAR OF THE CAUCASUS 126
49.—TARTAR OF THE CAUCASUS 127
50.—RUSSIAN NORTH-SEA PILOT 128
51.—OSTIAK HUT 130
52.—ISIGANE OF VOAKOVAR 131
53.—SLAVONIAN PEASANT 132
54. —A PEASANT OF ESSEK 133
55.—HERDSMEN OF THE MILITARY CONFINES 135
56.—WOMAN OF THE MILITARY CONFINES 136
 57. —GRÄNZERS, AND THEIR GUARD-HOUSE 138
58.—TSIGANE PRISONER 139
59.—BOSNIAK PEASANT 142
60.—BOSNIAK PEASANT WOMAN 143
61.—BOSNIAK MERCHANT 144
62.—WOMEN OF PESTH 145
63.—HUNGARIANS 146
64. —A HUNGARIAN GENTLEMAN 147
65.—HUNGARIANS 148
66.—GREEKS OF ATHENS 151
67. —A GREEK HOUSEHOLD 153
68.—INTERIOR OF THE AGORA AT ATHENS 156
69.—FÊTE OF THE TEMPLE OF JUPITER, ATHENS 159
WHITE OR CAUCASIAN RACE: GEORGEAN, ARAB
70.—ALBANIAN WOMAN 161
PORTRAIT OF AN ARMENIAN
71.—MOORISH COFFEE-HOUSE AT SIDI-BOW-SAID, NEAR
TUNIS 164
72.—GRINDING WHEAT IN THE KABYLIA 169
73.—KABYLE JEWELLERS 171
74. —KOPTS OF THE TEMPLE OF KRANAH 175
75.—A FELLAH WOMAN AND CHILDREN 177
76.—A FELLAH DONKEY BOY 178
77. —A LADY OF CAIRO 181
78.—ALMA OR DANCING GIRL 182
79.—WANDERING ARABS 185
80.—JEW OF BUCHAREST 186
81.—BEYROUT 187
82.—MARONITES OF LIBANUS 189
83.—HADY-MERZA-AGHAZZI 192
84. —PERSIAN TYPES 194
85.—PERSIAN NOBLEMEN 195
86.—PERSIAN WOMEN 196
87. —LOUTY AND BAKTYAN 197
88.—AN ARMENIAN DRAWING-ROOM 200
89.—GEORGIANS 202

THE YELLOW RACE.

90.—LAPLANDERS 207
91.—A LAPP CRADLE 209
92.—SAMOIEDES 210
93.—ESQUIMAUX SUMMER ENCAMPMENT 212
94. —ESQUIMAUX WINTER ENCAMPMENT 213
95.—ESQUIMAUX VILLAGE 214
96.—ESQUIMAUX CHIEF 215
97. —ESQUIMAUX BIRD-CATCHER 216
98.—YOUNG ESQUIMAUX 217
99.—A MONGOL TARTAR 219
100. —BURÏATS ESCORTING MISS CHRISTIANI 222
101. —MANCHÚS SOLDIERS 224
YELLOW OR MONGOLIAN RACE: MONGOLIAN, ESQUIMAUX
102. —YAKUTS 225
103. —A YAKUT WOMAN 227
104. —YAKUT VILLAGERS 230
105. —YAKUT PRIESTS 231
106. —TURCOMAN ENCAMPMENT 234
107.—KIRGHIS FUNERAL RITES 237
108. —A HAREM 241
109. —A HAREM SUPPER 243
110. —TURKISH LADIES VISITING 245
111. —A TURKISH BARBER 249
112. —TURKISH PORTER 251
113. —INDO-CHINESE OF STUNG TRENG 254
114. —INDO-CHINESE OF LAOS 255
115. —A YOUNG CHINESE 257
116. —CHINESE SHOPKEEPER 258
117.—CHINESE LADY 259
118. —CHINESE WOMAN 260
119. —MANDARIN’S DAUGHTER 261
120. —CHINESE BOUDOIR 264
121. —CHINESE SITTING-ROOM 269
122. —OPIUM-SMOKERS 271
123. —CHINESE AGRICULTURE 273
124. —CHINESE FISHING 275
125. —THE CUSTOM-HOUSE AT SHANGHAI 277
YELLOW OR MONGOLIAN RACE: JAPANESE, CHINESE
126. —CHINESE BONZE 281
127.—CHINESE SCHOOLMASTER 283
128. —CHINESE LOCOMOTION 285
129. —A CHINESE PLAY 289
130. —A CHINESE JUNK 291
131. —CHINESE BEGGARS 293
132. —CHINESE PUNISHMENTS 295
133. —CHINESE PUNISHMENTS 296
134. —A CHINESE COURT OF JUSTICE 297
135. —CHINESE SOLDIERS 299
136. —CHINESE TROOPER 300
137.—THE GREAT WALL OF CHINA 301
138. —JAPANESE 304
139. —A JAPANESE FATHER 305
140. —JAPANESE SOLDIER 306
141. —JAPANESE NOBLE 307
142. —JAPANESE PALANQUIN 311
143. —THE TAÏCOON’S GUARDS 315
144. —A LADY OF THE COURT 317
145. —A KAMIS TEMPLE, JAPAN 321
146. —JAPANESE PAGODA 323
147.—BURMESE NOBLES 325
148. —BURMESE LADY 326
149. —WOMEN OF BANKOK 327
150. —SIAMESE DOMESTIC 328
151. —SIAMESE LADIES DINING 329
152. —TOMB OF A BONZE, AT LAOS 330
153. —CAMBODIANS 331
154. —THE PRINCE-ROYAL OF SIAM 333
155. —CHINESE GIRL 334

THE BROWN RACE.

156. —NATIVES OF HYDERABAD 337

157.—A BANIAN OF SURAT 338
158. —AN AGED SIKH 339
159. —A PARSEE GENTLEMAN 341
160. —SIR SALAR JUNG, K.S.I. 343
161. —NAUTCH GIRL OF BARODA 345
162. —A COOLIE OF THE GHATS 347
163. —PAGODA AT SIRRHINGHAM 349
164. —PALANQUIN 352
165. —ABYSSINIAN 355
166. —NOUERS OF THE WHITE NILE 356
167.—A NOUER CHIEF 358
168. —CHIEF OF THE LIRA 359
169. —MALAY “RUNNING A MUCK” 367
BROWN RACE: POLYNESIAN, MALAY
170. —MALAY 369
171. —JAVANESE 369
172. —JAVANESE DANCING GIRLS 371
173. —JAVANESE WEDDING 372
174. —DYAKS 377
175. —A DYAK HUT 379
176. —NEW ZEALAND CHIEF 383
177.—NATIVE OF TAHITI 393
178. —NATIVE OF THE SANDWICH ISLANDS 398
BROWN RACE: ABYSSINIAN, HINDOO

THE RED RACE.

179. —HUASCAR, THIRTEENTH EMPEROR OF THE INCAS 408

180. —COYA CAHUANA, EMPRESS OF THE INCAS 409
181. —AN ANTIS INDIAN 411
182. —AN ANTIS INDIAN 412
183. —SUMMER SHED OF THE ANTIS 413
184. —ANTIS INDIANS FISHING 414
185. —PERUVIAN INTERPRETER 415
186. —ARAUCANIAN 417
187.—PECHERAY HUTS 418
188. —PATAGONIAN 422
189. —A PATAGONIAN HORSE SACRIFICE 423
190. —A BOLIVIAN CHIEF 426
191. —A BOAT ON THE RIO NEGRO 429
192. —EXAMINADOR OF CHILI 432
193. —A PARAGUAYAN MESSENGER 437
194. —BRAZILIAN NEGRO 440
195. —INDIAN WOMAN OF BRAZIL 441
196. —NATIVE OF MANAOS, BRAZIL 443
197.—BRAZILIAN NEGRESSES 445
198. —BRAZILIAN DWELLING 446
199. —NEGROS OF BAHIA 447
200. —NATIVES OF FRENCH GUYANA 449
201. —BOTOCUDOS 451
202. —INDIAN OF THE MEXICAN COAST 453
203, 204.—INDIANS OF THE MEXICAN COAST 454
205. —MEXICAN INDIAN WOMAN 456
206. —MEXICAN PICADOR 457
207.—THE ROLDAU BRIDGE MARKET, MEXICO 458
208. —MEXICAN HATTER 459
209. —MEXICAN HAWKER 459
210. —CREEK INDIANS 463
211. —ENCAMPMENT OF SIOUX INDIANS 465
212. —SIOUX WARRIOR 466
213. —A SIOUX CHIEF 467
214. —CROW INDIANS IN COUNCIL 470
215. —PAWNEE INDIANS 473
216. —A CHAYENE (SHIENNES) CHIEF 475
217.—A YUTE CHIEF 477
218. —CHOCTAW INDIANS PLAYING BALL 479
219. —COMANCHE INDIANS 481
220. —A COMANCHE CAMP 482
221. —A BUFFALO HUNT 483
222. —MOHAWK INDIANS 485
223. —FLAT-HEAD INDIANS 487
224. —NAYA INDIANS 489
225. —A CROW CHIEF 491

THE BLACK RACE.

226. —A CAFFRE 496

227.—NATIVE OF THE MOZAMBIQUE COAST 497
228. —THE HOTTENTOT VENUS 499
229. —A ZANZIBAR NEGRO 503
230. —ZANZIBAR NEGRESSES 507
231. —A NEGRO VILLAGE 511
232. —FISHING ON THE UPPER SENEGAL 513
233. —A ZAMBESI NEGRESS 515
BLACK RACE: PAPOUAN, NEGRO OF NEW GUINEA
234. —THAKOMBAU, KING OF THE FIJI ISLANDS 520
235. —NATIVE OF FIJI 521
236. —NATIVE OF FIJI 522
237.—A TEMPLE OF CANNIBALISM 523
238. —A FIJIAN DANCE 525
239. —YOUNG NATIVE OF NEW CALEDONIA 527
240. —NATIVE OF NEW CALEDONIA 529
241. —ENCAMPMENT OF NATIVE AUSTRALIANS 533
242. —NATIVE AUSTRALIAN 535
243. —AN AUSTRALIAN GRAVE 536
THE HUMAN RACE.
INTRODUCTION.
 CHAPTER I.

Definition of Man—How he differs from other Animals—Origin of

Man—In what parts of the Earth did he first appear?—Unity of
Mankind, evidence in support—What is understood by species in
Natural History—Man forms but one species, with its varieties or
kinds—Classification of the Human Race.

What is man? A profound thinker, Cardinal de Bonald, has said: “Man

is an intelligence assisted by organs.” We would fain adopt this
definition, which brings into relief the true attribute of man,
intelligence, were it not defective in drawing no sufficient distinction
between man and the brute. It is a fact that animals are intelligent
and that their intelligence is assisted by organs. But their intelligence
is infinitely inferior to that of man. It does not extend beyond the
necessities of attack and defence, the power of seeking food, and a
small number of affections or passions, whose very limited scope
merely extends to material wants. With man, on the other hand,
intelligence is of a high order, although its range is limited, and it is
often arrested, powerless and mute, before the problems itself
proposes. In bodily formation, man is an animal, he lives in a
material envelope, of which the structure is that of the Mammalia;
but he far surpasses the animal in the extent of his intellectual
faculties. The definition of man must therefore establish this relation
which animals bear to ourselves, and indicate, if possible, the degree
which separates them. For this reason we shall define man: an
organized, intelligent being, endowed with the faculty of abstraction.
To give beyond this a perfectly satisfactory definition of man is
impossible: first, because, a definition, being but the expression of a
theory, which rarely commands universal assent, is liable to be
rejected with the theory itself; and secondly, because a perfectly
accurate definition supposes an absolute knowledge of the subject,
of which absolute knowledge our understanding is incapable. It has
been well said that a correct definition can be furnished by none but
divine power. Nothing is more true than this, and were we able to
give of our own species a definition rigorously correct, we should
indeed possess absolute knowledge.
The trouble we have to define aright the being about to form the
subject of our investigation is but a forecast of the difficulties we
shall meet when we endeavour to reason upon and to classify man.
He who ventures to fathom the problems of human nature, physical,
intellectual or moral, is arrested at every step. Each moment he
must confess his powerlessness to solve the questions which arise,
and at times is forced to content himself with merely suggesting
them. This can be explained. Man is the last link of visible creation;
with him closes the series of living beings which we are permitted to
contemplate. Beyond him there extends, in a world hidden from our
view, a train of beings of a new order, endowed with faculties
superior and inaccessible to our comprehension, mysterious
phalanxes, whose place of abode even is unknown to us, and who,
after us, form the next step in the infinite progression of living
creatures by whom the universe is peopled. Situate, as he is, on the
confines of this unknown world, on the very threshold of this
domain, which his eye, if not his thoughts may not penetrate, man
shares to some extent the attributes belonging to those beings who
follow him in the economy of nature. Doubtless, it is this which
makes it so difficult for us to comprehend the actual essence of
man, his destiny, his origin and his end.
These reflections have been called for in order to supply an
explanation of the frequent admissions of helplessness which we
shall be obliged to make in this cursory Introduction, when we
investigate the origin of man, the period of his first appearance on
the globe, the unity or division of our species, the classification of
the human race, &c. If to many of these questions we reply with
doubt and uncertainty, the reader must not lay the blame at the feet
of science, but must search for the cause in the impenetrable laws of
nature.
And first, whence comes man? Wherefore does he exist? To this we
can make no reply, the problem is beyond the reach of human
thought. But we may at least enquire, since this question has been
largely debated by the learned, whether man was at once
constituted such as he is, or whether he originally existed in some
other animal form, which has been modified in its anatomical
structure by time and circumstances. In other words, is it true, as
has been pretended by various of our contemporaries, that man is
the result of the organic improvement of a particular race of apes,
which race forms a link between the apes with which we are familiar
and the first man?
We have already treated and discussed this question more fully in
the volume which preceded this. We have shown, in “Primitive Man,”
that man is not derived, by a process of organic transformation,
from any animal, and that he includes the ape not more than the
whale among his ancestry; but that he is the product of a special
creation.
Nevertheless, whether its creation be special or the result of
modification, the human species has not always existed. There is,
then, a first cause for its production. What is this? Here is again a
problem which surpasses our understanding. Let us say, my readers,
that the creation of the human species was an act of God, that man
is one of the children of the great arbiter of the universe, and we
shall have given to this question the only response which can
content at once our feelings and our reason.
But let us summon questions more accessible to our comprehension,
with which the mind is more at ease, and upon which science can
exercise its functions. To what period should we refer the first
appearance of man upon the globe? In “Primitive Man” we have
answered this question as far as it can be. We have considered the
opinion of some writers who carry the first appearance of man as far
back as the tertiary period. Rejecting this date on account of the
insufficiency of the evidence produced, we, in common with most
naturalists, have admitted, that man appeared for the first time upon
our globe at the commencement of the quaternary period, that is to
say, before the geological phenomenon of the deluge and previous
to the glacial period which preceded this great terrestrial cataclysm.
To fix the birth of man in the tertiary period would be to travel out of
facts now within the ken of science, and to substitute for
observation, conjecture and hypothesis.
By saying that man appeared for the first time upon the globe at the
commencement of the quaternary period, we establish the fact,
which is agreeable to the cosmogony of Moses, that man was
formed after the other animals, and that by his advent he crowned
the edifice of animal creation.
At the quaternary period almost all the animals of our time had
already seen the light, and a certain number of animal species
existed, which were shortly to disappear. When man was created,
the mammoth, the great bear, the cave tiger, and the cervus
megaceros, animals more bulky, more robust and more agile than
the corresponding species of our time, filled the forests and peopled
the plains. The first men were therefore contemporary with the
woolly elephant, the cave bear and tiger; they had to contend with
these savage phalanxes, as formidable in their number as their
strength. Nevertheless, in obedience to the laws of nature, these
animals were to disappear from the globe and give place to smaller
or different species, whilst man, persisting in the opposite direction,
increased and multiplied, as the Scripture has said, and gradually
spread into all inhabitable countries, taking possession of his empire
which daily increased with the progress of his intelligence.
In “Primitive Man” we have given the history of the first steps of
humanity.
We have traced the origin and progress of civilization, from the
moment when man was cast, feeble, wretched and naked, in the
midst of a hostile and savage brute population, to the day when his
power, resting upon a firm basis, changed little by little the face of
the inhabited earth.
We shall not refer to this at greater length, since in “Primitive Man”
we have treated it fully, and in unison with the actual discoveries of
science. But there is a very different problem to the solution of
which we shall apply ourselves in the following pages. Did man see
the light at any one spot of the earth, and at that alone, and is it
possible to indicate the region which was, so to say, the cradle of
humanity? Or, are we to believe that, in the first instance, man
appeared in several places at the same time? That he was created
and has always remained in the very localities he now inhabits? That
the Negro was born in the burning regions of Central Africa, the
Laplander or the Mongolian in the cold regions to which he is now
confined?

1.—MEN AND WOMEN OF ANATOLIA.

To this question a satisfactory reply can be given by reference to

facts furnished by natural history. But in seeking a triumph for our
opinion we shall have to combat the arguments of a hostile doctrine.
As we said in the early part of this Introduction, we must ever be
prepared to encounter difficulties, to dissipate uncertainties, and to
vie with other theories in each point of the history of humanity which
we may seek to fathom.
There is a school of philosophers who assert that man was manifold
in his creation, that each type of humanity originated in the region to
which it is now attached, and that it was not emigration followed by
the action of climate, circumstances, and customs which gave birth
to the different races of man.
This opinion has been upheld in a work by M. Georges Pouchet, son
of the well-known naturalist of Rouen. But, one has only to read his
essay upon la pluralité des races humaines, to be convinced that the
author, like others of his school, as ardent in demolition as powerless
in construction, having chosen to act the easy part of a critic,
exhibits unprecedented weakness when called upon to supply a
system in the place of that he contradicts.
If there existed several centres of human creation, they should be
indicated, and it should be shown that the men who dwell there
now-a-days have never been connected with other populations. M.
Georges Pouchet preserves prudent silence upon this question; he
avoids defining the locus of any one of these supposed multiple
creations. Such a faulty argument speaks volumes for the doctrine.
We, on our part, think that man had on the globe one centre of
creation, that, fixed in the first instance in a particular region, he has
radiated in every direction from that point, and by his wanderings
coupled with the rapid multiplication of his descendants, he has
ultimately peopled all the inhabitable regions of the earth.
In order to demonstrate the truth of this proposition, we will
examine what takes place in connection with other organized beings,
that is to say, with animals and plants, and then apply this class of
facts to man: this is observation and induction, the only logical
process to which we can here resort.
 2.—SAMOIEDES OF THE NORTH CAPE.

And what do botanical and zoological geography teach? They show

us that plants and animals have each their native locality, from which
they but seldom depart, and that it would be impossible to cite any
plant or animal which lives indifferently in all countries of the globe,
without having been transported thither by human industry. The
earth is, so to speak, divided into a certain number of zones, which
have their particular vegetable and animal life. These are so many
natural provinces, all of small extent, which represent veritable
centres of creation. The cedar, peculiar to the mountains of
Lebanon, existed in this region alone before it was transported to
other climates; and the coffee-plant had grown only in Arabia,
before it was acclimatized in South America. We could quote the
names of many vegetables whose natural abode is very sharply
defined, but these instances are sufficient to exemplify the general
rule of which we treat.
We need hardly say that animals, like plants, are attached to various
localities which they rarely quit with impunity, since they have not
the faculty of acclimatizing themselves at will. The elephant lives
only in India and in certain parts of Africa; the hippopotamus and
giraffe in other countries of the same continent; monkeys exist in
very few portions of the globe, and if we consider their different
species, we shall find that the place of abode of each species is very
limited. For instance, of the larger apes, the orang-outang is found
only in Borneo and Sumatra, and the gorilla in a small corner of
Western Africa. Had man originated in all those places where now
his different races are found, he would stand alone as an exception
among organized beings.
Reasoning then by induction, that is, applying to man all that we
observe to obtain generally among beings living on the surface of
the globe, we come to the conclusion that the human species, in
common with every vegetable or animal species, had but one centre
of creation.
Can we now extend our investigation and determine the particular
spot of the earth whence man first came? It is probable that man
first saw the day on the plains of Central Asia, and that it was from
this point that by degrees he spread over the whole earth. We shall
proceed to state the facts which support this opinion.
Around the central tableland of Asia, are found the three organic and
fundamental types of man, that is to say, the white, the yellow, and
the black. The black type has been somewhat scattered, although it
is still found in the south of Japan, in the Malay Peninsula, in the
Andaman Isles, and in the Philippines, at Formosa. The yellow type
forms a large portion of the actual population of Asia, and it is well-
known whence came those white hordes that invaded Europe at
times prehistoric and in more recent ages; those conquerors
belonged to the Aryan or Persian race, and they came from Central
Asia. We shall see later on, that the different languages of the globe
resolve themselves into three fundamental forms: monosyllabic
languages, in which each word contains but one syllable;
agglutinative languages, in which the words are connected; and
inflected languages, which are the same as those spoken in Europe.
Now, those three general forms of language are, at the present day,
to be met with around the central tableland of Asia. The
monosyllabic language is spoken throughout China and in the
different states connected with that empire. The agglutinative
languages are spoken to the north of this plain, and extend as far as
Europe. And, lastly, inflected languages are found in all that portion
of Asia which is occupied by the white race.
Around the central tableland of Asia, we thus find not only the three
fundamental types of the human species, but the three types of
human speech. Does not this, therefore, afford ground for
presumption, if not actual proof, that man first appeared in this very
region which Scripture assigns as the birthplace of the human race?
It is from this central tableland of Asia, radiating so to say, around
this point of origin, that Man has progressively occupied every part
of the earth.
Migration commenced at a very early period, the facility with which
our species becomes habituated to every climate and accommodates
itself to variations of temperature, taken in connection with the
nomadic character which distinguished primitive populations,
explains to us the displacement of the earlier inhabitants of the
earth. Soon, means of navigation, although rude, were added to the
power of travelling by land, and man passed from the continent to
distant islands, and thus peopled the archipelagos as well as the
mainland. By means of transport, effected in canoes formed from
the trunks of trees barely hollowed out, the archipelagos of the
Indian Ocean, and finally Australia, were gradually peopled.
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